Preface

It is rightly said that, if foundation is concrete then building is strong. Foundation course helps
to develop the correct approach for Analytical thinking and logical reasoning.

Appropriate selection of study material with systematic planning of studies is the key for
success in any competitive Examination. Excellence in pre Engineering and Premedical requires
understanding of basic concepts and in depth preparation of full course, which is possible with
Foundation courses only. The correct choice of study material with complete basics and huge
range of various types of questions is the backbone of Foundation course.

In this book the author have made sincere efforts in this direction.

The remarkable features are

 Every chapter contains, basic concepts covering all important fundamentals at a glance.
 The various types of questions are designed to fit qualitatively and quantitatively to
prepare students for various competitive exams like NSO, IMO, BARC, MTSE, NTSE, etc.
 Self sufficient in all aspects.

Genuine and authentic feedback which will help in improving the book is always
welcome.

We are extremely thankful to the directors of ADCC academy & their staff for their
instrumental contribution in bringing out this book in an excellent form in record time.

With best wishes!

 PHYSICS
SR. TOPIC NAME PAGE
NO. NO.
1. OPTICS 1 – 18

2. GRAVITATION 19 – 32
3. THERMONETRY 33 – 45

CHEMISTRY
4. BASIC DIFFENATION IN CHEMISTRY 46 – 53

5. VALENCY & OXIDATION NUMBER 54 – 61

6. MODERN PERIODIC TABLE 62 – 76

7. HYBRIDIZATION 77 – 88

8. ORGANIC CHEMISTRY 89 – 98

MATHS
9. PROGRESSIONS 99 – 113
10. TRIGONOMETRY 114 – 132
PHYSICS
BRIDGE COURSE MATERIAL IX CLASS -PHYSICS

OPTICS
CONCEPT-I
REFLECTION OF LIGHT
 When a ray of light after incidents on a boundary separating two media comes back into
the same media, then this phenomenon, is called reflection of light.

LAWS OF REFLECTION
(1) Angle of incidence (∠i ) is equal to the angle of reflection ( ∠r ). ∠i = ∠r
(2) The incident ray, the reflected ray and the normal, all lie in the same plane.
 Angle of incidence: The angle made by the incident ray with normal to the surface is
called as angle of incidence (∠i ).
 Angle of reflection: The angle made by the reflected ray with the normal to the surface
is called as angle of reflection (∠r ).
TYPES OF REFLECTION
 The reflection of light can be roughly categorized into two types of reflection.
(1) Regular reflection
(2) Irregular reflection
 Regular reflection: When a beam pass of parallel right rays is incident on a smooth and
plane surface, the reflected rays will also be parallel. This type of reflection is called
regular or specular reflection.
 Irregular reflection: When as beam of parallel light rays incident on a rough surface will
reflect in different directions. This type of reflection is called irregular or diffused
reflection.

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ASSESSMENT-I
ORDINARY THINKING SKILLS
1. Light is a form of energy produced by a
A. Luminous object
B. Transparent object
C. Non-luminous object
D. Opaque object
2. An example of non-luminous object is
A. A lighting candle
B. The sun
C. A glowing electric bulb
D. The moon
3. The phenomenon by which the incident light galling on a surface is sent back into the
same medium is known as
A. Polarization
B. Reflection
C. Refraction
D. Absorption
4. When light is incident on a polished surface ----reflection takes place.
A. Regular
B. Irregular
C. Diffused
D. Normal
5. An object becomes invisible when it undergoes---reflection.
A. Regular
B. Irregular
C. Diffused
D. Normal
6. According to the laws of reflection
A. ∠i = ∠r
B. ∠i < ∠r
C. ∠i > ∠r
D. ∠i ∠r
7. The angle made by the incident ray with the surface is called
A. Incident angle
B. Reflected angle
C. Glancing angle
D. None of these
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8. If the glancing angle is 570 then the angle of reflection is:

A. 570
B. 230
C. 330
D. 430
9. If the angle of incidence is 430 then the angle of deviation is
A. 940
B. 1040
C. 1140
D. 1240
10. The angle made by the extended incident ray with the reflected ray is called
A. Glancing angle
B. Angle of incidence
C. Angle of reflection
D. Angle of deviation

KEY
1.A 2.D 3.B 4.A 5.A
6.A 7.C 8.C 9.A 10.D

OPTICS
CONCEPT-II
REFLECTION FROM A PLANE SURFACE (PLANE MIRROR)
 The image formed by a plane mirror is virtual, erect, laterally inverted, equal in size as
that of the object and at a distance equal to the distance of the object in front of the
mirror.
 The line joining the object point with its image is normal to the reflecting surface.
 For a real object the image is virtual and for a virtual object the image is real.
 The minimum size of a plane mirror, required to see the full size image, is half the size of
the object.
 For a light ray incident at an angle ‘i’ after reflection angle of deviation d = .
 If ∠i = 0 then ∠r =0, this implies that a ray of light incident normally on a mirror retraces
its path.
 They eye always observes an object in the direction in which the rays enter the eye.
 The laws of reflection hold good for all kinds of reflection.

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 Image of an object is the point at which rays after reflection actually converge or appear
to diverge from that point.
 If the direction of the incident ray is kept constant and the mirror is rotated through an
angle about an axis in the plane mirror then the reflected ray rotates through an angle
2 .
 If an object moves towards or away from a plane mirror at a speed v, the image will also
approach or recede at the same speed. Further the relative speed of the image to the
object will be 2v.
 If two plane mirror are inclined to each other at 900, the emergent ray is always
antiparallel to incident ray, if reflected from each mirror, irrespective of angle of
incident.
 When two plane mirror, inclined to each other at an angle , the number of images
formed can be determine as follows:
(1) If is an even integer, say ‘p’, then number of images formed say q = p-1, for all
positions.
(2) If is an odd integer, say ‘q’, then number of images formed say p = q, if the
object is not on the bisector of the angle between mirrors. Also, p = q-1, if the
object is on the bisector.
(3) If is a fraction, then the number of images formed will be equal to its integral
part.
 The linear magnification is unity.
 Angle of deviation when a ray incident at an angle ∠i is given by 1800 - 2∠i .

ASSESSMENT-II
1. The image formed by a plane mirror is always
A. Real and erect
B. Virtual and erect
C. Real and inverted
D. Virtual and inverted
2. What is the value of in the following diagram:

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A. 300
B. 450
C. 900
D. 600
3. What is angle between the incident and reflected rays when a ray of light incident
normally on a plane mirror?
A. 900
B. 450
C. 1800
D. 00
4. Which of the following is used to make periscope?
A. Concave mirror
B. Convex mirror
C. Plane mirror
D. Glass slab
5. A plane mirror reflects a pencil of light to form areal image. Then the pencil of light
incident on the mirror is
A. Parallel
B. Convergent
C. Divergent
D. None of the above
6. What should be angle between two plane mirrors so that whatever be the angle of
incidence, the incident ray and the reflected ray form the two mirrors be parallel to
each other
A. 600
B. 900
C. 1200
D. 1750
7. A plane mirror reflecting a ray of incident light is rotated through an angle about an
axis through the point of incidence in the plane of the mirror perpendicular to the
plane of incidence, then
A. The reflected ray does not rotate
B. The reflected ray rotates through an angle
C. The reflected ray rotates through an angle 2
D. The incident ray is not fixed
8. Two mirrors are inclined at an angle of 500. The number of images formed for an
object placed in between the mirrors is
A. 5
B. 6
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C. 7
D. 8
9. A light bulb is placed between two plane mirrors inclined at an angle 600. The number
of images formed are
A. 6
B. 2
C. 5
D. 4
10. A plane mirror produces a magnification of
A. -1
B. +1
C. Zero
D. Between 0 and +
11. A plane mirror makes and angle of 300 with horizontal. If a vertical ray strikes the
mirror, finds the angel between mirror and reflected ray
A. 300
B. 450
C. 600
D. 900
12. A watch shows time as 3:25 when seen through a mirror time appeared will be
A. 8:35
B. 9:35
C. 7:35
D. 8:25
13. A ray of light is incident at 500 on the middle of one of the two mirrors arranged at an
angle of 600 between them. The ray then touches the second mirror, gets reflected
back to the first mirror, making an angle of incidence of
A. 500
B. 600
C. 700
D. 800
14. A man runs towards a mirror at a speed of 15m/s. What is the speed of the image
A. 7.5m/s
B. 15m/s
C. 30m/s
D. 45m/s

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15. A small object is placed 10cm in front of a plane mirror. If you stand behind the object
30cm from the mirror and look at its image, the distance focused for your eye will be
A. 60cm
B. 20cm
C. 40cm
D. 80cm
OPTICS
CONCEPT-III
SPHERICAL MIRRORS
 A mirror whose polished, reflecting surface is a part of a hollow sphere of glass or plastic
is called a spherical mirror.
 In a spherical mirror, one of the two curved surfaces is coated with a thin layer of silver
followed by a coating or red lead oxide paint. Thus one side of the spherical mirror is
opaque and the other side is a highly polished reflecting surface.
 Depending on the nature of the reflecting surface of a mirror, the spherical mirror is
classified into two types.
(1) Concave mirror
(2) Convex mirror
CONCAVE MIRROR
 Concave mirror is a spherical mirror whose reflecting surface is towards the centre of
the sphere of which the mirror is a part.
CONVEX MIRROR
 Convex mirror is a spherical mirror whose reflecting surface is away from the centre of
the sphere of which the mirror is a part.

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TERMS RELATED TO SPHERICAL MIRRORS

 Centre of Curvature: Center of curvature is centre of the sphere of which the spherical
mirror forms a part. It is denoted by the letter C.

 Radius of curvature: Radius of curvature is the radius of the sphere of which the mirror
is a part. It is represented by the letter R.

 Linear aperture: Linear aperture is the distance between the extreme points (X and Y)
on the periphery of the mirror.

XY is the aperture.
 Pole: Pole is the midpoint of the aperture of the spherical mirror. It is represented by
the letter P. Midpoint of XY = Pole (P).

 Principal Axis: Principal axis is the straight line passing through the pole and the center
of curvature of a spherical mirror.
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 Principal Focus or Focus: The principal focus of a spherical mirror be defined as a point
on its principal axis where a beam of light parallel to the principal axis converges to or
appears to diverge from after reflection from the spherical mirror.

 Focal Length: Focal length is the distance between the pole and the focus of a mirror. It
is represented by the letter f.
CHARACTERISTICS OF FOCUS OF A CONCAVE AND A COVEX MIRROR

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RELATION BETWEEN FOCAL LENGTH AND RADIUS OF CURVATURE

 CONCAVE MIRROR:

Radius of curvature lies behind the mirror Radius of curvature lies in front of the mirror

Let a ray of light AB be incident, parallel to the principal axis, on a concave mirror. After
reflection, the ray AB passes along BD, through the focus F. BC is normal to the concave
mirror at B.
∠ABC = ∠CBD………………(1) (according to the law of reflection ∠i = ∠r)
We know that AB and PC are parallel to each other.
∠ABC = ∠BCP………………(2) (alternate angles)
From equations (1) and (2) we get
∠CBD = ∠BCP, Hence triangle BCF is isosceles.
Therefore, BF = CF …………………(3)
If the aperture of the mirror is small then B will be very close to P.
Then, BF = PF ……………………….(4)
From equations (3) and (4) we conclude that
CF = PF = ½ PC
By definition, PF = focal length and PC = radius of curvature
Therefore f = R/2 or R = 2f

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SIGN CONVENTIONS
 Object is always placed to the left of mirror.
 All distances are measured from the pole of the mirror.
 Distances measure in the direction of the incident ray are positive and the distances
measured in the direction opposite to that of the incident ray are negative.
 Distances measured along y-axis above the principal axis are positive and that measured
along y-axis below the principal axis are negative.

ASSESSMENT-III
ORDINARY THINKING SKILLS
1. The centre of the sphere of which the spherical mirror forms a part is called
A. Centre of curvature
B. Focus
C. Pole
D. Vertex
2. The focus of a concave mirror is
A. Real
B. Virtual
C. At the pole
D. Un defined
3. A converging mirror is known as
A. Convex mirror
B. Plane mirror
C. Concave mirror
D. Cylindrical mirror

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4. Radius of curvature of a convex mirror is

A. Negative
B. Positive
C. Zero
D. Infinite
5. The converging or diverging ability of a mirror is called
A. Power
B. Focal length
C. Aperture
D. None of these

OPTICS
CONCEPT-IV
IMAGE FORMATION BY SPHERICAL MIRRORS
When an object is placed in front of a concave mirror, light rays from the object fall on
the mirror and get reflected. The reflected rays produce an image at a point where they
intersect or appear to intersect. Formation of an image by mirrors is usually shown by
constructing ray diagrams. To construct a ray diagram, we need at least two rays whose
paths after reflection from the mirror are known. These rays must be chosen according
to our convenience. Any two of the following rays can be considered to obtain the
image.
USES OF CONCAVE MIRRORS

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IMAGE FORMATION BY CONVEX MIRROR

 Image formed by a convex mirror is always virtual erect and smaller in size.
 When the object is placed at infinite distance:

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The image will be formed at F. It is virtual, erect and very small.

 When the object is placed anywhere on the principal axis:

The image will be formed between P and F. It is virtual, erect and small in size.

USES OF CONVEX MIRRORS

MIRROR FORMULA AND MAGNIFICATION

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 Convex Mirror:

Let AB be an object placed on the principal axis of a convex mirror of lfocal length f. U is
the distance between the object and the mirror and v is the distance between the image
and the mirror.
In
∠ABC = ∠ ( right angles)
∠ACB = ∠
Therefore, ∠CAB = ∠ (common angle)

………………………….(1)

Similarly,

………………………….(2)
But DE = AB and when the aperture is very small EF = PF.
Therefore, equation (2) becomes
………………………….(3)
From equations (1) and (3) we get
=
=
(PF=f, PB1=v,PB=u, PC = 2f)
( ) ( )( )

……………………(4)
Dividing both sides of the equation (4) with uvf, we get
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This is the mirror formula.

MAGNIFICATION
 When an object is placed perpendicular to the principal axis, then linear magnification
called lateral or transverse magnification.
Magnification(m) = = =
 When object lies along the principal axis then its axial magnification m = . If

the object is small then ( ) =( ) =( )

ASSESSMENT-IV
ORDINARY THINKING SKILLS
1. An image formed by a convex mirror is always
A. Virtual, erect and diminished
B. Virtual, real and magnified
C. Real, inverted and diminished
D. Real, erect and magnified
2. If the image formed by a concave mirror is virtual, erect and magnified, then the
object is placed at
A. Between the pole and focus of the mirror
B. Beyond the centre of curvature
C. At the centre of curvature
D. At the focus
3. Dentists use a ----------- to focus light on the tooth of a patient.
A. Concave mirror
B. Convex mirror
C. Plane mirror
D. Cylindrical mirror
4. An object is placed 1.5m from a plane mirror. How far is the image from the person?
A. 3m
B. 1.5m
C. 2m
D. 1m

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5. An object placed 2m from a plane mirror is shifted by 0.5m away from the mirror.
What is the distance between the object and its image?
A. 2m
B. 1.5m
C. 5m
D. 3m
6. Which mirror has a wider field of view?
A. Convex mirror
B. Concave mirror
C. Plane mirror
D. Cylindrical mirror
7. The focal length of a mirror is 20cm. Identify the type of mirror:
A. Concave mirror
B. Plane mirror
C. Convex mirror
D. Cylindrical mirror
8. When an object is placed at the focus of a concave mirror, the image will be formed at
A. Infinity
B. Focus
C. Centre of curvature
D. Pole
9. An object of size 2.0cm is placed perpendicular to the principal axis of a concave
mirror. The distance of the object from the mirror equal to the radius of curvature.
The size of the image will be
A. 0.5 cm
B. 1.5cm
C. 1.0cm
D. 2.0cm
10. If an incident ray passes through the centre of curvature of a spherical mirror, the
reflected ray will…
A. Pass through the focus
B. Pass through the centre of curvature
C. Pass through the pole
D. Retrace its path
11. A convex mirror of focal length f forms an image which is 1/n times the object. The
distance of the object from the mirror is
A. (n-1)f
B. ( )

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C. ( )
D. (n+1)f
12. A diminished virtual image can be formed only in
A. Plane mirror
B. A concave mirror
C. A convex mirror
D. Concave-parabolic mirror
13. A 2.0 cm tall object is placed 15cm in front of a concave mirror of focal length 10cm.
What is the size and nature of the image
A. 4cm,real
B. 4cm, virtual
C. 1cm, real
D. None of these
14. An object is placed in front of a convex mirror of focal length f. Find the maximum
and minimum distance of an object from the mirror such that the image formed is real
and magnified
A. 2f and infinite
B. f and 2f
C. f and 0
D. none of these
15. A square wire of side 1cm is placed perpendicular to the principal axis of a concave
mirror of focal length 15cm at a distance of 20cm. The area enclosed by the image of
the wire
A. 4 cm2
B. 9 cm2
C. 16 cm2
D. 25 cm2

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GRAVITATION
CONCEPT-I
NEWTON’S LAW OF GRAVITATION
 Newton's law of gravitation states that every b ody in this universe attracts every
other body with a force, which is directly proportional to the product of their
masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between their
centres. The direction of the force is along the line joining the particles.

Thus the magnitude of the gravitational force F and that two particles of masses m1
and m2 separated by a distance r exert on each other is given by

⇒
Here G is constant of proportionality which is called ‘Universal gravitational
constant’.
If m1 = m2= 1 and r= 1 then G = F. That is universal gravitational constant is equal to
the force of attraction between two bodies each of unit mass whose centres are
placed unit distance apart.
 The value of G in the laboratory was first determined by Cavendish using the
torsional balance.
 The value of G is 6.67 x 10-11N-m2kg-2 in SI and 6.67 x 10-8dyne-cm2g-2 in CGS system.
 Dimensional formula of G is [M-1L3T-2]
 The value of G does not depend upon the nature and size of the bodies.
 It is also does not depend upon the nature of the medium between the two bodies.
 As G is very small hence gravitational forces are very small, unless one of the masses
is huge.

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ASSESSMENT-I
1. The tidal waves in the sea are primarily due to
A. The gravitational effect of the moon on the earth
B. The gravitational effect of the sun on the earth
C. The gravitational effect of Venus on the earth
D. The atmospheric effect of the earth itself
2. A satellite of the earth is revolving in a circular orbit with a uniform speed . If the
gravitational force suddenly disappears, the satellite will
A. Continue to move with velocity along the original orbit
B. Move with a velocity v, tangentially to the original orbit
C. Fall down with increasing velocity
D. Ultimately come to rest somewhere on the original orbit
3. The atmosphere is held to the earth by
A. Winds
B. Gravity
C. Clouds
D. None of the above
4. If the distance between two masses is doubled, the gravitational attraction
between them
A. If doubled
B. Becomes four times
C. Is reduced to half
D. Is reduced to a quarter
5. Which force in nature exits every where
A. Nuclear force
B. Electromagnetic force
C. Weak force
D. Gravitation
6. A point mass m is placed inside a spherical shell of radius R and mass M. at a
distance R/2 from the centre of the shell. The gravitational force exerted by the
shell on the point mass is
A.

B.
C. Zero
D.

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7. Two sphere of mass m and M are situated in air and the gravitational force
between them is F. the space around the masses is now filled with a liquid of
specific gravity 3. The gravitational force will now be
A. F
B.

C.
D. 3F
8. The gravitational force Fg between two objects does not depend on
A. Sum of the masses
B. Product of the masses
C. Gravitational constant
D. Distance between the masses
9. Gravitational mass is proportional to gravitational
A. Field
B. Force
C. Intensity
D. All of these
10. Force between two objects of equal masses is F. If 25 % mass of one object is
transferred to the other object, then the new force will be
A.
B.
C.
D. F

GRAVITATION
CONCEPT-II

PROPERTIES OF GRAVITATIONAL FORCE

 Gravitational force is always attractive in nature while electric and magnetic force
can be attractive or repulsive.
 It is independent of the medium between the particles while electric and magnetic
force depend on the nature of the medium between the particles.
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 It holds well over a wide range of distances. It is found true for interplanetary to
inter atomic distances.
 It is a central force that is acts along the line joining the centres of two interacting
bodies.
 It is a two body interaction i.e. gravitational force between two particles is
independent of the presence or absence of other particles; so the principle of
superposition is valid.
 It is the weakest force in nature: As Fnuclear > Felectromagnetic > Fgravitational
 The ratio of gravitational force to electrostatic force between two electrons is of the
order of 10-43.
 It is a conservative force.
 It is an action reaction pair.

ASSESSMENT-II
1. Who among the following gave first the experimental value of G
A. Cavendish
B. Copernicus
C. Brook Teylor
D. None of these
2. Which of the following statements about the gravitational constant is true
A. It is a force
B. It has no unit
C. It has same value in all systems of units
D. It does not depend on the nature of the medium in which the bodies are kept
3. The centripetal force acting on a satellite orbiting round the earth and the
gravitational force of earth acting on the satellite both equal F. The net force on
the satellite is
A. Zero
B. F
C. F √
D. 2F
4. Reason of weightlessness in a satellite is
A. Zero gravity
B. Centre of mass
C. Zero reaction force by satellite surface
D. None
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5. Mass M is divided into two parts xM and (1-x) M. For a given separation, the value
of x for which the gravitational attraction between the two pieces becomes
maximum is
A. 1/2
B. 3/5
C. 1
D. 2
6. The force of gravitation is
A. Repulsive
B. Electrostatic
C. Conservative
D. Non-conservative
7. Correct from of gravitational law is
A. F =
B. ⃗ =
C. ⃗ = ̂
⃗
D. ⃗ =
8. Two point masses A and B having masses in the ration 4.3 are separated by a
distance of 1 m. When another point mass between A and C is rd of the force
between B and C. Then the distance of C from A is
A. m
B. m
C. m
D. m
9. Three equal masses of 1 kg each are placed at the vertices of an equilateral
triangle PQR and a mass of 2kg is placed at the centroid O of the triangle which is
at a distance of √ m from each of the vertices of the triangle. The force, in
newton, acting on the, mass of 2kg is
A. 2
B. √
C. 1
D. Zero

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10. One can easily “weight the earth” by calculating the mass of earth using the
formula (in usual notation)
A.
B.
C.
D.

GRAVITATION
CONCEPT-III
ACCELERATION DUE TO GRAVITY
 The force of attraction exerted by the earth on a body is called gravitational pull or
gravity.
We know that when force acts on a body, it produces acceleration. Therefore, a body
under the effect of gravitational pull must accelerate.
The acceleration produced in the motion of a body under the effect of gravity is called
acceleration due to gravity, it is denoted by g.

Consider a body of mass m is lying on the surface of earth then gravitational force on
the body is given by
………………………………..(1)

Where M = mass of the earth and R = radius of the earth.

If ‘g’ is the acceleration due to gravity, then the force on the body due to earth is given by
Force = mass x acceleration
F = mg………………………………….(2)

From (1) and (2) we have mg =

⇒ g = ………………………..(3)

As the mass of the earth (M) = volume( ) x density ( )

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⇒ g = ( )……………(4)

Therefore, g = …………………………..……………(5)

 From the expression g = = it is clear that its value depends upon the
mass, radius and density of planet and it is independent of mass, shape and density of
the body placed on the surface of the planet. i.e. a given planet (reference body)
produces same acceleration in a light as well as heavy body.
 The greater the value of (M/R2) or , greater will be value of g for that planet.
 Acceleration due to gravity is a vector quantity and its direction is always towards the
centre of the planet.
 Dimensional formula of g = [LT-2]
 Its average value is taken to be 9.8 m/s2 or 981cm/s2 or 32 feet/s2, on the surface of the
earth at mean sea level.
 The value of acceleration due to gravity vary due to the following factors;
(1) Shape of the earth
(2) Height above the earth surface
(3) Depth below the earth surface
(4) Axial rotation of the earth
ASSESSMENT-III
1. An iron ball and a wooden ball of the same radius are released from a height ‘h’ in
vacuum. The time taken by both of them to reach the ground is
A. Unequal
B. Exactly equal
C. Roughly equal
D. Zero
2. The weight of an object in the coal mine, sea level, at the top of the mountain are
W1, W2 and W3 respectively, then
A. W1 < W2 > W3
B. W1 = W2 = W3
C. W1 < W2 < W3
D. W1 > W2 > W3
3. A body has a weight 90 kg on the earth’s surface, the mass of the moon is 1/9 that
of the earth’s mass and its radius is ½ that of the earth’s radius. On the moon the
weight of the body is
A. 45 kg
B. 202.5 kg
C. 90 kg
D. 40 kg
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4. If mass of a body is M on the earth surface, then the mass of the same body on
the moon surface is
A. M/6
B. Zero
C. M
D. None of these
5. Mass of moon is 7.34 x 1022 kg. If the acceleration due to gravity on the moon is
1.4m/s2, the radius of the moon is [G = 6.667 x 10-11 Nm2/kg2]
A. 0.56 x 104 m
B. 1.87 x 106 m
C. 1.92 x 106 m
D. 1.01 x 108 m
6. A body of mass 500 g is thrown upward with a velocity 20 m/s and reaches back
to the surface of a planet after 20 sec Then the weight of the body on that planet is
A. 2 N
B. 4 N
C. 5 N
D. 1 N
7. The time period of a simple pendulum on a freely moving artificial satellite is
A. Zero
B. 2 sec
C. 3 sec
D. Infinite
8. If earth is supposed to be a sphere of radius R, if g30 is value of acceleration due to
gravity at latitude of 300 and g at the equator, the value of – is
A. R
B. R
C. R
D. R
9. The masses of two planets are in the ratio 1 : 2. Their radii are in the ratio 1 : 2.
The acceleration due to gravity on the planets are in the ratio
A. 1 : 2
B. 2 : 1
C. 3 : 5
D. 5 : 3

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10. Calculate the acceleration due to gravity on the surface of a pulsar of mass
M = 1.98 x 1030 kg and radius R = 12km rotating with time period T = 0.041
seconds
(G = 6.67 x 1011 MKS)
A. 9.2 x 1011 m/s2
B. 8.15 x 1011 m/s2
C. 7.32 x 1011 m/s2
D. 6.98 x 1011 m/s2
GRAVITATION
CONCEPT-IV
 Variation in ‘g ‘ due to shape of earth:

Earth is elliptical in shape. It is flattened at the poles and bulged out at the equator.
The equatorial radius is about 21 km longer than polar radius, from g =

At equator ge = ………(1)

At poles gp = ………(2)

From (1) and (2)

Since Requator > Rpoles therefore, gpoles > gequator and gp = ge + 0.018 ms-2
 Variation in ‘g’ with Height:
Acceleration due to gravity at the surface of the earth

g = ………………………..(1)

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Acceleration due to gravity at height h from the surface of the earth

g’ = ………………………..(2)
( )

From (1) and (2) g’ = g( ) …………………………(3)

(1) As we go above the surface of the earth, the value of g decreases because g’
a. ( here, r = R+h)
(2) If r = infinity then g’ = 0, that is, at infinite distance from the earth, the value of g
becomes zero.
(3) If h<<R that is height is negligible in comparison to the radius then from equation (3)
we get g’ = g(1-2h/R).
 Variation in g with depth:

Acceleration due to gravity at the surface of the earth

g = = …………….(1)

Acceleration due to gravity at depth d from the surface of the earth

G’ = ( )…………….(2)

From (1) and (2) g’ = g*1-d/R]

(1) The value of g decreases on going below the surface of the earth.
(2) At the centre of the earth d=R, g’ = 0 i.e. the acceleration due to gravity at the
centre of the earth becomes zero.
ASSESSMENT-IV
1. As we go from the equator to the poles, the value of g
A. Remains the same
B. Decreases
C. Increases
D. Decreases upto a latitude of 450

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2. Acceleration due to gravity ‘g’ for a body of mass ‘m’ on earth’s surface is
proportional to (Radius of earth = R, mass of earth = M)
A. GM/R2
B. m0
C. mM
D. 1/R3/2
3. The value of g on the earth’s surface is 980 cm/sec2. Its value at a height of 64
km from the earth’s surface is(Radius of the earth R = 6400 kilometers)
A. 960.40 cm/sec2
B. 984.90 cm/sec2
C. 982.45 cm/sec2
D. 977.55 cm/sec2
4. An astronaut experiences weightlessness in a space satellite. It is because
A. The gravitational force is small at that location in space
B. The gravitational force is large at that location in space
C. The astronaut experience no gravity
D. The gravitational force is infinitely large at that location in space
E. The astronaut experiences an upthrust
5. If the earth rotates faster than its present speed, the weight of an object will
A. Increase at equator but remain unchanged at the poles
B. Decreases at the equator but remain unchanged at the poles
C. Remain unchanged at the equator but decrease at the poles
D. Remain unchanged at the equator but increase at the poles
6. If the earth suddenly shrinks (without changing mass) to half of its present radius,
the acceleration due to gravity will be
A. g/2
B. 4g
C. g/4
D. 2g
7. The depth d at which the value of acceleration due to gravity becomes 1/n times
the value at the surface, is [R = radius of the earth]
A.
B. R( )
C.
D. R(

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8. Where will it be profitable to purchase 1 kilogram sugar

A. At poles
B. At equator
C. At 450 latitude
D. At 400 latitude
9. A body weight 500 N on the surface of the earth. How much would it weigh half
way below the surface of the earth
A. 125 N
B. 250 N
C. 500 N
D. 1000 N
10. If the Earth losses its gravity, then for a body
A. Weight becomes zero, but not the mass
B. Mass becomes zero, but not the weight
C. Both mass and weight become zero
D. Neither mass nor weight becomes zero
11. A person will get more quantity of matter in kg-wt. at
A. Poles
B. At latitude of 600
C. Equator
D. Satellite
12. An object weighs 72 N on earth. Its weight at a height of R/2 from earth is
A. 32 N
B. 56 N
C. 72 N
D. Zero
13. At what distance from the centre of the earth, the value of acceleration due to
gravity g will be half that on the surface (R= radius of earth)
A. 2R
B. R
C. 1.41R
D. 0.414 R
14. If density of earth increased 4 times and its radius become half of what it is, our
weight will
A. Be four times present value
B. Be doubled
C. Remain same
D. Be halved

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15. Weight of a body is maximum at

A. Moon
B. Poles of earth
C. Equator of earth
D. Centre of earth

THERMOMETRY
CONCEPT-I
HEAT
 Heat is a form of energy which produces in us the sensation of warmth.
 When a body is heated, various types of physical changes, such as expansion,
contraction, change of state, change of electrical properties, etc. or observed. On
heating, chemical changes may also be produced.
 Heat energy possessed by a body is due to the kinetic energy of the molecules
constituting the body.
 Heat energy can change into mechanical energy, electrical energy, etc.
 Heat flows from a body at higher temperature to the body at lower temperature, when
they are in contact.
TEMPERATURE
 The degree of hotness of a body is called its temperature.
 Temperature is a condition, which determines the direction flow of heat, when two
bodies are mixed together.
 Two systems are said to be in thermal equilibrium with each other, if they are at the
same temperature.
 Temperature is a property, which determines whether two systems will be in thermal
equilibrium or not.
 In other words, temperature is a thermodynamic property of all the systems, such that
any two systems having the same temperature must be in thermal equilibrium.

ZEROTH LAW OF THRMODYNAMICS

 If two systems A and B are in thermal equilibrium with a third system C, then A and B
must be in thermal equilibrium with each other.
THERMOMETRY
 Measurement of temperature is called thermometry.
 To construct a scale of temperature, two fixed points are taken.
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 First fixed point is the freezing point of water. It is also called lower fixed point.
 Second fixed point is the boiling point of water. It is also called upper fixed point.
THERMOMETRY
ASSESSMENT-I
1. The degree of hotness a body is called
A. Heat
B. Temperature
C. Both A & B
D. None of these
2. Two systems are said to be in thermal equilibrium with each other, if they are at the
A. Different temperatures
B. Same temperature
C. Either different temperatures or same temperature
D. None of these
3. Measurement of temperature is called
A. Thermometry
B. Calorimetry
C. Heat
D. All
4. To construct a scale of temperature, number of fixed points required
A. 1
B. 2
C. 3
D. 4
5. Temperature is a condition, which determines the -------of flow of heat.
A. Velocity
B. Acceleration
C. Direction
D. All

6. Two systems are in thermal equilibrium and the temperature of one system is 100 0C
then the temperature of the other system is
A. 500C
B. 1000C
C. 1500C
D. 2000C

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7. Which of the following is the lower fixed point in constructing a scale of temperature
A. 1000C
B. 500C
C. 250C
D. 00C
8. Which of the following is the upper fixed point in constructing a scale of temperature
A. 1000C
B. 500C
C. 250C
D. 00C
9. A wall which permits heat flow is called
A. Diathermic wall
B. Thermic wall
C. Both A & B
D. None of these
10. Measurement of heat is called
A. Thermometry
B. Calorimetry
C. Both A & B
D. None of these

THERMOMETRY
CONCEPT-II
VARIOUS SCALES TO MEASURE TEMPERTURE
 Celsius scale:
(1) In this scale, lower fixed point is 00 and upper fixed point is 1000.
(2) The distance between two fixed points is divided into 100 equal parts.
(3) Each part is called one degree centigrade or one degree Celsius and it is denoted by
10C.
 Fahrenheit scale:
(1) In this scale, lower and upper fixed points are 320 and 2120 respectively.
(2) The distance between two fixed points is divided into 180 equal parts.
(3) Each part is called one degree Fahrenheit and is denoted by 10F.
 Reaumur scale:
(1) In this scale, lower and upper fixed points are 00 and 800 respectively.

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(2) The distance between two fixed points is divided into 80 equal parts.
(3) Each part of this scale is called one degree Reaumur and is denoted by 1 0R.

 Kelvin scale:
(1) In this scale, lower and upper fixed points are 273 and 373 respectively.
(2) The distance between two fixed points is divided into 100 equal parts.
(3) Each part of this scale is called one kelvin and is denoted by 1K.
RELATION BETWEEN VARIOUS SCALES TO MEASURE TEMPERATURE

DIFFERENT THRMOMETERS BASED ON THERMOMETRIC PROPERTY

 Ideal gas thermometers: This thermometer is based on the change in volume with
temperature or change in pressure with temperature. By hydrogen gas thermometer,
we can measure the temperature, ranging -2000C to 5000C. These are two types.
(1) Constant volume gas thermometer
(2) Constant pressure gas thermometer
 Liquid thermometers: The thermometers are filled with either mercury or alcohol are
called liquid thermometers. The thermal expansion property of these liquids are used.
On increasing temperature, volume also increases. Mercury thermometer has its range
from -300c to +3000C.
 Platinum resistance thermometers: These thermometers are based upon principle of
increase in resistance of a conductor with the rise of temperature. Its range is -2000C to
12000C.
Formula used to measure the temperature is 1 where, R0, R100 and Rt
are resistances, at temperatures 00C, 1000C and t0C respectively.
 Thermoelectric thermometers: These thermometers are based upon principle of
thermoelectric effect. If junctions of two different metals are kept at two different
temperatures they give rise to an electromotive force. This emf increase with increase
in temperature difference between the two junctions. Its range is -2000C to 16000C.
 Total radiation pyrometers: Measurement of very high temperature is called
pyrometry. With the help of these thermometers, about 3000 0C to 40000C temperature
can be measured, the temperature below 8000C cannot be measured from these
thermometers.
 Vapour pressure thermometers: The pressure of saturated vapour changes with
temperature. This property is used in vapour pressure thermometer. Low
temperatures are measured with this thermometers.

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 Magnetic thermometers: It is based on Curie’s law which state that susceptibility of a

magnetic material varies inversely with temperature.
ASSESSMENT-II
1. The lower fixed point of Fahrenheit scale is
A. 00
B. 320
C. 1000
D. 2120
2. Number of division on the Reaumur scale is
A. 80
B. 100
C. 180
D. 200
3. 00C is equal to -----in kelvin scale
A. 100K
B. 173K
C. 273K
D. 0K
4. The maximum temperature can be measured by using hydrogen thermometer
A. 1000C
B. 3000C
C. 5000C
D. 7000C
5. Liquid thermometers are filled with generally
A. Mercury
B. Alcohol
C. Either A or B
D. Both A and B
6. Thermometer works on the principle of increase in resistance of a conductor with rise
of temperature is
A. Ideal gas thermometer
B. Liquid thermometer
C. Platinum resistance thermometer
D. Magnetic thermometer
7. Pyrometry means
A. Measurement of low temperature
B. Measure of very low temperature
C. Measurement of high temperature
D. Measurement of very high temperature
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8. The least temperature can be measured by using pyrometers

A. 5000C
B. 7000C
C. 6500C
D. 8000C
9. Ideal gas thermometers are constructed on the principle of
A. Change in volume with temperature
B. Change in pressure with temperature
C. Bothe A & B
D. None of these
10. Low temperatures are measured using
A. Pyrometer
B. Vapour pressure thermometer
C. Magnetic thermometer
D. Liquid thermometer
11. On the Celsius scale the absolute zero of temperature is at
A. 00C
B. – 320C
C. 1000C
D. – 273.150C
12. In a mercury thermometer the ice point (lower fixed point) is marked as 100 and the
steam point (upper fixed point) is marked as 1300. At 400C temperature, what will this
thermometer read
A. 780
B. 660
C. 620
D. 580
13. The correct value of 00C on Kelvin scale will be
A. 273.15 K
B. 273.00 K
C. 273.05 K
D. 273.63 K
14. On centigrade scale the temperature of a body increases by 30 degrees. The increase
in temperature on Fahrenheit scale is
A. 500
B. 400
C. 300
D. 540

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15. The temperature of the sun is measured with

A. Platinum thermometer
B. Gas thermometer
C. Pyrometer
D. Vapour pressure thermometer

THERMOMETRY
CONCEPT-III
THERMAL EXPANSION OF SOLIDS, LIQUIDS AND GASES
 When a substance is heated, its volume, in general expands. This phenomenon is called
thermal expansion. There are few exceptions to this e.g. the volume of rubber
decreases on heating and also water contracts when it is heated from 0 0C to 40C.
 The cause of thermal expansion may be found on the basis of molecular theory of
matter.
 When the substance is heated, the molecules gain kinetic energy and hence the
amplitude of their vibrations increases. Since the molecules now move in larger empty
space, the average separation between the molecules increases and a result the
substance undergoes thermal expansion.

 Expansion of solids:
When a solid is heated, its length breadth and thickness expand and therefore, in solids
we have the linear, superficial and volume or cubical expansion.
(1) Linear expansion:

⇒ .

where, is the coefficient of Linear expansion of solid.

Final length of the solid (LT) = L + (1 ).
(2) Superficial expansion:

⇒ .

where, is the coefficient of superficial expansion of solid.

(3) Cubical expansion:
⇒ .
Where, is the coefficient of cubical expansion of solid.

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RELATION BETWEEN
 Relation between :
.
 Relation between :
.
Hence the relation between = 1 : 2: 3
EXPANSION OF LIQUIDS
 When a liquid is heated, its volume changes. When liquid is heated, the containing
vessel also expands and hence the measured increase in volume of the liquid is the
apparent increase in volume. The real increase in volume is equal to the sum of the
apparent increase in volume of the liquid and the increase in volume of the vessel.
 The coefficient of real expansion of a liquid , is defined as the actual increase in
volume per unit original volume per unit rise in temperature.

EXPANSION OF GASES
 A gas can be heated at constant pressure or at constant volume. Hence, there are two
coefficients of expansion for a gas, which are the pressure coefficient and the volume
coefficient.
(1) Pressure coefficient ( ): It is defined as the increase in pressure per unit original
pressure per unit rise in temperature at constant volume. If P 0 and Pt are pressures
of a given mass of gas at temperature 00C and t0C respectively then

(2) Volume coefficient ( ): It is defined as the increase in volume per unit original
volume per unit rise in temperature at constant volume. If V 0 and Vt are pressures
of a given mass of gas at temperature 00C and t0C respectively then

ASSESSMENT-III
1. When a rod is heated but prevented from expanding, the stress developed is
independent of
A. Material of the rod
B. Rise in temperature
C. Length of rod
D. None of above

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2. Expansion during heating

A. Occurs only in solids
B. Increases the weight of a material
C. Decreases the density of a material
D. Occurs at the same rate for all liquids and solids
3. An iron of length l and having a cross-section A is heated from 0 to 1000C. If this bar is
so held that it is not permitted to expand or bend, the force that is developed, is
A. Inversely proportional to the cross-sectional area of the bar
B. Independent of the length of the bar
C. Inversely proportional to the length of the bar
D. Directly proportional to the length of the bar
4. A clock with a metal pendulum beating seconds keeps correct time at 0 0C. If it loses
12.5 s a day at 250C, the coefficient of linear expansion of metal pendulum is
A. / 0C
B. / 0C
C. / 0C
D. / 0C
5. The coefficient of volume expansion of a liquid is 49 x 10-5 K-1. Calculate the fractional
change in its density when the temperature is raised by 30 0C
A. 7.5 x 10-2
B. 3.0 x 10-2
C. 1.5 x 10-2
D. 1.1 x 10-2
6. Two solid spheres of the same material have the same radius but one is hollow while
the other is solid. Both spheres are heated to same temperature. Then
A. The solid sphere expands more
B. The hollow sphere expands more
C. Nothing can be said about their relative expansion if their masses are not given
D. Expansion is same for both
7. A solid ball of metal has a concentric spherical cavity within it. If the ball is heated, the
volume of the cavity will
A. Increase
B. Decrease
C. Remain unaffected
D. None of these
8. A litre of alcohol weighs
A. Less in winter than in summer
B. Less in summer than in winter
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C. Same both in summer and winter

D. None of the above
9. The coefficient of apparent expansion of a liquid when determined using two different
vessels A and B are 1 and 2 respectively. If the coefficient of linear expansion of the
vessel A is , the coefficient of linear expansion of the vessel B is

A.
B. 

C.
D. +

10. A bar of iron is 10 cm at 200C. At 190C it will be ( of iron = 11 x 10-6/0C)

A. 11 x 10-6 cm longer
B. 11 x 10-6 cm shorter
C. 11 x 10-5 cm shorter
D. 11 x 10-5 cm longer
CALORIMETRY
CONCEPT-I
 Heat is a form of energy which produces in us the sensation of warmth.
 In CGS system, the unit of heat is called a calorie (cal).
 SI unit of heat is joule.
 Calorie is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 gram of water
through 10C from 14.50C to 15.50C.
SPECIFIC HEAT
 Specific heat of a body is defined as the amount of heat required to raise the
temperature of a unit mass of body through 10C or 1K.
 The SI unit of specific heat is Jkg-1K-1.
Derivation:

Where, S is called the specific heat of the body. S = Q/m

THERMAL CAPACITY OR HEAT CAPACITY
 Thermal capacity of a body is defined as the amount of heat required to raise the
temperature of body through 10C or 1K.
 Thermal capacity of a body is equal to the product of mass and its specific heat.
 The dimensional formula of thermal capacity is [M0L2T-2K-1].
 It is measured in calorie/0C or joule/K.

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MOLAR SPECIFIC HEAT

 The molar specific heat of a substance is defined as the amount of the heat required to
raise the temperature of 1mole of the substance through 1K.
 It is expressed in Jmol-1K-1.
 It is denoted by s.
 The relation between specific heat and molar heat is s = S/m (m= molecular weight
expressed in kg.)
WATER EQUIVALENT
 Water equivalent of a body is defined as the mass of the water which gets heated
through certain range of temperature by the amount of heat required to raise the
temperature of body through same range of temperature.
 Water equivalent of a body is equal to the product of its mass and its specific heat.
LATENT HEAT
 It is the amount of heat required to change the state of a unit mass of substance at a
fixed temperature.
Q = m x L (L is the latent het and Q is th quantity of heat required to
change the state of a mass m of the substance)
 The SI unit of latent heat is joulekg-1.
 Its dimensional formula is [M0L2T-2].
CALORIMETRY
 Measurement of quantity of heat and hence the specific heat of a substance is called
Calorimetry.
 Principle of Calorimetry: When two bodies at two different temperatures are mixed
then heat gained by cold body is equal to heat lost by hot body provided no heat is
allowed to escape to the surroundings.
 The instrument used to measure the thermal energy is called calorimeter.
 Mixing of two substances when temperature changes only: It means no phase change.
Suppose two substances having masses m1 and m2, gram specific heat c1 and c2,
temperatures ( ) are mixed together such that temperature of
mixture at equilibrium is
Hence, heat lost = heat gained
⇒ ( ) ( )⇒
 Mixing of two substances when temperature and phase both changes or only phase
changes: A very common example for this category is ice-water mixing.
Suppose water at temperature 0C is mixed with ice at 00C. first, ice will melt and then
its temperature rises to attain thermal equilibrium. Hence: heat given=heat taken
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⇒ ( ) ( )

If mw = mi, then
By using this formula if < , then take 00C.

ASSESSMENT-I
1. 22320 cal of heat is supplied to 100g of ice at 00C. If the latent heat of fusion of ice is
80 calg-1 and latent heat of vaporization of water is 540 calg-1, the final amount of
water thus obtained and its temperature respectively are
A. 8g , 1000C
B. 100g, 900C
C. 92g, 1000C
D. 80g, 1000C
2. At NTP water boils at 1000C. Deep down the mine, water will boil at a temperature
A. 1000C
B. >1000C
C. <1000C
D. Will not boil at all
3. If specific heat of a substance is infinite, it means
A. Heat is given out
B. Heat is taken in
C. No change in temperature takes place whether heat is taken in or given out
D. All of the above
4. A gas in an airtight container is heated from 25 0C to 900C. The density of the gas will
A. Increase slightly
B. Increase considerably
C. Remain the same
D. Decrease slightly
5. A quantity of heat required to change the unit mass of a solid substance, from solid
state to liquid state, while the temperature remains constant, is known as
A. Latent heat
B. Sublimation
C. Hoar frost
D. Latent heat of fusion
6. The latent heat of vaporization of a substance is always
A. Greater than its latent heat of fusion
B. Greater than its latent heat of sublimation
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C. Equal to its latent heat of sublimation

D. Less than its latent heat of fusion
7. The factor not needed to calculated heat lost or gained when there is no change of
state is
A. Weight
B. Specific heat
C. Relative density
D. Temperature change
8. 540 g of ice at 00C is mixed with 540 g of water at 800C. The final temperature of the
mixture is
A. 00C
B. 400C
C. 800C’
D. Less than 00C
9. Water is used to cool radiators of engines, because
A. Of its lower density
B. It is easily available
C. It is cheap
D. It has high specific heat
10. How much heat energy is gained when 5 kg of water at 200C is brought to its boiling
point
A. 1680 kJ
B. 1700 kJ
C. 1720 kJ
D. 1740 kJ

11. Melting point of ice

A. Increases with increasing pressure
B. Decreases with increasing pressure
C. Is independent of pressure
D. Is proportional to pressure
12. 19 g of water at 300C and 5 g of ice at – 200C are mixed together in a calorimeter. What
is the final temperature of the mixture? Given specific heat of ice = 0.5 cal g -1 (0C)-1 and
latent heat of fusion of ice = 80 cal g-1
A. 00C
B. – 50C
C. 50C
D. 100C

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13. 80 gm of water at 300C are poured on a large block of ice at 00C. The mass of ice that
melts is
A. 30 gm
B. 80 gm
C. 1600 gm
D. 150 gm
14. The saturation vapour pressure of water at 1000C is
A. 739 mm of mercury
B. 750 mm of mercury
C. 760 mm of mercury
D. 712 mm of mercury
15. Two spheres made of same substance have diameters in the ratio 1 : 2. Their thermal
capacities are in the ratio of
A. 1 : 2
B. 1 : 8
C. 1 : 4
D. 2 : 1

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CHEMISTRY

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FUNDAMENTALS OF CHEMISTRY-1
Chemistry is defined as the branch of science which deals with the study of composition,
structure and properties of matter and the changes which the matter undergoes under
different conditions.

CLASSIFICATION OF MATTER:

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CONCEPT-1
BASIC DEFINITIONS IN CHEMISTRY

Matter:
 Matter is defined as anything that occupies space (volume) and has mass.
 Eg: Ice, copper, sugar, air etc.,

PURE SUBSTANCE:

 A pure substance is a homogeneous material with a definite, invariable chemical

composition and invariable physical and chemical properties.
 A pure substance is either an element or a compound.

ELEMENT:

 An element is defined as the simplest form of a pure substance with definite

physical and chemical properties and which can be neither be broken into nor
built from simpler substances by any chemical or physical methods.
 Example: Hydrogen (H2), Ozone (O3), Phosphorus (P4) etc.
 An element is a pure substance composed of only one kind of atom.
 An atom is the smallest particle of the element taking part in a chemical
reaction.

CLASSIFICATION OF ELEMENTS:

 Elements are classified into four types based on their properties. They are:
a) Metals b) Non-metals c) Metalloids d) Noble gases

COMPOUND:

 A compound is a pure substance composed of two or more elements, combined

chemically in fixed proportions by mass. It cannot be separated by physical
means.
 The properties of compounds are different from those of the elements of which
they are made.
 Example: Water, carbon dioxide etc.

MOLECULE:
 Molecule is the smallest particle of an element or a compound that is capable of
independent existence.

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 Molecule of an element: A molecule of an element contains similar atoms,

chemically combined together. Eg: A molecule of Nitrogen contains two atoms
of nitrogen.
 Molecule of compounds: A molecule of a compound is formed by the union of
the atoms of different elements in definite proportions. Eg: A molecule of water
contains two atoms of hydrogen and one atom of oxygen in the ratio 1:8 by
mass.

ATOMICITY OF AN ELEMENT:
 The number of atoms present in one molecule of an element is called its
atomicity.
 Mono atomic elements: The molecule of a mono atomic element contains only
one atom. Eg: copper(Cu), Silver(Ag), Neon(Ne) etc.,
 Di atomic elements: The molecule of a di atomic elements contains two atoms.
Eg: hydrogen(H2), oxygen(O2), nitrogen(N2) etc.,
 Poly atomic elements: The molecule of a poly atomic elements contains more
than two atoms. Eg: ozone(O3), phosphorus(P4), sulphur(S8) etc.,

MIXTURE:
 A mixture may be defined as a matter composed of two or more substances
whose particles are in contact, they are neither combined chemically nor they
have lost their individual properties.
 Homogeneous mixtures have the same composition and properties throughout
their mass. For example, air is a homogeneous mixture of gases. A teaspoonful
of table sugar stirred into a glass of water also makes a homogeneous mixture.
 Heterogeneous mixtures have different compositions and properties in different
parts of their mass. Eg: Oil in water

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EXERCISE
1. Which one of the following has independent existence:
A. Cation
B. Molecule
C. Anion
D. Atom
2. Atomicity of phosphorus is:
A. 2
B. 4
C. 6
D. 8
3. Among the following impure substances are:
A. mixtures
B. elements
C. compounds
D. All
4. Among the following, molecule of an element is:
A. NO2
B. CO2
C. H2
D. SO2
5. The mass ratio of carbon and oxygen in CO2 is :
A. 1 : 8
B. 8 : 1
C. 3 : 8
D. 2 : 1
6. An example for homogeneous mixture is:
A. Salt + water
B. Sugar + water
C. Sand + water
D. Both A&B
7. Among the following, molecule of a compound is:
A. SO2
B. H2
C. N2
D. O2
8. Among the following, pure substance is:
A. Element
B. Compound
C. Both A&B
D. None

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9. The atomicity of inert gases is:

A. 0
B. 1
C. 2
D. 3
10. An example for heterogeneous mixture is:
A. Salt + water
B. Sugar + water
C. Sand + water
D. All

CONCEPT-2
FUNDAMENTAL PARTICLES OF AN ATOM

 Electrons, protons and neutrons are the fundamental particles present in an

atom.
 The small heavy positively charged body present with in the atom is called
nucleus.
 Protons and neutrons are present in the nucleus, they are called as nucleons.
 Electrons revolve round the nucleus.

ATOMIC NUMBER(Z):

 The total number of protons present in the nucleus or the total number of
electrons present in the neutral atom is called atomic number of the atom.

MASS NUMBER(A):

 The sum of nucleons is called mass number.

 Mass number of an element = no. of protons + no. of neutrons.
 Mass number and atomic mass are different.
 Mass number is always a whole number where as atomic mass is usually not a
whole number.
 Number of neutrons in an atom is given by ‘N’ = A - Z.

ORBIT OR SHELL:

 An orbit is a definite circular path in which electrons revolve around the nucleus.
 Orbits are non-directional.
 Every atom contains infinite number of orbits.
 The maximum number of electrons that can accommodate in the nth orbit of an
atom is given by 2n2.

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 The last shell of the atom where the electrons are present is called valence shell
or ultimate shell, denoted by n. The electron which are present in the valence
shell are called valence electrons.
 A shell just before the valence the shell of an atom is called penultimate shell,
denoted by (n-1).
 A shell just before the penultimate shell is called anti penultimate shell, denoted
by (n-2).

ORBITAL:
 The region where the probability of finding the electron is maximum around the
nucleus is called an orbital.
 Each orbital can accommodate a maximum of 2 electrons.
 Orbitals are directional in nature.

ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION:

 The arrangement of electrons into various orbitals in the increasing order of

their energies is called electronic configuration of an atom of an element.
 The electronic configuration of an atom of an element is represented by n Ɩ x.
 The increasing order of energy for various orbitals is given by Moeller’s diagram.

Moeller’s diagram

 The maximum number of electrons can be accommodated in s-orbital is ‘2’. The

shape of the s-orbital is spherical. It is non-directional.

 The maximum number of electrons can be accommodated in p-orbitals is ‘6’.

The shape of the p-orbital is dumb-bell. It is directional.

 The maximum number of electrons can be accommodated in d-orbitals is ‘10’.

The shape of the d-orbital is double dumb-bell. It is directional.

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 The maximum number of electrons can be accommodated in f-orbital is ‘14’.

The shape of the f-orbital is complex (four fold double dumbbell). It is
directional.

ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATON OF 1-30 ELEMENTS:

Electronic Electronic
Z Element Z Element
configuration configuration
1
1 H 1s 16 S [Ne]3s23p4
2 He 1s2 17 Cl [Ne]3s23p5
3 Li [He]2s1 18 Ar 1s22s2 2p63s2 3p6
[Ar]4s1
4 Be [He]2s2 19 K
[Ar]4s2
5 B [He]2s22p1 20 Ca
2 2 [Ar]4s23d1
6 C [He]2s 2p 21 Sc
2 3 [Ar]4s23d2
7 N [He]2s 2p 22 Ti
[Ar]4s23d3
8 O [He]2s22p4 23 V
[Ar]4s13d5
9 F [He]2s22p5 24 Cr
[Ar]4s23d5
10 Ne 1s2 2s2 2p6 25 Mn
[Ar]4s23d6
11 Na [Ne]3s1 26 Fe
2 [Ar]4s23d7
12 Mg [Ne]3s 27 Co
2 1 [Ar]4s23d8
13 Al [Ne]3s 3p 28 Ni
2 2 [Ar]4s13d10
14 Si [Ne]3s 3p 29 Cu
15 P [Ne]3s23p3 30 Zn [Ar]4s23d10

 The abnormal electronic configuration of chromium and copper is due to half-

filled and completely filled d-orbitals which gives an extra stability.

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EXERCISE
1. The total number of d-electrons present in Cr atom is:
A. 5
B. 9
C. 10
D. 15
2. The number electrons present in the penultimate shell of chlorine atom is:
A. 2
B. 4
C. 8
D. 16
3. The total number of fundamental particles present in Ca-40 is:
A. 20
B. 40
C. 60
D. 80
4. The maximum number of electrons that can accommodate in d- orbital is:
A. 2
B. 6
C. 10
D. 14
5. The charge present on neutron in coulombs is:
A. +1
B. -1
C. 0
D. +4.8
6. Among the following the directional orbital is:
A. s
B. p
C. d
D. Both B and C
7. The number of orbits present in an atom is:
A. 0
B. infinite
C. 1
D. 2
8. The total number of electrons present in anti-penultimate shell of Li is:
A. 0
B. 1
C. 2
D. 3

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9. The total number of s-electrons present in the valence shell of Cu is:

A. 0
B. 1
C. 2
D. 3
10. The total number of valence electrons in Cu(Z=29) is:
A. 10
B. 9
C. 11
D. 12

CONCEPT-3
VALENCY & OXIDATION NUMBER

 The combining capacity of an atom of an element is called valency.

 Valency has no sign.
 The number of electrons, that atom can lose or gain or share to attain stable
electronic configuration (octet or duplet) is called its valence.

VARIABBLE VALENCY:

 Elements which exhibits more than one valence show variable valence.
 Metals like iron, copper, mercury etc., exhibit variable valence because they
have a tendency to lose electrons in ultimate as well as in penultimate shell.
 If an element exhibits two different positive valencies, then we use the suffix
‘ous’ for the lower valency and the suffix ‘ic’ for the higher valence .
 Examples of variable valency for metals:

Metal Valency Name of the compound formula

2 Ferrous[Iron(II)]oxide FeO
Iron 3 Ferric[Iron(III)]oxide Fe2O3
1 Cuprous[copper(I)]oxide Cu2O
Copper 2 Cupric[copper(II)]oxide CuO
1 Mercurous[mercury(I)]oxide Hg2O
mercury 2 Mercuric[mercury(II)]oxide HgO

 Non-metals like phosphorus, sulphur, chlorine etc., also exhibit variable valence
due to excitation of electrons.

RADICAL:
 A radical is an atom or a group of atoms of the same or different elements that
behaves as a single unit with a positive or negative charge.
 A radical may be a basic radical (cation) or an acid radical (anion).

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List of some Basic Radicals:

Divalent Trivalent tetravalent

Monovalent
Argentic-Ag2+ Aluminium-Al3+ Plumbic-Pb4+
Ammonium-NH4+
Barium-Ba2+ Arsenic-As3+ Platinic-Pt4+
Aurous-Au+
Calcium-Ca2+ Auric-Au3+ Stannic-Sn4+
Argentous-Ag+
Cupric-Cu2+ Bismuth-Bi3+
Cuprous-Cu+
Ferrous-Fe2+ Chromium-Cr3+
Hydrogen-H+
Magnesium-Mg2+
Lithium-Li+
Managanese-Mn2+
Sodium-Na+
Mercuric-Hg2+
Potassium- K+
Nickel-Ni2+
Mercurous-Hg+
Plumbus-Pb2+

Platinus-Pt2+

Stannous- Sn2+

Zinc-Zn2+

 List of some Acid Radicals:

Monovalent Divalent Trivalent tetravalent

Carbonate-CO32- Arsenate-AsO43- Carbide-C4-
Acetate-CH3COO-
Ferrocyanide-
Dichromate-Cr2O72- Nitride-N3-
Bicarbonate-HCO3- Fe(CN)64-
Oxide-O2- Aluminate-AlO33-
Bisulphide-HS-
Peroxide-O22- Arsenite-AsO33-
Bisulphate-HSO4-
Sulphate-SO42- Phosphide-P3-
Bisulphite-HSO3-
Sulphite-SO32- Phosphite-PO33-
Bromide-Br-
Sulphide-S2- Phosphate-PO43-
Chloride-Cl-
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Silicate-SiO32- Borate-BO33-
Permanganate-MnO4-
Thiosulphate-S2O32-
Fluoride-F-
Zincate-ZnO22-
Hydride-H-
Plumbite-PbO22-
Hydroxide-OH-
Stannate-SnO32-
Iodide-I-
Manganate-MnO42-
Cyanide-CN-
Chromate-CrO42-
Nitrate-NO3-
Oxalate-(COO)22-
Nitrite-NO2-

Chlorite-ClO2-

Hypochlorite-ClO-

Chlorate-ClO3-

Perchlorate-ClO4-

Meta Aluminate-AlO2-

CHEMICAL FORMULA:

 The chemical formula of a compound represents the composition of a molecule of the

compound in terms of the symbols of the elements present in it. Eg: H 2 represents one
molecule of hydrogen, H2O represents one molecule of water.

WRITING CHEMICAL FORMULAE FROM THE CONCEPT OF VALENCY:

For convenience, every compound is represented by a formula. The steps given below
should be followed to write a formula. This method of writing formula is called criss-cross
method.

Example: Write the formula of Calcium Chloride.

Ans: 2 1

Ca Cl

Therefore, formula of Calcium Chloride is CaCl2

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Example: Write the formula of Aluminium Sulphate.

Ans: 3 2

Al SO4

Therefore, formula of Aluminium Sulphate is Al2(SO4)3

Example: Write the formula of Magnesium Oxide.

Ans: 2 2

Mg O

formula of Magnesium Oxide is Mg2O2, by dividing

with highest common factor(2), we get the formula of
Magnesium Oxide as MgO.

OXIDATION NUMBER:

“Oxidation number is an apparent charge on an atom in a compound or ion”.

 Oxidation number is defined as the residual charge which an atom of the

element appears to have, when all other atoms that form the molecule are
removed as ions.
 Oxidation number is also defined as a number which indicates the loss or gain or
sharing of electrons by an atom during the formation of a compound.
 Oxidation number can have zero, positive, negative or fractional values
depending upon the state of combination in the compound or ion.
 Oxidation number refers to the total charge on all atoms of same kind in a
compound.
 Oxidation state refers to the charge per atom of all atoms of same kind in a
compound.
 Oxidation state, many a times, is also referred to as oxidation number.

Rules for Assigning Oxidation number / oxidation state

 The oxidation state of an atom in its elemental form is assigned as zero.

Example: - The oxidation state of ‘H’ in H2, N in N2, O in O2, P in P4, S in S8 etc is
assigned as zero.

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 The oxidation state of an ion (cation / Anion) is equal to the charge present on
that ion.
Example: - The oxidation state of Na in Na+ is + 1
The oxidation state of Cl in Cl- is -1
 The algebraic sum of the oxidation numbers of all atoms in a neutral compound
is equal to zero.
Example: - In H2SO4,
2(Oxidation state of H) + 1 (Oxidation state of S) + 4(oxidation state of ‘O’) = 0
2( +1 )+1( +6 ) + 4( -2 )=0
 The algebraic sum of the oxidation numbers of all atoms in an ion is equal to
charge on the ion.
Example: - In Po43-
1(Oxidation state of ‘P’) + 4(oxidation state of ‘O’) = -3
1( +5 ) + 4( -2 ) = -3
 The oxidation state of Fluorine in all its compounds is assigned as -1.
 The Oxidation state of hydrogen in most of its compounds is assigned as +1.
Example :- The oxidation state of hydrogen in H2O, H2SO4, Hcl etc is +1
 Exception: - Hydrogen exhibits (-1) Oxidation state when it forms compounds
with strong metals.
Example: - The oxidation state of hydrogen in KH, NaH, MgH2 etc is (-1).
 The oxidation state of oxygen in most of its compounds is assigned as (-2).
Example: - The oxidation state of oxygen in H2SO4, HclO4, H2O etc is (-2).
 Exceptions: -The oxidation state of oxygen in peroxy bond is (-1).
Example: -
1) Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2): - (-1) (-1)
H O O H

2) Chromium pentoxide (CrO5) (-1) O (-1)

O O
Cr

O O (-1)
(-1)
3) Peroxo sulphuric acid [Caros acid]: - H2SO5
O

(-1) (-1)
H O S O O H

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4) Peroxodi - sulphuric acid [Marshalls acid]:- H2S2O8

O O

(-1) (-1)

H O S O O S O H

O O
 The Oxidation state of oxygen in super oxides is (-1/2).
Example: - The oxidation state of oxygen in KO2, is (-1/2).
 The oxidation state of oxygen in ozonides is (-1/3).
Example: - The oxidation state of oxygen in KO3 is (-1/3).
 Oxygen exhibits positive oxidation state when it combines with fluorine to form
oxy fluorides.
Example: - In oxy difluoride (OF2) and dioxygen difluoride (O2F2) the oxidation
state of oxygen is + 2 and + 1 respectively.
 The common oxidation state of an element is equal to its group number (from IA
to IVA group) or (group number -8) for VA to VIIIA.

Group number Common oxidation state

IA +1
IIA +2
IIIA +3
IVA +4
VA -3
VIA -2
VIIA -1
VIII 0

 The maximum oxidation state of any element is equal to is group number except
in the case of Oxygen and fluorine.
 In amalgams (Na-Hg) and carbonyl compounds (Ni (CO) 4), Oxidation state of
metals is usually zero.

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EXERCISE
1. The formula for Iron(III) oxide is:
A. FeO
B. FeO3
C. Fe2O3
D. Fe3O
2. The suffix used for naming HCl is:
A. ous
B. ic
C. ide
D. hypo
3. The total charge present on aluminium Sulphate is:
A. 6
B. 12
C. 0
D. 5
4. The valency of acidic radical present in magnesium oxide is:
A. 1
B. 2
C. -1
D. -2
5. Number of chlorine atoms present in sodium per chlorate is:
A. 1
B. 2
C. 3
D. 4
6. The number of variable valencies exhibited by tin is:
A. 1
B. 2
C. 4
D. 6
7. The valency of an element which contain 8 electrons in its outermost shell is:
A. 2
B. 4
C. 0
D. 8
8. The formula of copper(II)carbonate is:
A. CuCO3
B. Cu(CO3)2
C. Cu2CO3
D. Cu3CO2

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9. If the formula of metal sulphate is MSO4, then the formula of its metal chloride is:
A. MCl
B. M2Cl
C. MCl2
D. MCl3
10. Among the following the compound having same valency of acidic and basic
radicals is:
A. Sodium chloride
B. Aluminium phosphate
C. Magnesium oxide
D. All
11. Number of oxygen atoms present in sodium chlorate is:
A. 0
B. 1
C. 2
D. 3
12. The formula of sodium meta aluminate is:
A. Na2AlO2
B. NaAlO
C. NaAlO2
D. NaAl2O
13. The valency of the basic radical present in aluminium nitrite is:
A. 1
B. 2
C. 3
D. 4
14. The formula of sodium di chromate is:
A. NaCrO7
B. NaCr2O7
C. Na2CrO
D. Na2Cr2O7
15. The number of radicals present in potassium ferro cyanide is:
A. 11
B. 6
C. 4
D. 2
16. The formula of calcium acetate is:
A. Ca(CH3COO)2
B. CH3COOCa
C. Ca2(CH3COO)
D. (CH3COOCa)2
17. The Oxidation number of ‘P’ in PO4-3 is:
A. +2
B. +4

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C. +5
D. +7
18. Which among the following shows maximum oxidation state?
A. V
B. Fe
C. Mn
D. Cr
19. The Oxidation state of chromium in Cr (CO)6 is:
A. 0
B. +2
C. -2
D. +6
20. An element that never has a positive oxidation state in any of its compounds is:
A. B
B. O
C. Cl
D. F

CONCEPT-4
MODERN PERIODIC TABLE

Modern Periodic Law

 The physical and chemical properties of elements are periodic functions of their
atomic numbers.

Salient features of the Modern periodic table:-

 The modern periodic table has eighteen vertical columns known as groups.

Representation of Groups:-

New 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
notation

Old IA IIA IIIB IVB VB VIB VIIB VIII IB IIB IIIA IVA VA VIA VIIA O
notation

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 The elements of groups 1, 2, 13, 14, 15, 16 and 17 are known as main group
elements or representative elements or the normal elements. These elements
have their valence or ultimate shell incomplete.
 The elements of groups 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11 and 12 are known as the
transition elements. They have their two outermost shells (ultimate and
Penultimate) incomplete.
 Elements in group 18 (zero group) are called the noble gases or inert gases.
The valence shell electronic configuration of these elements is ns2 np6 and
having valency zero.
 There are seven horizontal rows in the modern periodic table, each row is
called a period.
 Elements of period one have one shell, elements of period two have two
shells and that of period three have three shells and so on.
 Elements with electrons increasing one by one in their Outermost shell, till an
octet is attained, are placed in the same period. The last element of each
period has eight electrons, expect the first period ‘He’ (2 electrons).

 The first period contains two elements. (z = 1 and 2)

It is the shortest period.
 The Second period (z = 3 to 10) and third period (z = 11 to 18) contain eight
elements. These are called Short periods.
 The fourth (z = 19 to 36) and fifth period (z = 37 to 54) contain eighteen
elements. These are called long periods.
 The sixth period (z = 55 to 86) contains 32 elements. It is the longest period. In
Group ‘3’ of the sixth period, there is a set of elements with atomic- numbers
57 to 71, beginning with lanthanum (z = 57). These elements are known as
Lanthanides (rare earths).
 The seventh period (z = 87 onward) is a incomplete period. In group ‘3’ of the
seventh period, there is a set of elements with atomic numbers 89 to 103,
beginning with actinium (z = 89). These elements are known as Actinides
(Radioactive elements).
 Lanthanides and Actinides have similar properties because they belong to the
same group. They are shown at the bottom of the periodic table because they
are large in number and showing them in the main body of the table will
distort its shape.
 Elements of the second period show resemblance in properties with
elements of the next group of the third period, leading to diagonal
relationship. Such elements are called bridge elements.
Example:-
Period – 2 Li Be B C

Period – 3 Na Mg Al Si
 The third period elements Na, Mg, Al, Si, P, S and Cl summarize the
properties of their respective groups and are called typical elements.

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 Depending on the nature of the atomic shell into which the last electron
enters (differentiating electron) the elements are classified into s, p, d and f-
block.
 s and p-block elements (Except Group 18) are called as representative
elements.
 d-block elements (Except Group 12) are called transition elements.
 f-block elements (Lanthanides and Actinides) are known as inner transition
elements.

General valance shell electronic configuration of s, p, d and f-block elements are given as
below.

Name of the block General Valence shell electronic configuration

s ns1-2
p ns2np1-6
d (n-1)d1-10 ns0, 1 or 2
f (n-2) f0-14 (n-1) d0, 1 or 2 ns2

Prediction of Group, Period and Block of a given element in the modern periodic table :-

The Group, Period and block of any element can be predicted from its electronic
configuration by the following ways.

 ‘n’ value of the valence shell corresponds to the period of an element.

Ex. The electronic configuration of Na is [Ne] 3s1. The ‘n’ value of the valence
shell is 3. So Na belongs to 3rd period in the modern periodic table.
 The differentiating electron indicates the block of an elements.
Ex: - The Electronic configuration of Si is [Ne] 3s2 3p2. The differentiating
electron enters P-orbital. So Si belongs to P-block in the modern periodic
table.

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 The group of an element is predicted from the number of electrons in the

ultimate shell or the total number of electrons in both ultimate and
penultimate shell follows.
a) For s-block elements, the group number is equal to the number of
valency electrons.
Ex: - The electronic configuration of Mg is [Ne] 3s2.
The number of valency electrons is equal to 2. So the group number
of Magnesium is 2.
b) For p-block elements, the group number is equal to (10 + number of
electrons in the valency shell)
Ex: - The electronic configuration of ‘p’ is *Ne+ 3s2 3p3.
The number of valency electrons is equal to 5.
So the group number of ‘p’ is (10 + 5) = 15.
c) For d-block elements, the group number is equal to the number of
electrons in [(n-1) d subshell + no. of electrons in valence shell] or (total
no. of electrons in ultimate and penultimate shell – 8).
Ex: - The electronic configuration of Ti is [Ar] 4s2 3d2.
The total no. of electrons in (n-1) d subshell so valence shell is 4.
So the group number of Ti is 4.
d) For f-block elements, the group number is always 3.

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EXERCISE

1) Modern periodic law is based on

A. Atomic mass
B. Atomic number
C. Mass number
D. Atomic weight
2) Chromium belongs to the following block
A. s
B. p
C. d
D. f
3) The valency of IA group elements in
A. 1
B. -1
C. 0
D. -7
4) Among the following, s-block element is
A. Na
B. Ca
C. Br
D. Al
5) Beryllium exhibits diagonal relationship with
A. Na
B. Mg
C. Al
D. Si
6) The number of groups and periods present in the modern periodic table is
A. 7, 18
B. 18, 7
C. 7, 7
D. 18, 18
7) Except 1st period, the total number of electrons present in the valence shell
of last element in each period is.
A. 2
B. 4
C. 6
D. 8
8) Among the following, radio active element is
A. Na
B. Ga
C. Fr
D. Mg

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9) If the general valence shell electronic configuration of a particular group is

ns2np4. Then the valency of the group is
A. 1
B. 2
C. 8
10) D.
The0period number of an element having 17 protons in its neutral atom is
A. 1
B. 2
C. 3
D. 4
11) The group number of Mg-24 is
A. 13
B. 3
C. 12
D. 2
12) The group number of f-block elements is
A. 1
B. 2
C. 3
D. 4
13) The general valence shell electronic configuration of alkaline earth metals
is
A. ns1
B. ns1np1
C. ns2
D. ns2np2
14) Among the following, d-block element is
A. Sc
B. Cr
C. Cu
D. All
15) Among the following, the incomplete period is
A. 7
B. 6
C. 5
D. 4

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CONCEPT-5
PERIODIC PROPERTIES
PERIODIC PROPERTIES:

 The properties which are related to electronic configuration of an element and

show a regular gradation in a period or in a group are called periodic properties.
Example: Atomic radius, ionization energy, electron affinity etc.

ATOMIC RADIUS:

 Atomic radius is defined as the distance from the nucleus to the outermost
electron.
 It is expressed in A0 or nm or pm
 Depending upon whether an element is a non-metal or a metal, atomic radii is
classified is to covalent radius, van der Waals radius and Metallic radius.

PERIODIC VARIATION OF ATOMIC RADII:

 On moving from left to right along a period, atomic radii decreases because
effective nuclear charge increases.
 On moving down in a group, atomic radii increases, because number of orbits
increases.

IONIZATION ENERGY:

 The minimum amount of energy required to remove the most loosely bound
electron from an isolated gaseous atom so as to convert it into a gaseous cation
is called its ionization energy.

(IE)
M (g) M+ (g) + e-
 It is measured in eV atom-1 or KJ mol-1

PERIODIC VARIATIONS IN IONIZATION ENERGY:

 On moving from left to right along a period, generally ionization energy

increases because effective nuclear charge increases.
 On moving down in a group, ionization energy decreases, because size of the
atom increases.

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Electron Affinity:

 Electron affinity of an element may be defined as the energy released when a

neutral isolated gaseous atom accepts an extra electron to form the gaseous
negative ion i.e. anion.
 It is represented as EA and its unit is eV atom-1 or kJ mol-1 or kcal mol-1

Periodic trends of electron affinity:

 The electron affinity increases from left to right as effective nuclear charge
increases (except inert gases) in a period.
 On moving down a group, the atomic size increases and, therefore, the effective
nuclear attraction decreases and thus, electron affinity decreases.
Electropositive or metallic character:

 The elements which have the tendency to form cations by losing of electrons
are called electropositive elements or metals.
 As the metallic nature increases, the reducing nature of the elements also
increases. This is the reason why metals act as reducing agents.

Periodic variations of electropositive character:

 The electropositive character decreases from left to right in a period.

 The electropositive character increases on moving down in a group.

Electronegativity:

 Electronegativity is defined as the tendency of the atom to attract electrons

(bond pair) towards itself when combined in a compound.
 It has no units and no dimensions.
 Electronegativity is totally different from electron affinity. Former is the property
of bonded atom while later is the property of isolated atom.

Periodic variations of electronegativity:

 On moving from left to right in a period electronegativity values increases
because atomic size decreases and effective nuclear charge increases.
 On moving down in a group, electronegativity decreases because atomic size
increase.

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EXERCISE
1. Among the following, maximum atomic radius exist for:
A. Mg
B. Al
C. Si
D. P
2. When a neutral atom is converted into the cation, its:
A. Size increases
B. Size decreases
C. Atomic number increases
D. Atomic number decreases
3. Atomic radii of fluorine and neon in Angstrom units are respectively given
by:
A. 0.72, 1.60
B. 1.60, 1.60
C. 0.72; 0.72
D. None of these
4. Atoms of the elements belonging to the same group of periodic table will
have:
A. Same number of protons
B. Same number of electrons in the valence shell
C. Same number of neutrons
D. Same number of electrons
5. Lowest ionization potential in a period is shown by:
A. Alkali metals
B. Halogens
C. Transition elements
D. Alkaline earth metals
6. Which element has the lowest first ionization energy?
A. Na
B. F
C. I
D. Cs
7. The element having the highest first ionization potential is:
A. Argon
B. Hydrogen
C. Helium
D. Oxygen
8. The ionization of hydrogen atom would give rise to:
A. Hydride ion
B. Hydronium ion
C. Proton
D. Hydroxyl ion

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9. The halogen which has the highest electron affinity is:

A. Fluorine
B. Chlorine
C. Bromine
D. Iodine
10. The process requiring the absorption of energy is:
A. F F-
B. H H-
C. Cl Cl-
D. O O2-
11. Formation of which ion is least favoured energetically?
A. Li-
B. Be-
C. B-
D. F-
12. In the series carbon, nitrogen, oxygen and fluorine the electronegativity:
A. Decreases from carbon to fluorine
B. Increases from carbon to fluorine
C. Remains constant
D. Decreases from carbon to oxygen and then increases
13. Keeping in view the periodic law and periodic table, suggest which of the
following elements should have maximum electronegative character?
A. Oxygen
B. Nitrogen
C. Fluorine
D. Astatine
14. Which of the following is second most electronegative element?
A. Chlorine
B. Oxygen
C. Sulphur
D. Fluorine
15. Electronic configuration of most electronegative element is:
A. 1 s2 2 s2 2 p6 3 s1
B. 1 s2 2 s2 2 p6 3 s2 3 p5
C. 1 s2 2 s2 2 p5
D. 1 s2 2 s2 2 p6 3s2 3 p6

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CONCEPT-6
TYPES OF BONDS AND BOND PARAMETERS

 The attractive force which holds various constituents (atoms, ions etc.,) together in
different chemical species is called a chemical bond.

ELECTROVALENT (OR) IONIC BOND:

 The bond formed, as a result of the electrostatic attraction between the

oppositely charged ions was termed as electrovalent bond.
 Ionic bonds will be formed more easily between elements with comparatively
low ionization enthalpies and elements with comparatively high negative value
of electron gain enthalpy.
 The Lattice Enthalpy of an ionic solid is defined as the energy required to
completely separating one mole of a solid ionic compound into gaseous
constituent ions.

COVALENT BOND:
 The bond formed between two atoms by mutual sharing of electrons between
them so as to complete their octets or duplets in case of elements having only
one shell is called covalent bond.
 The number of electrons contributed by each atom is known as covalence.

 If one pair of electrons shared between two atoms, a single bond is formed
between them. Eg: H2,Cl2, HCl, NH3, CH4, etc.,
 If two pairs of electrons shared between two atoms, a double bond is formed
between them. Eg: O2, CO2, C2H4, CH3COOH, etc.,
 If three pairs of electrons shared between two atoms, a triple bond is formed
between them. Eg: N2, C2H2, HCN etc.,
 Based on the electro negativities of the combining atoms, covalent bond is
classified into Polar and non-Polar covalent bonds.
 Eg: HCl, H2O, NH3,.. (Polar covalent compounds); N2, O2, Cl2,..(Non-polar
compounds).
 The shared pairs of electrons present between the atoms are called bond pairs.
 The valence electrons not involved in bonding are called non bonding electrons
or lone pairs.

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CO-ORDINATE COVALENT BOND:

 It is a special type of covalent bond in which shared bond pair of electrons is
donated by one atom, called donor and accepted by another atom or ion called
acceptor.
 This bond cannot be distinguished from covalent bond after its formation.
 Eg: NH4+, H3O+,etc.,

METALLIC BOND:
 The force of attraction which holds the metal atoms together in a metallic solid is
known as metallic bond.
 It results from the electrical attractions among positively charged metal ions and
mobile, delocalized electrons belonging to the crystal as a whole.
 Eg: Copper, zinc, sodium, lithium, francium, iron, cobalt, etc.,

HYDROGEN BOND:
 The attractive force which binds hydrogen atom of one molecule with the
electronegative atom (F, O or N) of another molecule is known as hydrogen
bond.
 There are two types of hydrogen bonds. 1. Inter molecular hydrogen bond 2.
Intra molecular hydrogen bond.

BOND PARAMETERS:
BOND LENGTH:
 Bond length is defined as the equilibrium distance between the nuclei of two
bonded atoms in a molecule.
 It is expressed in terms of A0 or pm.

BOND ANGLE:
 Bond angle is defined as the angle between the orbitals contained bonding
electrons pairs around the central atom in a molecule/complex ion.
 It is expressed in degrees.
 It helps to determine the shape of the molecule.

BOND ENTHALPY (BOND ENERGY):

 Bond enthalpy is defined as the amount of energy required to break one mole of
bonds of a particular type between two atoms in gaseous state.
 The unit of bond enthalpy is kJ/mole.
 In poly atomic molecules the term mean or average bond enthalpy is used. It is
obtained by dividing total bond dissociation enthalpy by the number of bonds
broken.

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BOND ORDER:
 In the Lewis description of covalent bond, the bond order is given by the number
of bonds between the two atoms in a molecule. Eg: The bond order in H 2, O2
and N2 are 1, 2 and 3 respectively.
 Iso electronic species have identical bond orders. Eg: F2 and O22- have bond
order 1.
 As the bond order increases, bond enthalpy increases and bond length
decreases.
DIPOLE MOMENT:
 A dipole moment is a measurement of the separation of two oppositely
charged charges.
 Dipole moment is a vector quantity.
 The magnitude is equal to the charge multiplied by the distance between the
charges and the direction is from negative charge to positive charge.
 Dipole moment is measured in coulomb- meter or Debye units.
 1D= 3.33564 x 10-30 C-m.
 In case of poly atomic molecules the resultant dipole moment is the vector sum
of the dipole moments of various bonds.
 In case of symmetrical molecules (BF3, CH4, CCl4) the molecular dipole moment is
found to be zero.
 The net dipole moment of NF3 is less than that of NH3.

FAJAN’S RULES:
 Small Size Of The Cation: Smaller the cation, greater is its polarizing power.
Eg: LiCl is more covalent than KCl.
 Large Size Of The Anion: Larger the anion, greater is its polarizability. Eg:
Covalent character of lithium halides is in the order LiI > LiBr > LiCl > LiF.
 Large Charge On The Cation Or Anion: Larger the charge on the cation,
greater is its polarizing power. Similarly, greater the charge on the anion,
more easily it gets polarized. Eg: Covalent character of the chlorides is in the
order NaCl < MgCl2 < AlCl3.
 Electronic Configuration Of the Cation: If two cations have the same size
and charge, then the one with pseudo noble gas configuration (18 electrons
in the outer most shell) has greater polarizing power than the other with
noble gas configuration (8 electrons in the outer most shell). Eg: CuCl is
more covalent than NaCl.

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EXERCISE
1. The bond formed by the combination of an electro positive element with an electro
negative element is:
A. Ionic
B. Covalent
C. Coordinate covalent
D. Hydrogen
2. The bond formed when an electron deficient molecule combines with an electron rich
molecule is:
A. Ionic
B. Covalent
C. Coordinate covalent
D. Hydrogen
3. The bond formed by the combination of two electro negative elements is:
A. Ionic
B. Covalent
C. Coordinate covalent
D. Hydrogen
4. The metallic bond contains:
A. Electro positive element
B. Electro negative element
C. Halogen
D. Inert gas
5. The bond formed by the combination of hydrogen with an electro negative element is:
A. Ionic
B. Covalent
C. Coordinate covalent
D. Hydrogen
6. Among the following, the element that involves in H-bonding is:
A. Nitrogen
B. Oxygen
C. Fluorine
D. All
7. The number of single bonds between two hydrogen atoms in H2 molecule is:
A. 1
B. 2
C. 3
D. 4
8. The number of single bonds between two oxygen atoms in O 2 molecule is:
A. Zero
B. One
C. Two
D. Three

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9. The number of triple bonds between two nitrogen atoms in N 2 molecule is:
A. 1
B. 2
C. 3
D. 4
10. The total charge present on O3 is:
A. 0
B. 1
C. 2
D. 3
11. Multiple bonds are present in:
A. HCN
B. O2
C. N2
D. All
12. Which of the following compound contains both covalent and ionic bonds:
A. CCl4
B. CaCl2
C. NH4Cl
D. H2O
13. Bond length is expressed in:
A. A0
B. pm
C. m
D. All
14. Bond order in O2 is:
A. 1
B. 2
C. 3
D. 4
15. The unit of bond enthalpy is:
A. Joule
B. erg
C. kJ/mole
D. mole
16. Net dipole moment in methane is:
A. 1D
B. 2D
C. 3D
D. 0

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17. Bond order in N2 is:

A. 1
B. 2
C. 3
D. 4
18. LiI is more covalent than:
A. LiBr
B. LiCl
C. LiF
D. All
19. AlCl3 is covalent while AlF3 is ionic. This is justified by
A. Crystal lattice
B. Valence bond theory
C. Fajan’s rules
D. Lattice energy
20. Covalent nature of a compound increases with:
A. Decrease in Cation Size
B. Increase in Cation Size
C. Decrease in anion Size
D. Decrease in both Cation and anion Size

CONCEPT-7
HYBRIDIZATION

 Hybridization is defined as the mixing of the atomic orbitals belonging to the

same atom but having slightly different energies so that a redistribution of
energy takes place between them resulting in the formation of new orbitals
of equal energies and identical shapes.
 The new orbitals thus formed are known as hybrid orbitals.
 Only those orbitals which have approximately equal energies and belong to
the same atom or ion can undergo hybridization
 Number of hybrid orbitals produced is equal to the number of atomic orbitals
mixed

Types of hybridization
sp HYBRIDIZATION
 The intermixing of one s- orbital and one p-orbital of an atom to produce two
new sp hybridized orbitals of equivalent energy is called sp hybridization
 This hybridization is also called linear (or) digonal hybridization.
 The sp hybrid orbitals have one electron each.
 Each sp hybrid orbital has 50% p-orbital character and 50% orbital character.
 The angle between the axis of the two sp hybrid is 180 0.

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 It gives linear shape to the molecule.

 Examples for sp hybridization is BeCl2, CO2, C2H2 etc.
sp2 HYBRIDIZATION

 The intermixing of one s-orbital and two p-orbital of an atom to produce

three new sp2 hybridized orbitals of equivalent energy is called sp 2
hybridization.
 This hybridization is also called trigonal planar hybridization.
 Three sp2 hybrid orbitals lying in a plane at 1200 angle to one another.
 Each sp2 hybrid orbital has 33.33% of s character and 66.66% of p character.
 It gives trigonal shape to the molecule.
 Examples for sp2 hybridization is BCl3, C2H4 etc.
sp3 HYBRIDIZATION

 The intermixing of one’s orbital and three p orbitals of an atom to produce

four new sp3 hybridized orbitals of equivalent energy is called sp3
hybridization.
 This hybridization is also called tetrahedral hybridization.
 The sp3 hybrid orbitals have a tetrahedral orientation in space.
 The four sp3 hybridized orbitals point towards the four corners of a regular
tetrahedron.
 The tetrahedral angle is 1090 28’.
 Each sp3 hybrid orbitals has 25% s and 75% p character.
 Examples for sp3 hybridization is CH4, NH3 etc.
sp3 d HYBRIDIZATION

 This type of hybridization involves the mixing of one’s, three p and one d
orbitals resulting in the formation of five equivalent sp3 d hybrid orbitals.
 Example: PF5, PCl5, XeOF2, XeO2F2, XeF2

sp3 d2 HYBRIDIZATION

 This type of hybridization involves the intermixing of one’s, three p and two d
orbitals resulting in the formation of six equivalent sp 3d2 hybrid orbitals.
 Example: BrF5, SF6, XeO2F4

sp3 d3 HYBRIDIZATION

 This type of hybridization involves mixing of one’s three p and three d

orbitals resulting in the formation of seven equivalent sp 3d3 hybrid orbitals.
 Example: IF7

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Level-1
(CONCEPT BASED SINGLE OPTION MCQS)

1. Which molecule is linear

A. NO2
B. ClO2
C. CO2
D. H2S
2. Which of the following molecules has trigonal planar geometry
A. IF3
B. PCl3
C. NH3
D. BF3
3. A sp3 hybridized orbital contains
A. s – character
B. s – character
C. s – character
D. s – character
4. For which of the following hybridization the bond angle is maximum
A. sp2
B. sp
C. sp3
D. dsp2
5. In HCHO, ‘C’ has hybridization
A. sp
B. sp2
C. sp3
D. All the above
6. Hybridization shown by N in HNO3 is:
A. sp2
B. sp3d
C. sp
D. sp3
7. The percentage of p-character of the hybrid orbitals in graphite and diamond are
respectively
A. 33 and 25
B. 50 and 75
C. 67 and 75
D. 33 and 75

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8. The pair having similar geometry is:

A. PCl3, NH3
B. BeCl2, H2O
C. CH4, CCl4
D. IF5, PF5
9. The PCl5 molecule is a result of the hybridization of
A. sp2d2
B. sp3d
C. spd3
D. sp2d3
10. sp3 hybridization leads to which shape of the molecule
A. Tetrahedron
B. Octahedron
C. Linear
D. Plane triangle

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CONCEPT-8
PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL CHANGES

“Change occurs whenever energy is added to or removed from Matter”.

Physical Change: -

 A physical change is one that changes the shape, size, physical state and
appearance of a substance (either one or some or all of them), but not its
chemical composition.
 Examples of physical change are breaking of glass, melting of ice, sublimation of
Naphthalene etc.

Characteristics of physical change: -

 The change is temporary, and it is easily reversible.

 No new substance is formed during the change.
 The mass of the substance does not change during the change.
 There is no net loss or gain of energy during the change.

Chemical change: -

 A chemical change is one in which the original substance loses its composition
and properties and gives rise to one or more new substances with different
compositions and properties.
 Examples of chemical change are rusting of iron, burning of wood, digestion of
food, decomposition of water etc.

Characteristics of a chemical change: -

 A chemical change is permanent and irreversible.

 One or more new substances are formed.
 The total mass of the substances taken together remains unchanged.
 A chemical change is always attended by exchange of energy.

Chemical Equation: -

 Chemical equation represents a chemical change (chemical Reaction) in terms of

symbols and formula.
Ex: - Burning of coal in air is a chemical change which is represented by
C + O2 heat CO2
 In the above reaction C and O2 are called reactants, CO2 is a product.

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 The substance / substances which take part in a chemical reaction are called
reactants.
 The substance / substances formed as a result of chemical change during a
chemical reaction are called products.
 A chemical equation in which number of atoms of each element is same on the
side of reactants and products is called balanced equation.
Ex: - 2H2 + O2 2H2O
 A chemical equation which is not balanced is called unbalanced or skeleton
equation.
Ex: - KNO3 KNO2 + O2

Importance of a balanced chemical equation:

 It gives the information about the reactants and products involved in the
chemical change.
 The number of atoms and molecules can be identified

Drawbacks of a balanced chemical equation:

 It does not give any information about the physical state of reactants and
products.
 It does not give any information about the time taken for the completion of the
chemical change.
 It does not indicate the speed of a chemical reaction.
 It does not indicate the conditions which are maintained to bring the chemical
change.
 It does not indicate the characteristics of a chemical change.

More informative chemical equation:

The following notations are used in chemical equations as to provide more

information about chemical change.

 Upper arrow () is written immediately after the gaseous product.

Example: - CaCO3 CaO + CO2
 Lower arrow () is written immediately after the insoluble solid substance
(precipitate) deposits from a solution.
Example: - BaCl2 + H2SO4 BaSO4  + 2HCl
 Symbols, (s) for solid, (l) for liquid and (g) for gas are also written to represent
the physical state of the reactants and products.
Example: - C(s) + O2 (g) CO2 (g)
 Symbol (aq) is written for substances dissolved in water.
Example: - HCl (aq) + NaOH (aq) NaCl (aq) + H2 O (l)

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 Conditions like temperature and pressure are mentioned above and below the (
) sign.
Example: - N2 (g) + 3H2 (g) 200atm 2NH3 (g)
0
450 c
 Heat evolved or absorbed in a chemical change can be represented by adding or
subtracting the amount of heat on right hand side.
Example: - N2 + O2 2NO – 43.2 kcals (endothermic reaction)
C + O2 CO2 + 94.3 kcals (exothermic reaction)

Characteristics of a chemical reaction

 Evolution of gas
Example: - Zn + H2SO4 ZnSO4 + H2
 Change of colour
Example: - Fe + CuSO4 (aq) FeSO4 + Cu
(Blue) (Green) (Red deposit)
 Formation of precipitate
Example: - AgNO3 + NaCl AgCl  + NaNO3
 Change of state
Example: - 2H2 (g) + O2 (g) 2H2 O (l)
 Change of temperature
Example: - N2 + O2 2NO – 43.2 kcals (endothermic reaction)
C + O2 CO2 + 94.3 kcals (exothermic reaction)

Types of chemical reactions:

 Combination reaction (synthesis): A reaction in which two elements or two

compounds or one element and one compound combine to form a single
product is called a combination reaction. If the combination takes place between
two elements then it is also called as synthesis.
Example: - C + O2 CO2 (synthesis)
2CO + O2 2CO2
NH3 + HCl NH4 Cl
 Decomposition reaction: A reaction in which a single compound decomposes in
to either elements or simple compounds is called a decomposition reaction. This
reaction may occur in the presence of light or heat or electric current.
Example: 2AgNO3 sunlight 2Ag + 2NO2 + O2 (photochemical decomposition)
2HgO heat 2Hg + O2 (thermal decomposition)
2H2O electric current 2H2 + O2 (Electrochemical decomposition)
Digestion of food in our body is an example of decomposition reaction

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 Displacement reaction: A reaction in which more active element displaces a less

active element from its salt solution.
Activity order of metals: K > Na > Ca > Mg > Al > Zn > Fe > Pb > H > Cu > Hg > Ag >
Au > Pt
Activity order of halogens: F > Cl > Br > I
Example: - CuSO4 + Zn ZnSO4 + Cu
2KI + Cl2 2KCl + I2
 Double decomposition reaction: A reaction in which two compounds in a
solution react to form new compounds by mutual exchange of Ions is called a
double decomposition reaction. These reactions are of two types (a)
precipitation reactions and (b) neutralization reactions.
Example: - AgNO3 + HCl AgCl  + HNO3 (Precipitation reaction)
NaOH + HCl NaCl + H2O (Neutralization reaction)
 Redox reaction: A reaction in which oxidation and reduction occurs
simultaneously is called a redox reaction.
Oxidation:
 It is defined as a process in which an atom or ion loses electron(s).
Example: - Zn Zn2++ 2 e-
 Increase in the oxidation number is also called oxidation.
Example: - Fe Fe2++ 2e-
 Addition of oxygen or electro negative element is also called oxidation.
Example: - 2Mg + O2 2MgO
 Removal of hydrogen or electro positive element is also called oxidation.
Example: - H2S + Cl2 2HCl + S

Reduction:

 It is defined as a process in which an atom or ion gains electrons

Example: - Cl + e- Cl-
 Decrease in the oxidation number is also called reduction.
Example: - Cu2+ + 2e- Cu
 Addition of hydrogen or electro positive element is also called reduction.
Example: - 2NH3 + 3Cl2 N2 + 6HCl
 Removal of oxygen or electro negative element is also called reduction.
Example: - CuO + H2 Cu + H2O

Oxidizing agent (Oxidant):

 The substance which under goes reduction can act as a oxidizing agent.
Example: - KMnO4, H2O2, O3 etc.

Reducing agent (Reductant):

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 The substance which under goes oxidation can act as a reducing agent.
Example: - Cu, H2S, H2O2 etc.
 A redox reaction is a combination of oxidation half reaction and reduction half
reaction.
Oxidation
Example: -
O +2 +2 O
Zn + CuO ZnO + Cu

Reduction

Oxidation half reaction: Zn – 2e- Zn2+

2+ -
Reduction half reaction: Cu + 2e Cu
 In the above reaction Zn undergoes oxidation and act as reducing agent. Cu
undergoes reduction and act as oxidizing agent.
 Redox reactions mainly divided into two types they are intermolecular and intra
molecular redox reactions.
 The redox reactions in which one molecule of the reactant is oxidized and
the molecule of the other reactant is reduced is called inter molecular
redox reactions.
Example: - reduced

Cl2 + H2S 2HCl+S

Oxidized

 The redox reactions in which one atom of molecule is oxidized and other
atom of same molecule is the reduced is called intra molecular redox
reactions.
Example: - Oxidized
-1
2KClO3 2KCl + 3O2
Reduced

Types of Redox reactions:

 Combination reaction: A combination reaction may or may not be a redox

reaction.
Example: - 2H2 + O2 2H2 O (combination as well as redox)
CaO + H2O Ca (OH)2 (combination but not redox)

 Decomposition reaction: A decomposition reaction may or may not be a redox

reaction.
 Example: - 2HgO 2Hg + O2(decomposition as well as redox)

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CaCO3 CaO + CO2 (decomposition but not redox)

 Displacement reaction: All displacement reactions are redox reactions.
Example: - Zn + CuSO4 ZnSO4 + Cu
 Disproportionation reaction: The reaction in which the same element in one
oxidation state is simultaneously oxidized and reduced.
Example: Reduced
+1 -1 +1 -2 0
2H2O2 (aq) 2H2 O (l) + O2 (g)
Oxidised

 Comproportionation reaction: These reactions are reverse of disproportionation

reaction. In these reactions, two species with same element in two different
oxidation states to form a single product.
 Example: - Oxidized
+
Ag 2+ (aq) + Ag (s) 2Ag (aq)

Reduced

EXERCISE

1. A change in chemical composition takes place in:

A. Physical change
B. Chemical change
C. Both physical and chemical change
D. None
2. A skeleton equation represents:
A. Stoichiometric equation
B. Balanced equation
C. Unbalanced equation
D. Both a & b
3. Which of the following represents a redox reaction?
A. NaOH + HCl NaCl + H2O
B. BaCl2 + H2SO4 BaSO4 + 2HCl
C. CuSO4 + 2H2O Cu (OH)2 + H2SO4
D. Zn + 2HCl ZnCl2 + H2
4. In the reaction:
SO2 + 2H2S 3S + 2H2O. The substances oxidized is
A. H2S
B. SO2
C. S
D. H2O

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S

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5. In the reaction:
3Cl2 + 6NaOH NaClO3 + 5NaCl + 3H2O
The element which loses as well as gains electrons is
A. Na
B. O
C. Cl
D. None of these
6. The energy of reactants in exothermic reaction is:
A. Greater than products
B. Less than products
C. Equal to products
D. Depends upon the reaction
7. An oxidation process involves:
A. Increase in oxidation number
B. Decrease in oxidation number
C. Both decrease and increase in oxidation number
D. No change in oxidation number
8. The number of products formed in a combination reaction is:
A. 1
B. 2
C. 3
D. 4
9. Digestion of food in our body is an example of:
A. Synthesis
B. Combination
C. Displacement
D. Decomposition
10. In the reaction:
3Br2 + 6CO32- + 3H2O 5Br- + BrO3- + 6HCO3-
A. Bromine is oxidized and carbonate is reduced
B. Bromine is reduced and water is oxidized
C. Bromine is neither reduced nor oxidized
D. Bromine is both reduced and oxidized
11. Acid reacts with base to form salt and water. This is an example of:
A. Synthesis
B. Double decomposition
C. Neutralization
D. Both b and c
12. In the reaction:
8Al + 3Fe3O4 4Al2O3 + 9Fe
The number of electrons transferred from the reductant to the oxidant
is:
A. 8
B. 4

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C. 16
D. 24
13. Which of the following reactions does not involve either oxidation or
reduction?
A. VO2+ V2O3
B. Na+ Na-
C. CrO42- Cr2O72-
2+
D. Zn Zn
14. In the synthesis of H2O, the elemental form of the reactants is:
A. H2, O2
B. H, O
C. H4, O2
D. H2, O4
15. Which of the following is a redox reaction?
A. NaCl + KNO3 NaNO3 + KCl
B. CaC2O4 + 2HCl CaCl2 + H2C2O4
C. Mg (OH)2 + 2NH4Cl MgCl2 + 2NH4OH
D. Zn + 2AgCN 2Ag + Zn (CN)2

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CONCEPT-9

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY

 Organic chemistry is defined as the chemistry of hydrocarbons and their derivatives.

 Carbon is the essential constituent of all organic compounds due to
a) Tetracovalency b) Catenation c) Isomerism d) Multiple bonding e) Electronegativity

Root word
 Root word indicates the number of carbon atoms present in the longest possible chain
of carbon atoms.
 The root word for different number of carbon atoms is given below.

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Chain length Word root

C1 Meth-
C2 Eth-
C3 Prop-
C4 But-
C5 Pent-
C6 Hex-
C7 Hept-
C8 Oct-
C9 Non-
C10 Dec-

 In general, the root word for any carbon chain is alk

Primary suffix
 A primary suffix is always added to the word root to indicate whether the carbon chain
is saturated or unsaturated.

Secondary suffix
 A secondary suffix is then added to the primary suffix to indicate the nature the
functional group present in the organic compound.
 A functional group may be defined as an atom or a group of atoms present in a molecule
which largely determines its chemical properties.

Primary prefix
 A primary prefix is used simply to distinguish cyclic from acyclic compounds.
 In case of carbocyclic compounds, a primary prefix, cyclo is used immediately before the
word root.
Secondary prefix
 Certain groups are not considered as functional groups but instead are treated as
substituents. These are called secondary prefixes.
 Secondary prefixes are added immediately before the word root or the primary prefix in
case of alicyclic compounds.

Nomenclature of different classes of organic compounds

Alkanes (Saturated hydrocarbons or paraffins)
 Hydrocarbons in which all the carbon atoms are linked to one another by only single
bonds are called saturated hydrocarbons.
 General formula of alkanes is CnH2n+2
 IUPAC names of some alkanes are given below.

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Formula IUPAC name

CH4 Methane
C2H6 Ethane
C3H8 Propane
C4H10 Butane
C5H12 Pentane

Alkenes (unsaturated hydrocarbons or olefins)

 Unsaturated hydrocarbons containing a carbon-carbon double alkenes.
 General formula of alkenes is CnH2n
 IUPAC names of some alkenes are given below.

Formula IUPAC name

C2H4 Ethene
C3H6 Propene
C4H8 Butene
C5H10 Pentene

Alkynes (unsaturated hydrocarbons)

 Unsaturated hydrocarbons containing a carbon-carbon triple bond are called alkynes.
 General formula of alkynes is CnH2n-2
 IUPAC names of some alkynes is given below.

Formula IUPAC name

C2H2 Ethyne
C3H4 Propyne
C4H6 Butyne
Alcohols
 IUPAC name for alcohols is alkanols
 General formula for alkanols is CnH2n+1OH or R – OH
 The secondary suffix for alkanols is “ol”
 IUPAC names of some alkanols are given below.

Formula IUPAC name

CH3OH Methanol
C2H5OH Ethanol
C3H7OH Propanol
C4H9OH Butanol
C5H11OH Pentanol

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Aldehydes
 IUPAC name for aldehydes is alkanals
 General formula for alkanals is CnH2n+1CHO or R – CHO
 The secondary suffix for alkanals is “al”
 IUPAC names of some alkanals are given below.

Formula IUPAC name

HCHO Methanal
CH3CHO Ethanal
C2H5CHO Propanal
C3H7CHO Butanal
C4H9CHO Pentanal

Ketones
 IUPAC name for ketones is Alkanones
 General formula for alkanones is CnH2n+1COCnH2n+1 or R – CO – R1 where R and R1 may be
same or different alkyl groups.
 The secondary suffix for alkanones is “one”
 IUPAC names of some alkanols are given below.

Formula IUPAC name

CH3 CO CH3 Propanone
CH3 CO CH2CH3 Butanone
CH3 CH2 CO CH2 CH3 Pentanone

Ethers
 IUPAC name for ethers is Alkoxyalkanes
 General formula for Alkoxyalkanes is CnH2n+1OCnH2n+1 or R – O – R1 where R and R1 may
be same or different alkyl groups.
 The secondary prefix for Alkoxyalkanes is “Alkoxy”
 IUPAC name of some Alkoxyalkanes are given below.

Formula IUPAC name

CH3 OCH3 Methoxy methane
CH3 CH2 OCH3 Methoxy ethane
CH3 CH2 OCH2 CH3 Ethoxy ethane
CH3 CH2 CH2 OCH2 CH3 Ethoxy propane

Carboxylic acids
 IUPAC name for carboxylic acids is alkanoic acids

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 General formula for alkanoic acids is CnH2n+1COOH or R – COOH

 The secondary suffix for alkanoic acids is “oic acid”
 IUPAC name of some alkanoic acids are given below.

Formula IUPAC name

HCOOH Methanoic acid
CH3 COOH Ethanoic acid
C2H5 COOH Propanoic acid
C3H7COOH Butanoic acid
C4H9COOH Pentanoic acid

Acid Chlorides
 IUPAC name for acid chlorides is alkanoyl chlorides
 General formula for alkanoyl chlorides is CnH2n+1 COCl or RCOCl
 The secondary suffix for alkanoyl chloride is “oyl chloride”
 IUPAC name for some alkanoyl chlorides are given below.

Formula IUPAC name

HCO Cl Methanoyl chloride
CH3 COCl Ethanoyl chloride
C2H5COCl Propanoyl chloride
C3H7COCl Butanoyl chloride

Alkyl halides
 IUPAC name for alkyl halides is halo alkanes
 General formula for halo alkanes is CnH2n+1 X
 The secondary prefix for halo alkanes is Halo
 IUPAC name for some halo alkanes are given below.

Formula IUPAC name

CH3 Cl Chloro methane
C2H5 Br Bromo ethane
C3H7 I Iodo propane

Esters
 The IUPAC name for esters is alkyl alkanoate
 General formula for esters is CnH2n+1 COOCnH2n+1 or R – COOR1
 The secondary prefix is “alkyl”
 The secondary suffix is “oate”
 IUPAC name for some esters are given below.

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Formula IUPAC name

CH3COOCH3 Methyl ethanoate
CH3COOC2H5 Ethyl ethanoate
C2H5COOC3H7 Propyl propanoate
CH3COOC3H7 Propyl ethanoate
C3H7COOC4H9 Butyl butanoate

Amides
 The IUPAC name for amides is Alkanamides
 General formula for amides is CnH2n+1 CONH2 or RCONH2
 Secondary suffix for alkanamides is “amide”
 IUPAC name for some amides are given below.

Formula IUPAC name

CH3CONH2 Ethanamide
C2H5CONH2 Propanamide
C3H7CONH2 Butanamide
C4H9CONH2 Pentanamide
Amines
 The IUPAC name for amines is alkanamines
 General formula for amines is CnH2n+1 NH2 or RNH2
 Secondary suffix for alkanamines is “amine”
 IUPAC name for some amines are given below.

Formula IUPAC name

CH3NH2 Methanamine
C2H5NH2 Ethanamine
C3H7NH2 Propanamine
C4H9NH2 Butanamine
Nitro alkanes
 General formula for nitro alkanes is CnH2n+1 NO2 or RNO2
 Secondary prefix for nitro alkanes is “nitro”
 IUPAC name for some nitro alkanes are given below.

Formula IUPAC name

CH3NO2 Nitro Methane
C2H5NO2 Nitro Ethane
C3H7NO2 Nitro Propane
C4H9NO2 Nitro Butane

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Alkyl cyanides
 IUPAC name for alkyl cyanides is Alkanenitriles
 General formula for alkanenitriles is CnH2n+1 CN or RCN
 Secondary suffix for alkanenitriles is “nitrile”
 IUPAC name for some alkyl cyanides are given below.

Formula IUPAC name

CH3CN Methane nitrile
C2H5CN Ethane nitrile
C3H7CN Propane nitrile
C4H9CN Butane nitrile
EXERCISE

1. The formula for hexane is:

A. C6H6
B. C6H12
C. C6H10
D. C6H14
2. The IUPAC name of C7 H15 OH is:
A. Heptanol
B. Heptanal
C. Heptane
D. Heptane
3. The functional group present in alkanols is:
A. – O –
B. = O
C. – OH
D. – H

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4. The IUPAC name of C6H13CHO is:

A. Hexanal
B. Hexanol
C. Heptanol
D. Heptanal
5. Formula of octanoic acid is:
A. C5H13COOH
B. C4H9COOH
C. C2H5COOH
D. C7H15COOH
6. The functional group present in carboxylic acids is:
A. – OH
B. – COOH
C. – CONH2
D. –COOR
7. IUPAC name of CH3CHO is:
A. Acetaldehyde
B. Methyl aldehyde
C. Ethanol
D. Ethanal
8. IUPAC name of CH3 – O – C2H5 is:
A. Ethoxymethane
B. Methaoxyethane
C. Methylethyl ether
D. Ethylmethyl ether
9. The IUPAC name of CH3CH2COCH2CH3 is:
A. 3-pentanone
B. 2-pentanone
C. Diethyl ketone
D. All the above

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10. The IUPAC name of C7 H15 OH is:

A. Heptanol
B. Heptanal
C. Heptane
D. Heptene
11. Write the IUPAC name of CH3CH2COOH
A. Ethyl formic acid
B. Ethyl carboxylic acid
C. Ethane methanoic acid
D. Propanoic acid
12. The IUPAC name of CH3COOC2H5 will be:
A. Ethyl acetate
B. Ethyl ethanoate
C. Methyl propanoate
D. None of these
13. The IUPAC name of C6H5COCl is:
A. Benzoyl chloride
B. Benzene chloro ketone
C. Benzene carbonyl chloride
D. Chloro phenyl ketone
14. The formula for octanoyl chloride is:
A. C6H13COCl
B. C5H11COCl
C. C4H9COCl
D. C7H15COCl
15. The IUPAC name of CH3C  N is:
A. Acetonitrile
B. Ethanenitrile
C. Methyl cyanide
D. Cyanoethane

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MATHS

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PROGRESSIONS
CONCEPT-I
 A progression is a sequence whose terms follow a certain pattern i.e. the terms are
arranged under a definite rule.
Example: 1,3,5,7,9,…. Is a progression whose terms are obtained by the rule: Tn=2n-1,
where Tn denotes the nth term of the progression.
 Progression is mainly three types.
(1) Arithmetic progression
(2) Geometric progression
(3) Harmonic progression
ARITHMETIC PROGRESSION(A.P.)
 A sequence of number <tn> is said to be in arithmetic progression when the difference
tn-tn-1 is a constant for all n N. This constant is called the common difference of the A.P.
and is usually denoted by the letter d.
 If ‘a’ is the first term and ‘d’ is the common difference, then an A.P. can be represented
as a, a+d, a+2d, a+3d,…………..
Example: The sequence is
√ √ √ √
A. H.P
B. G.P
C. A.P
D. None of these

Solution: In the above series t2-t1 =

√ √ √

t3-t2 =
√ √ √

since, t2-t1 = t3-t2 = , the series is A.P.

√

 General term of an A.P.: Let ‘a’ be the first term and ‘d’ be the common difference of an
A.P. having n terms. Then the nth term of the A.P. is given by tn= a + (n-1)d.
Example: If the 9th term of an A.P. be zero, then the ratio of its 29th and 19th term is
A. : 2
B. 2 : 1
C. 1 : 3
D. 3 : 1

Solution: Given that 9th term = 0 ⇒ a+(9-1)d = 0 ⇒ a+8d = 0

Now ratio of 29th and 19th terms =

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 Sum of n terms of an A.P.: The sum of n terms of the series a, a+d, a+2d,…….+a+(n-1)d
is given by Sn = [2a + (n-1)d].
Also, Sn = [a + ], where is the last term = a+(n-1)d.
Example: The sum of the first four terms of an A.P. is 56. The sum of the last four terms
is 112. If the first term is 11, the number of terms is
A. 10
B. 11
C. 12
D. None of these
Solution: Given that sum of the four terms = 112
Given first term = 11
11 + (11+d) + (11+2d)+(11+3d) = 56⇒d = 2
And [11+(n-1)2] +[11+(n-2)2]+ [11+(n-3)2]+ [11+(n-4)2] = 112⇒n = 11
 Arithmetic mean:
(1) If a, A, b are in A.P., then A is called Arithmetic Mean between a and b.
(2) If a, A1, A2, A3………… An,b are in A.P., then A1, A2, A3………… An are called n A.M’s
between a and b.
(3) If a and b are two real numbers then single A.M between a and b =
(4) If A1, A2, A3………… An are n A.M’s between a and b then
A1 = a +d = a +
A2 = a +2d = a +2
……………………..
An = a +nd = a +n
Example: The sum of n arithmetic means between a and b is
A. n(a+b)/2
B. n(a+b)
C. (n+1)(a+b)/2
D. (n+1)(a+b)

Solution: If n arithmetic means between a and b then the common difference is

Sum of n arithmetic means between a and b = [2A1+(n-1)d]= [2(a+ +(n-1) ]

= [a+b]

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ASSESSMENT-I
1. If mth terms of the series 63+65+67+69+……and 3+10+17+24+…. be equal, then m=
A. 11
B. 12
C. 13
D. 15
2. If twice the 11th term of an A.P is equal to 7 times of its 21 st term, then its 25th term is
equal to
A. 24
B. 120
C. 0
D. None of these
3. If p times the pth term of an A.P is equal to q times the qth termof an A.P., then (p+q)th
tern is
A. 0
B. 1
C. 2
D. 3
4. The sum of n terms of two arithmetic series are in the ratio 2n+3 : 6n+5, then the ratio
of their 13th terms is
A. 53 : 155
B. 27 : 77
C. 29 : 83
D. 31 : 89
5. Let Tr be the rth term of an A.P for r=1,2,3,…. If for some positive integer m,n we have
Tm = 1/n and Tn = 1/n, then Tmn =
A. 1/mn
B. 1/m + 1/n
C. 1
D. 0
6. The first term of an AP is 2 and common difference is 4. The sum of its 40 terms will
be
A. 3200
B. 1600
C. 200
D. 2800
7. If n be odd or even, then the sum of n terms of the series 1-2+3-4+5-6+…..will be
A. –n/2
B. (n-1)/2
C. (n+1)/2
D. (2n+1)/2

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8. The ratio of the sums of first n even numbers and n odd numbers will be
A. 1 : n
B. (n+1) : 1
C. (n+1) : n
D. (n-1) : 1
9. If the sum of the series 2+5+8+11+……is 60100, then the number of terms are
A. 100
B. 200
C. 150
D. 250
10. If the sum of n terms of an A.P is 2n2+5n, then the nth term will be
A. 4n+3
B. 4n+5
C. 4n+6
D. 4n+7
11. Six numbers are in A.P such that their sum is 3. The first term is 4 times the third
term. Then the fifth term is
A. -15
B. -3
C. 9
D. -4
12. In an A.P., the first term is 2 and the sum of first terms is 5. Then the 31 st term is
A. -13
B. 13
C. 17
D. 27/2
13. The sum of the integers from 1 to 100 which are not divisible by 3 or 5 is
A. 2489
B. 4735
C. 2317
D. 2632
14. The sum of the first and third of an arithmetic progression is 12 and the product of
first and second term is 24, then first term is
A. 1
B. 8
C. 4
D. 6

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15. If the sum of the first 2n terms of A.P. 2,5,8,…..is equal to the sum of the first n terms
of A.P. 57, 59, 61,……then n is equal to
A. 10
B. 12
C. 11
D. 13
16. The sum of numbers from 250 to 1000 which are divisible by 3 is
A. 135657
B. 136557
C. 161575
D. 156375
17. 7th term of an A.P is 40, then the sum of first 13 terms is
A. 53
B. 520
C. 1040
D. 2080
18. If sum of n terms of an A.P. is 3n2+5n and T+m+ = 164 then m=
A. 26
B. 27
C. 28
D. None of these
19. Let Sn denotes the sum of n terms of an A.P. If S2n =3Sn then ratio S3n/Sn =
A. 4
B. 6
C. 8
D. 10
20. The number of terms of the A.P. 3,7,11,15,…to be taken so that the sum is 406 is
A. 5
B. 10
C. 12
D. 14
21. There are 15 terms in an arithmetic progression. Its first term is 5 and their sum is
390. The middle term is
A. 23
B. 26
C. 29
D. 32

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22. If = 7, then the value of n is

A. 35
B. 36
C. 37
D. 40
23. The mean of the series a, a+nd, a+2nd is
A. a+(n-1)d
B. a+nd
C. a+(n+1)d
D. None of these
24. If f(x+y, x-y)=xy, then the arithmetic mean of f(x,y) and f(y,x) is
A. x
B. y
C. 0
D. 1
25. The first four terms of an A.P. are a ,9, 3a-b, 3a+b. The 2011th term of the A.P. is
A. 2015
B. 4025
C. 5030
D. 8035

PROGRESSIONS
CONCEPT-II
GEOMETRIC PROGRESSION

 A progression is called a G.P. if the ratio of its each term to its previous term is always
constant. This constant ratio is called its common ratio and it is generally denoted by r.
 If a,b,c are in G.P. then .
 If the first term of a G.P be ‘a’ and the common ratio be ‘r’ then the G.P is a, ar,
ar2,ar3,……
 The general term of a G.P is Tn = a(r)n-1
 Pth term from the end of a finite G.P is Tn(1/r)p-1

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Example: The 6th term of a G.P is 32 and its 8th term is 128, then the common ratio of
the G.P is:
A. -1
B. 2
C. 4
D. -4

Solution: T6 of a G.P = 32⇒ ar5 = 32 and T8 of a G.P = 128⇒ ar7 = 128

Therefore, ⇒ ⇒

 Sum of first ‘n’ terms of a G.P.: If a be the first term, r the common ratio, then sum S n of
first n terms of a G.P is given by
(
when | |<1
(
when | |>1

when 1

 Sum of infinite terms of a G.P.: If a be the first term, r the common ratio, then the sum
of infinte terms of a G.P is given by
when | |<1 or (-1<r<1)
If
 Geometric Mean:
(1) If a, G, b are in G.P., then G is called G.M. between a and b.
(2) If a, G1, G2, G3,… Gn,b are in G.P. then G1, G2, G3,… Gn are called n G.M’s between a
and b.
(3) If a and b are two real numbers then single G.M. between a and b=√

(4) If n geometric means placed between a and b then the common ratio is ( )

ASSESSMENT-II
1. If the 4th , 7th and 10th terms of a G.P. be a,b,c respectively, then the relation between
a,b,c is
A. b = (a+c)/2
B. a2 = bc
C. b2 = ac
D. c2 = ab

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2. If x, 2x+2, 3x+3 are in G.P., then the fourth term is

A. 27
B. -27
C. 13.5
D. -13.5
3. If x,y,z are in G.P. and ax=by=cz, then
A. logac = logba
B. logba = logcb
C. logcb = logac
D. none of these
4. If pth, qth and rth term of a G.P. are a,b,c respectively, then aq-r.br-p.cp-q is equal to
A. 0
B. 1
C. abc
D. pqr
5. If the third term of a G.P. is 4 then the product of its first 5 terms is
A. 43
B. 44
C. 45
D. None of these
6. The value of is equal to A.
B. -
C. 1-
D. 0

7. If the roots of the cubic equation ax3+bx2+cx+d=0 are in G.P., then

A. c3a = b3d
B. ca3 = bd3
C. a3b = c3d
D. ab3 = cd3
8. If the nth term of geometric progression 5, -5/2,5/4,-5/8,… is 5/1024, then the value of
n is
A. 11
B. 10
C. 9
D. 4

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9. The third term of a G.P. is the square of first term. If the second term is 8, then the 6th
term is
A. 120
B. 124
C. 128
D. 132
10. Fifth term of a G.P. is 2, then the product of its 9 terms is
A. 256
B. 512
C. 1024
D. None of these
11. If the sum of an infinite G.P. be 9 and the sum of first two terms be 5, then the
common ratio is
A. 1/3
B. 3/2
C. 3/4
D. 2/3
12. If a1,a2,a3..a50 are in G.P., then
A. 0
B. 1
C. a1/a2
D. a25/a24
13. If the sum of three terms of G.P. is 19 and product is 216, then the common ratio of
the series is
A. -3/2
B. 3/2
C. 2
D. 3
14. If every term of a G.P. with positive terms is gteh sum of its two previous terms, then
the common ratio of the series is
A. 1
B. 2/√
√
C.
√
D.

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15. The sum of first two terms of a G.P. is 1 and every term of this series is twice of its
previous term, then the first term will be
A. 1/4
B. 1/3
C. 2/3
D. 3/4
16. If the sum of n terms of a G.P. is 255 and n th terms is 128 and common ratio is 2, then
first term will be
A. 1
B. 3
C. 7
D. None of these
17. If the sum of first 6 terms is 9 times to the sum of first 3 terms of the same G.P. then
the common ratio of the series will be
A. -2
B. 2
C. 1
D. ½
18. If in a geometric progression {an}, a1 =3, an=96 and Sn=189 then the value of n is
A. 5
B. 6
C. 7
D. 8
19. The sum of few terms of any ratio series is 728,if common ratio is 3 and last term is
486, then first term of series will be
A. 2
B. 1
C. 3
D. 4
20. Three numbers are in G.P. such that their sum is 38 and their product is 1728. The
greatest number among them is
A. 18
B. 16
C. 14
D. None of these
21. Geometric mean of 7, 72, 73,…….7n is
A.
B.

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C.
D. None of these
22. The first term of a G.P is 7, the last term is 448 and sum of all terms is 889, then the
common ratio is
A. 5
B. 4
C. 3
D. 2
23. The sum of a G.P. with common ratio 3 is 364, and last term is 243, then the number
of terms is
A. 6
B. 5
C. 4
D. 10
24. If 64, 27, 36 are the pth, qth and rth terms of a G.P. then p+2q is equal to
A. r
B. 2r
C. 3r
D. 4r
25. Six positive numbers are in G.P. such that their product is 1000. If the fourth term is 1,
then the last term is
A. 1000
B. 100
C. 1/100
D. 1/1000

PROGRESSIONS
CONCEPT-III
HARMONIC PROGRESSION
 A progression is called a harmonic progression (H.P.) if the reciprocal of its terms are in
A.P.
 Standard form of H.P. =
 General term of H.P. is Tn = (

 Three terms a,b,c are in H.P. iff

 H.M between a and b =

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 If A,G,H are A.M, G.M and H.M of two numbers respectively then G2=A.H or A,G,H are in
G.P.
SPECIAL SERIES
(
 Sum of first n natural numbers ∑ = .
( (
 Sum of the squares of first n natural numbers ∑ = .
( (
 Sum of the cubes of first n natural numbers ∑ = ( ) (∑ .
 Sum of the first n even numbers = n(n+1)
 Sum of the first n odd numbers = n2

ASSESSMENT-III
1. Which number should be added to the numbers 13,15,19 so that the resulting
numbers be the conservative terms of a H.P.
A. 7
B. 6
C. -6
D. -7
2. If x,y,z are in H.P., then the value of expression log(x+z) +log(x-2y+z) will be
A. log(x-z)
B. 2log(x-z)
C. 3log(x-z)
D. 4log(x-z)
3. If a,b,c,d are in H.P., then
A. a+d > b+c
B. ad > bc
C. Both A & B
D. None of these
4. If a,b,c are three distinct positive real numbers which are in H.P., then is
A. Greater than or equal to 10
B. Less than or equal to 10
C. Only equal to 10
D. Greater than 10
5. Five numbers are in H.P. The middle term is 1 and the ratio of the second and the
fourth terms is 2:1. Then the sum of the first three term is
A. 11/2
B. 5

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C. 2
D. 14/3
6. If the arithmetic, geometric and harmonic means between two distinct positive real
numbers be A,G and H respectively, then the relation between them is
A. A>G>H
B. A>G<H
C. H>G>A
D. G>A>H
7. If a,b,c are in A.P., then a/bc, 1/c, 2/b are in
A. A.P.
B. G.P.
C. H.P.
D. None of these
8. If the roots of a(b-c)x2 + b(c-a)x +c(a-b)=0 be equal, then a,b,c are in
A. A.P.
B. G.P.
C. H.P.
D. None of these
9. If b2, a2,c2 are in AP, then a+b, b+c, c+a will be in
A. A.P.
B. G.P.
C. H.P.
D. None of these
10. If three numbers be in G.P., then their logarithms will be in
A. A.P.
B. G.P.
C. H.P.
D. None of these
11. If the pth, qth, rth and sth terms of an A.P. be in G.P., then (p-q)(q-r)(r-s) will be in
A. G.P.
B. A.P.
C. H.P.
D. None of these
12. If then a,b,c are in
A. A.P.
B. G.P.
C. H.P.
D. Both B&C

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13. If a,b,c are in G.P. and x,y are in arithmetic means between a,b and c respectively,
then is equal to
A. 0
B. 1
C. 2
D. ½
14. If a,b,c are in A.P and a,b,d inG.P. then a, a-b, d-c will be in
A. A.P.
B. G.P.
C. H.P.
D. None of these
15. If a2, b2, c2 are in A.P., then (b+c)-1, (c+a)-1 and (a+b)-1 will be in
A. H.P.
B. G.P.
C. A.P.
D. None of these
16. If a,b,c are in A.P., then 1/bc, 1/ca,1/ab will be in
A. A.P.
B. G.P.
C. H.P.
D. None of these
17. If a,b,c are in A.P.,b,c,d are in G.P and c,d,e are in H.P, then a,c,e are in
A. No particular order
B. A.P.
C. G.P.
D. H.P.
18. Given ax=by=cz=dw and a,b,c,d are in G.P., then s,y,z,u are in
A. A.P.
B. G.P.
C. H.P.
D. None of these
19. If p,q,r are in G.P. and tan-1p, tan-1q, tan-1r are in A.P. then p,q,r are satisfies the
relation
A. p=q=r
B. p
C. p+q=r
D. None of these

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20. If a,b,c are in A.P., then 3a, 3b,3c shall be in

A. A.P.
B. G.P.
C. H.P.
D. None of these
21. The sum of (n-1) terms of 1+(1+3)+(1+3+5)+….is
( (
A.
(
B.
( (
C.
D.
22. The sum of n terms of the series whose nth term is n(n+1) is equal to
( (
A.
( ( (
B.
C. (
D. ( ( )
23. equal to
(

A. (
B. (

C. (

D. (
24. The sum of the series 3.6+4.7+5.8+….upto (n-2) terms
A. n3+n2+n+2
B. (2n3+12n2+10n-84)
C. n3+n2+n
D. None of these
25. ∑ ∑ ∑ is equal to
( (
A.
(
B. ( )
(
C.
( (
D.

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TRIGONOMETRY
CONCEPT-I
INTRODUCTION
 TRIGONOMETRIC FORMULAE: The word ‘Trigonometry’ is derived from two Greek words
(1) Trigonon and (2) Metron
The word trigonon means a triangle and the word metron means a measurement.
Hence, trigonometry means the science of measuring triangles.
 SYSTEM OF MEASUREMENT OF AN ANGLES
There are three systems for measuring angles:
(i) Sexagesimal or English system
(ii) Centesimal or French system
(iii) Circular system
Example 1: Express 45°20’ 10’’ in radian measure (  = 3.1415)
 
10  10   1 
Solution: 10’’ = min     
60  60  60   360 
 
 20   1 
20'      
 60   3 
0
 1 1  16200  1  120 16321
4520'10''   45     
 360 3  360 360

 16321  16321 
Now     rad
 360  360 180
16321 3.1416 51274.054
    0.79rad
360 180 64800
Example 2: Express 1.2 rad in degree measure.

 180  180  7
Solution: ( 1.2)R = 1.2 ×    1.2 
   22

 22 
   7 (approx)

= 68.7272 = 68° ( 0.7272 × 60)’ = 68° ( 43.63)’

= 68° 43’ (0.63 × 60)’’ = 68° ( 43’ 37.8’’)

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 RELATION BETWEEN SEXAGESIMAL AND CENTESIMAL SYSTEMS

One right angle = 90° (degree system) …..(i)
One right angle = 100g ( grade system) ….(ii)
g 
 10   9 
Then, we can say, 1° =   ,1g   
 9   10 
 CIRCULAR SYSTEM: In circular system, the unit of measurement is radian. One radian,
written as 1°.

 180 
One radian =   ,
  
 RELATION BETWEEN SYSTEM OF MEASUREMENT OF ANGLES
D G 2C
 
90 100 
EXAMPLE -1 : Find in degrees the angle subtended at the centre of a circle of diameter 50
cm by an arc of length 11 cm.
Solution: Here r = 25 cm and s = 11 cm. Therefore.
R
s
  
r
R 
 11   11 180 
Or        
 25   25  

 11 180 
  7
 25 22 

 126   1  1 
    25   25   60  = 25°12’
 5   5 5 
 RELATIONS BETWEEN TRIGONOMETRICAL RATIOS
(i) sin2  cos2   1
(ii) 1 + tan2  =sec2 
(iii) 1+cot2  =cosec2 
EXAMPLE 1 Prove the following identities:
(i) cot4  + cot2  = cosec4   cosec2 
Solution: LHS = cot4  +cot2  =(cot2  )2+cot2 
= (cosec2   1)2 + (cosec2   1) [ 1  cot2   cos ec2 )

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= cosec4   2cosec2  + 1 + cosec2   1 = cosec4   cosec2  =RHS

EXAMPLE 2 If cos  + sin  = 2 cos  = 2 cos  , prove that cos   sin 

= 2 sin  .
Solution: We have,
cos  + sin  = 2 cos 

 (cos  + sin  )2 = ( 2 cos  )2

 cos2  + sin 2  + 2 sin  cos  = 2 cos2 
 cos2   sin2  = 2 sin  cos 
 (cos  + sin  ) (cos   sin  ) = 2 sin  cos 
2sin cos
 cos   sin  =
cos  sin
2sin cos
 cos   sin  =  cos  sin  2 cos 
2  

 cos   sin  = 2 sin 

 SIGN OF TRIGONOMETRIC RATIOS
Y-axis

(sin  &
cos  +ve) All + ve

II nd Quadrant I st Quadrant
X-axis
III rd Quadrant IVth Quadrant
(tan  & (cos  &
cot  +ve)
sec  are +ve)

12
EXAMPLE 1: Find sin  and tan  if cos  = - and  lies in the third quadrant.
13
Solution: We have,

Cos2  + sin2  = 1  sin  =  1  cos2 

In third quadrant sin  is negative.

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2
 12  5
 sin  =  1  cos   sin   1      
2

 13  13
sin 5 13 5
Now, tan   tan    
cos 13 12 12
3 3
EXAMPLE 2: Find the values of cos  and tan  if sin    and     .
5 2
Solution: We have,

Cos2  + sin2  = 1  cos  =  1  sin2 

In the third quadrant cos  is negative and tan  is positive.

9 4
cos   1  sin2   cos   1  
25 5
sin 3 5 3
And, tan   tan     
cos 5 4 4
EXAMPLE 3: Show that tan 1° tan 2°….tan 89° = 1.
Solution: L.H.S. = (tan 1° tan 89°) tan2°tan88°)….(tan44° tan 46°) tan 45°.
= [tan1° tan ( 90°  1°)] [tan 2° tan ( 90°  2°)+ …*tan 44°tan (90°  44°)] tan 45°
= ( tan 1° cot 1°) ( tan 2° cot 2°)…. (tan 44° cot 44°) tan 45°
=1 [ tan  cot  = 1 and tan 45° = 1 ]
= R. H. S.
 DOMAIN AND RANGE OF A TRIGONOMETRICAL FUNCTION
If f : X  Y is a function, defined on the set X, then the domain of the function f,
written as domain is the set of all independent variables x, for which the image f (x) is
well-defined element of Y, called the codomain of f.
Range of f : X  Y is the set of all images f (x) which belong to Y, i.e.
Range f = { f (x)  Y : x  X}  Y
The domain and range of trigonometrical functions are tabulated as follows:
Trigonometric functions Domain Range
sin x R, the set of all the real numbers  1  sin x  1
Cos x R  1  cos x  1
Tan x   
R  (2n  1) , n  l  R
 2 
Cosec x R  {n  , n  l } R  {x:  1< x < 1}

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Sec x   
R  (2n  1) , n  l  R  {x:  1< x < 1}
 2 
Cot x R  {n  , n  l } R

 Trigonometrical Ratios of Standard Angles

Angle
 0° 30° 45° 60° 90° 120° 135° 150° 180°
Ratio 
sin 0 1 1 3 1 3 1 1 0
2 2 2 2 2 2
cos 1 3 1 1 0 1 1 3 1
  
2 2 2 2 2 2
Tan 0 1 1 3   3 1 1 0

3 3
Cot  3 1 1 0 1 1  3 

3 3
Sec 1 2 2 2  2  2 2 1

3 3
Cosec  2 2 2 1 2 2 2 
3 3

 Trigonometrical Ratio of Allied Angles

       3 3 2   2   
   
2 2 2 2
Sin cos  cos  sin   sin   cos   cos   sin  sin   sin 
Cos sin   sin   cos   cos   sin  sin  cos  cos  cos 
Tan cot   cot   tan  tan  cot   cot   tan  tan   tan 
Cot tan   tan   cot  cot  tan   tan   cot  cot   cot 
Sec Cosec  cosec  sec  sec  cosec Cosec  Cosec  sec sec

Cosec sec sec Cosec   cosec  sec  sec  cosec Cosec   cosec

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ASSESSMENT-I
1. Two arcs of same length of two different circles subtended angles of 250 and 300 at
their centres respectively. The ratio of the radii of the circle is
A. 5 : 6
B. 6 : 5
C. 5 : 11
D. None
2. The angles of a triangle are in A.P. and the radian measure of the smallest to the
degree measure of the mean is as  : 200. The greater angle in grades is
A.
B.
C. 120g
D. None
3. Cos 50 + cos 240 + cos 1750 + cos 2040 + cos 3000 =
A. 0
B. 1
C. – 1
D. 1/2
4. Cos 10 + cos 20 + cos 30 + . . . + cos 1790 =
A. 0
B. 1
C. – 1
D. 89
5. tan 100. tan 200. tan 300. tan 400. tan 500. tan 600 tan 700. tan 800 =
A. 0
B. 1
C. – 1
D. 2
6. cot . cot . cot . cot . Cot =
A. – 1
B. 1
C. 0
D. 2
7. Sin2 10 + sin2 20 + sin2 30 + . . . + sin2 1800 =
A. 0
B. 1

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C. 90
D. 89
8. Sin 1200 cos 1500 – cos 2400 sin 3300 =
A. 1
B. – 1
C.
√
D. ( )
9. ∑ (( )=
A. 0
B. 1/2
C. – 1/2
D. 3/2
10. In a  ABC, cos ( ) ( )
A. – 1
B. 0
C. 1
D. 2
11. If, A, B, C, D are the angles of a cyclic quadrilateral, then cos A + cos B + cos C + cos D =
A. 4
B. 1
C. 0
D. – 1
( ) ( ) (
12. ( ) ( ) ( )
A. √
B. √
C. 2/√
D. 4/√
13. If tan 200 = , then

A.


B. 

C. 

D. 
14. If ,  are complementary angles, then sin2  + sin2 =
A. 1
B. – 1

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C. 2
D. 0
15. If ,  are supplementary angles, then sin2  + cos2  =
A. 1
B. – 1
C. 2
D. 0
16. If x = sin 1, y = sin10 then
A. x = y
B. x < y
C. x > y
D. none
17. If tan  = - 4/3 then sin  =
A. – 4/5 but not 4/5
B. – 4/5 or 4/5
C. 4/5 but no – 4/5
D. None
18. If 1800 <  < 2700 and sin  = - 5/13 then 5 cot2  + 12 tan  + 13 cosec  =
A. 0
B. – 1
C. 1
D. 2
19. If  is acute and (1 – a2) sin  = (1 + a2) cos , then sin  =
A.
√ (

B.
√ (
√ (
C.
√ (
D.
20. If  lies in the first quadrant and 5 tan  = 4, then
A. 5/14
B. 3/14
C. 1/14
D. 0

21. If cot  = √ and  does not lie in the first quadrant, then =
A. 4/3
B. 3/4
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C. – 4/3
D. – 3/4
( ) (
22. If tan  = and  is not in the fourth quadrant then ( ) (

A.
B.
C.
D.
23. If sin ( + ) = 1, sin ( - ) = ½ then tan ( + 2) tan (2 + ) =
A. 1
B. – 1
C. 0
D. None
24. (sec A + tan A – 1) (sec A – tan A + 1) =
A. 2 sin A
B. 2 cos A
C. 2 sec A
D. 2 tan A
25. 2 (sin6 x + cos6 x) – 3 (sin4 x + sin2 x) + 1 =
A. 0
B. – 1
C. 1
D. 2
26. a sin2  + b cos2  = c ⇒ tan2  =
A.
B.
C.
D.
27. If (sin  + cosec )2 + (cos  + sec )2 = k + tan2  + cot2  then k =
A. 9
B. 7
C. 5
D. 3
28.
A.
B.

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C.
D.

29. Cot2 ( ) + sec2 ( )

A. 0
B. 1
C. – 1
D. 2
30. If cos  - sin  = √ sin  then cos  + sin  =
A. 0
B.  √ cos 
C.  √ sin 
D. 1
TRIGONOMETRY
CONCEPT-II
COMPOUND ANGLES
1. sin ( A + B) = sin A cos B + cos A sin B
2. sin ( A  B) = sin A cos B  cos A sin B
3. cos ( A + B) = cos A cos B  sin A sin B
4. cos ( A  B) = cos A cos B + sin A sin B
tan A  tan B
5. tan ( A + B) =
1  tan A tan B
tan A  tan B
tan ( A  B)=
1  tan A tan B
  1  tan 
6. tan     
4  1  tan 
  1  tan 
tan     
4  1  tan 
cot A cot B  1
7. cot (A + B)=
cot A  cot B
cot A cot B  1
8. cot ( A  B) 
cot B  cot A
9. sin ( A + B) sin ( A  B) = sin2A = cos2B  cos2A
10. cos (A + B) cos ( A  B) = cos2A  sin2B = cos2B  sin2A
11. sin(A+B+C) =∑(
12. cos(A+B+C) = cosAcosBcosC - ∑(

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13. tan(A+B+C) =

 The values of trigonometric functions of some standard angles

150 22.50 67.50 750
sin √ √
√ √
√ √
√ √
√ √
cos √ √
√ √
√ √
√ √
√ √
tan 2-√ √ √ 2+√

ASSESSMENT – II
1. tan 150 + tan 750 =
A. 1
B. 2
C. 3
D. 4
2. sin2 450 – sin 150 =
A. 0
B. 1/√
C. √ /2
D. √ /4
3. cosec 150 + sec 150 =
A. 2√
B. √
C. 2√
D. √ + √
4. Cos2 52 – sin2 22
√
A.
√
√
B.
√
√
C.
√
√
D.
√

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5. Cos2 ( ) – sin2 ( ) =
A. cos 2
B. 0
C. cos 2
D. – 1
6. Cos  . sin( – ) + cos . Sin ( – ) + cos . Sin ( – ) =
A. 0
B. 1/2
C. 1
D. 4 cos  cos  cos 
7. tan 5x – tan 3x – tan 2x =
A. tan 5x tan 3x tan 2x
B. sin 5x sin 3x sin 2x
C. cos 5x cos 3x cos 2x
D. None
8. tan 2030 + tan 220 + tan2030 tan 220 =
A. – 1
B. 0
C. 1
D. 2
9.
A. 0
B. 1
C. 2
D. 3
10. Sin2  + cos2 ( + ) + 2 sin . Sin  cos ( + ) =
A. sin2 
B. sin2 
C. cos2 
D. cos2 
11. If sin ( + ) = cos ( + ), then tan  =

A. 

B. 

C.


D. 

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12. If cot ( + ) = 0, then sin ( +2 ) is equal to

A. Sin 
B. Cos 2 
C. Cos 
D. Sin 
13. If tan (/4 + ) + tan (/4 - ) = 3, then tan2 (/4 + ) + tan2 (/4 - ) =
A. 6
B. 4
C. 7
D. 5
14. If tan * + + tan * + = a then tan3 * + + tan3 * +=
A. 0
B. a
C. 3a
D. a3 – 3a
15. If tan 200 = p, then
A.

B.

C.
D.
16. If A + B = 450 then (1 + tan A) (1 + tan B) =
A. 0
B. 1
C. – 1
D. 2
17. If A + B = 2250, then =
A. 0
B. 1/2
C. 1/4
D. 3/4
18. If  -  = 3/4 then (1 – tan ) (1 + tan ) =
A. 0
B. 1
C. – 1
D. 2

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19. If A, B are acute angles, sin A = 4/5, tan B = 5/12, then cos (A – B) =
A.
B.
C.
D.
20. If A, B are acute angles, tan A = , tan B = , then A + B =
A. /2
B. /3
C. /4
D. /5
21. If cos A = 3/5, sin B = 7/25 and 900 <A <1800, 00 <B < 900, then tan (A + B)=
A. 3/4
B. – 3/4
C. 3/5
D. – 3/5
22. If cos  = - 12/13, cot  = 24/7, 900 <  < 1800 <  < 2700, then the quadrant in which 
+  lies
A. I
B. II
C. III
D. IV
23. If 0 < ,  < /4, cos ( + ) = 4/5, sin ( - ) = 5/13 then tan 2 =
A. 33/56
B. 56/33
C. 16/63
D. None
24. If cos (A – B) = 3/5 and tan A tan B = 2, then which one of the following is true?
A. Sin (A – B) = 1/5
B. Sin (A + B) = - 1/5
C. Cos (A – B) = 1/5
D. Cos (A + B) = - 1/5

25. If tan  = then tan ( - ) =
( 
A. (1 + n) tan 
B. (1 – n) tan 
C. – (1+ n) tan 
D. – (1 – n) tan 

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26. If x = tan A – tan B, y = cot B – cot A then + =

A. cot (A – B)
B. cot (B – A)
C. tan (A – B)
D. tan (B – A)
27. If tan A + tan B = p and cot A + cot B = q then cot (A + B) =
A.
B.
C.
D.
28. If sin A sin B sin C = p, cos A cos B cos C = q then the cubic equation having roots tan A,
tan B, tan C is
A. qx3 + px2 + qx + p = 0
B. qx3 – px2 + qx – p = 0
C. qx3 + px2 + (q + 1) x + p = 0
D. qx3 – px2 + (q + 1) x – p = 0
29. If tan  = 2 sin  sin  cosec ( + ), then cot , cot  and cot  are in
A. A. P.
B. G.P.
C. H.P.
D. None
30. If √ cos A = cos B + cos3 B, √ sin A = sin B – sin3 B then sin (A – B) =
A. 
B. 
√
C. 
√
D. 

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TRIGONOMETRY
CONCEPT-III
MULTIPLES AND SUBMULTIPLE ANGLES
2 tan 
1. sin 2  = 2 sin  cos  =
(1  tan 2  )
(cos A  sin A) 2 = 1  sin 2A
(1  tan 2  )
2. Cos2  = cos2   sin2  = =1  2sin2  = 2 cos2   1
(1  tan  )
2

2 tan 
3. tan 2  
1  tan 2 
(1  cos  )  (1  cos ) 
 tan  cot
sin  2 sin  2
(1  cos  )  (1  cos ) 
 tan 2  cot 2
(1  cos  ) 2 (1  cos  ) 2
√
4. sin
√
5. cos

6. tan √
7. sin 3A = 3 sin A  4 sin3 A
8. cos3A = 4 cos3 A  3 cos A
9. tan3A =

The values of trigonometric functions of some standard angles

180 360 540 720
sin √ √
√ √ √ √
√ √

cos √ √
√ √ √ √
√ √

tan
√ √ √ √ √ √ √ √

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ASSESSMENT – III

1. =
A. Sin 
B. Cos 
C. Tan 
D. Cot 
 
2.  
A. Tan /2
B. Cot /2
C. Tan 
D. Cot 
3. The value of is
A. 1
B. √
C. √ /2
D. 2
 
4.  
=
A. 2
B. √
C. √
D. 1
5. =
A. 1 + cot2 
B. Cot4 
C. Cot3 
D. 2 cot 
6. =
A. 0
B. 1
C. 2
D. 3
7.
A. sin A
B. cos A
C. tan A
D. cot A

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8.
A. Sin 8 cos 2
B. Tan 8 cot 2
C. Sec 8 cot 2
D. None
9. ( )( )=
A. sin A/2
B. cos A/2
C. tan A/2
D. cot A/2
10. √ cosec 200 sec 200 =
A. 2
B. 2 sin 200. Cosec 400
C. 4
D. 4 sin 450. Cosec 400
11. ⇒
A.
B.
C.
D.
12.
A. 2
B. √
C. √
D. 1
13.
A. 0
B. 1
C. 2
D. 3
14.
A. Sin 2x
B. Cos 2x
C. Tan 2x
D. Cot 2x

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15. Tan6 -33 tan4 + 27 tan2 =

A. tan
B. tan2
C. tan
D. tan2
 
16. if sin 2 = k, then the value of =
 

A.
B.
C. k2 + 1
D. 2 – k2
17. 3 sin x + 4 cos x = 5 ⇒ 6 tan – 9 tan2 =
A. 0
B. 1
C. 3
D. 4
18. If A = sin2  + cos4 , then for all values of , where
A. 1  A  2
B. A1
C. 0  A  1
D. A
19. If 900 <  < 1800, cos  = -12/13, then sin 2 =
A.
B.
C.
D.
20. If 1800 <  < 2700, tan  = 5/12, then cos 3 =
A.
B.
C.
D.

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