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5F Class Council
Physics note 2015/10

Book 3A: Wave Motion I

We will be covering the reflection and refraction of light, lenses (convex and
concave) and the electromagnetic spectrum in this note.
Reflection of light
 Ray diagrams are representation of light, in which light rays are shown as
lines (in most cases straight lines) with arrows on them, indicating the
direction of travel. Never forget the arrows!
 An object is often simply represented by an
arrow or just a point in a ray diagram. We
draw cones of rays (triangles in the figure)
from the object to show how light rays reach
an observer.
 Rays from the object become less divergent as the object moves away. Light
rays from a very distant object are often treated as parallel rays.
 The normal is a line perpendicular to the reflection surface at the point
where the incident ray hits the
surface. The angles of incidence 𝑖 and
reflection 𝑟 refer to the angle the
incident and reflected rays make with
the normal respectively.
 The laws of reflection state that the
angle of incidence is equal to the
angle of reflection, i.e. 𝑖 = 𝑟 and the
incident ray, the reflected ray and the
normal all lie on the same plane.
 Regular reflection occurs on a flat and smooth surface, where parallel rays
are reflected in the same direction as the normals point in the same
direction. In the contrary, diffuse reflection occurs on a rough surface, where
parallel rays are reflected in different directions as the normals point in
different directions. (Notice that most everyday objects exhibit diffuse
reflection)
 A mirror is represented by a line where the backside is shaded, as in the
above figure.
 Images formed by a plane mirror are virtual (meaning it cannot be projected
on a screen), erect, laterally inverted, as far behind the mirror as the object
is in front and have the same size as the object. Light rays appear to emerge
from the image after they are reflected by the mirror.

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 To draw a ray diagram for

how an image is formed by a
plane mirror, first construct
the image 𝐼 by reflecting the
object 𝑂 along the mirror.
Then draw a cone of rays from
𝐼 (dotted lines should be used
for rays behind the mirror as
they are not true rays). Finally,
connect 𝑂 to the points where
the rays from 𝐼 meet the
mirror.
Examples:
1. Andrew observes that pieces of paper do not form clear images of objects.
He then concludes that the laws of reflection are not obeyed when light
reflects off a paper surface.
(a) State the laws of reflection.
(b) Comment on his conclusion.
Solution:
(a) The laws of reflection state that the angle of incidence is equal to the angle
of reflection and the incident ray, the reflected ray and the normal all lie on
the same plane.
(b) His conclusion is not correct. Paper has a rough surface and normals at
different positions point in different directions. Parallel rays are reflected to
different directions. Diffuse reflection occurs and a clear image cannot be
formed. However, for each reflection of light, the laws of reflection are still
obeyed.
2. Refer to the figure, a light ray
from 𝐴 hits a plane mirror at 𝑂.
(a) Find the angle the reflected ray
makes with the incident ray.
(b) 𝐵 is a point such that ∠𝐴𝑂𝐵 =
20° and 𝐵 is closer to the normal
at 𝑂 than 𝐴. If the mirror rotates
counterclockwise at a rate of 10°
per second, after how long will the reflected ray first hit 𝐵?

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Solution:
(a) Angle of incidence = 90° − 50° = 40°
Angle of reflection = angle of incidence = 40°
∴ The reflected ray makes an angle of 40° + 40° = 𝟖𝟎° with the incident ray.
(b) ∵ ∠𝐴𝑂𝐵 = 20°
20°
∴ If the reflected ray hits 𝐵, then the angle of incidence will be= 10°.
2
The angle of incidence will need to decrease by 40° − 10° = 30°.
30
∴ After = 𝟑 𝐬𝐞𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐝𝐬, the reflected will first hit 𝐵.
10
3. A rectangular room 𝐴𝐵𝐶𝐷 is shown in
the figure. A mirror 𝑀𝑁 is on wall 𝐴𝐵.
𝐶𝑄 is a painting on wall 𝐶𝐷 of width 2 m
and Jasmine is standing at point 𝐷.
(a) If she can see the whole image of the
painting in the mirror, find the
minimum length of 𝑀𝑁.
(b) Suppose 𝑄 is on wall 𝐵𝐶 instead of wall 𝐶𝐷 and 𝐵𝐶 = 3 m. It is given
that under this situation, the answer to part (a) remains unchanged.
Find 𝐶𝐷.
Solution:
(a) When 𝑀𝑁 attains its minimum length,
the ray diagram is as shown.
By the laws of reflection,
1
𝜃1 = 𝜃2 ⇒ 𝐴𝑀 = 𝐷𝑄 (why? )
2
1
𝜃3 = 𝜃4 ⇒ 𝐴𝑁 = 𝐷𝐶
2
1 1 1
∴ 𝑀𝑁 = 𝐴𝑀 − 𝐴𝑁 = (𝐷𝑄 − 𝐷𝐶) = 𝐶𝑄 = (2 m) = 1 m
2 2 2
∴ The minimum length of 𝑀𝑁 is 𝟏 𝐦.
(b) Let the images of 𝐶 and 𝑄 be 𝐶 ′ and 𝑄 ′ respectively and 𝐶𝐷 = 𝑥 m.
When 𝑀𝑁 attains its minimum length, the ray diagram is as shown.
∴ In the figure, 𝑀𝑁 = 1 m.
𝑄 ′ 𝐵 = 𝐵𝑄 = (3 − 2) m = 1 m, 𝐶 ′ 𝐵 = 𝐵𝐶 = 3 m.
∵ Δ𝑄 ′ 𝐵𝑁~Δ𝑄 ′ 𝐶𝐷, Δ𝐶 ′ 𝐵𝑀~Δ𝐶 ′ 𝐶𝐷 (AAA)
𝐵𝑁 𝑄 ′ 𝐵 𝐵𝑀 𝐶 ′ 𝐵
∴ = , = (corr. sides, ~ Δs)
𝐶𝐷 𝑄 ′ 𝐶 𝐶𝐷 𝐶 ′ 𝐶

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𝐵𝑁 1 𝑥
i. e. = ⇒ 𝐵𝑁 = m
𝑥m 1+3 4
𝐵𝑀 3 𝑥
= ⇒ 𝐵𝑀 = m
𝑥m 3+3 2
𝑥 𝑥
1 m = 𝑀𝑁 = 𝐵𝑀 − 𝐵𝑁 = ( − ) m ⇒ 𝑥 = 4, i. e. 𝐶𝐷 = 𝟒 𝐦
2 4
Refraction of light
 Same with the case of reflection, the angle of refraction (also denoted by 𝑟)
refers to the angle the refracted ray makes with the normal.
sin 𝑖
 The laws of refraction state that sin 𝑟 is a constant and the incident ray, the

refracted ray and the normal all lie on the same plane. The first part is a form
of the Snell's law.
 In particular, when light travels from vacuum to a medium, the constant in
the laws of refraction is called the refractive index of that medium (denoted
by 𝑛, sometimes with a subscript to indicate the medium). This can be
sin 𝜃vacuum
expressed as 𝑛𝑋 = .
sin 𝜃𝑋

 The general Snell's law: 𝑛1 sin 𝜃1 = 𝑛2 sin 𝜃2 .

From this, since 𝑛air is very close to 1, the
formula in the above bullet point can also be
sin 𝜃air
stated as 𝑛𝑋 = .
sin 𝜃𝑋

𝑐
 𝑛 = 𝑣, where 𝑐 and 𝑣 refer to the speeds of

light in vacuum (or air, as 𝑛air is very close to 1) and the medium
respectively.
 When comparing two media, the one with a higher 𝑛 is optically denser
while the one with a lower 𝑛 is optically less dense.
 When light travels to an optically denser
medium, it bends towards the normal. If it
travels an optically less dense medium, it
bends away from the normal.
 Refraction results in phenomena like the
apparent bending of objects partially
submerged in water and decrease in depth of
water and dispersion (spreading of light into
different colours due to the fact that light of

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different colours travels at different speeds in the same medium).

 Total internal reflection occurs when light travels to an optically less dense
medium and the angle of incidence is larger than the critical angle.
 The critical angle 𝐶 is the angle of incidence at which the angle of refraction
is 90°. By Snell's law, when light leaves a medium and enters air (or
1 1
vacuum), 𝐶 = sin−1 𝑛 or 𝑛 = sin 𝐶.

 In general, when travels from a medium of refractive index 𝑛1 to a medium

𝑛
of refractive index 𝑛2 and 𝑛1 > 𝑛2 , then 𝐶 = sin−1 𝑛2 .
1

 Devices like optical fibres and endoscopes employ the principle of total
internal reflection in their usage.
 When the air near the
ground is very hot,
mirages may form due to
total internal reflection,
as shown in the figure
(only one ray is drawn
for simplicity).
 A fish-eye view refers to the phenomenon that when under water,
everything above the water appears to all be inside a cone, and outside the
cone, things under water can be seen.
Examples:
1. The figure shows a red laser beam entering a
glass prism which has a shape of an
equilateral triangle from air.
(a) Find the refractive index of the prism for
red light.
(b) Find the angle of incidence and angle of
refraction at point 𝐸.
(c) If a blue laser beam is used instead, how will the position of 𝐸 be
different? Explain briefly. (You may assume that the beam will still
emerge from 𝐴𝐶.)
Solution:
(a) By Snell's law,
sin 𝜃air sin 60°
𝑛glass = = = 1.59
sin 𝜃glass sin 33°
∴ The refractive index of glass is 𝟏. 𝟓𝟗.

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(b) In Δ𝐴𝐷𝐸, ∠𝐴𝐷𝐸 = 90° − 33° = 57°

∴ ∠𝐴𝐸𝐷 = 180° − 57° − 60° = 63° (∠ sum of Δ)
Angle of incidence at 𝐸 = 90° − 63° = 𝟐𝟕°
sin 𝜃air sin 𝜃air
By Snell′ s law, 𝑛glass = ⇒ 1.59 = ⇒ 𝜃air = 46.2°
sin 𝜃glass sin 27°
i. e. angle of refraction at 𝐸 = 𝟒𝟔. 𝟐°
(c) Blue light travels at a lower speed than red light in glass. The refractive
𝑐
index for blue light is hence higher by 𝑛 = 𝑣. As a result, blue light is bent

more, making 𝐸 closer to 𝐶.

2. The figure shows the path a light ray travels in three media. (Dotted lines
are normals)
(a) Arrange the refractive indices of the
three media 𝑛𝑋 , 𝑛𝑌 and 𝑛𝑍 in ascending
order. Explain briefly.
(b) If light travels at 1.75 × 108 ms−1 in
medium 𝑋, find the maximum possible
value of 𝑛𝑍 . (Speed of light in
vacuum: 3 × 108 ms −1)
Solution:
(a) When light travels from medium 𝑋 to medium 𝑌, it bends away from the
normal. Hence, medium 𝑌 is optically less dense and 𝑛𝑌 < 𝑛𝑋 .
Total internal reflection occurs at the boundary between media 𝑌 and 𝑍.
Hence, medium 𝑍 is optically less dense and 𝑛𝑍 < 𝑛𝑌 .
∴ The refractive indices in ascending order is 𝒏𝒁 , 𝒏𝒀 , 𝒏𝑿 .
𝑐
(b) By 𝑛 = 𝑣,

3 × 108
𝑛𝑋 = = 1.71
1.75 × 108
Let 𝐶 be the critical angle for the boundary between media 𝑌 and 𝑍.
By Snell′ s law, 𝑛𝑌 sin 𝐶 = 𝑛𝑍 sin 90°
𝑛𝑍 = 𝑛𝑌 sin 𝐶
∴ 𝑛𝑍 is maximised when sin 𝐶 is maximised, i. e. when 𝐶 is maximised.
For total internal reflection to occur, we need 𝜃𝑌 ≥ 𝐶.
⇒ The maximum value of 𝐶 is 𝜃𝑌 ⇒ The maximum value of 𝑛𝑍 is 𝑛𝑌 sin 𝜃𝑌
Notice that the angle of refraction of the first ray is equal to the angle of
incidence of the second ray (𝜃𝑌 ) .
By Snell′ s law, 𝑛𝑋 sin 𝜃𝑋 = 𝑛𝑌 sin 𝜃𝑌

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𝑛𝑌 sin 𝜃𝑌 = 1.71 sin 45° = 1.21

∴ Maximum value of 𝑛𝑍 = 𝟏. 𝟐𝟏
Lenses
 An image is real if it can be captured on a screen, otherwise it is virtual.
 A convex (converging) lens is thicker in the middle and converges light,
while a concave (diverging) lens is thinner in the middle and diverges light.
 Terminologies:
Optical center (𝐶) The center of a lens
Principal axis A line perpendicular to the lens that passes through 𝐶
A point where rays parallel to the principal axis
Principal focus
converge to (for convex lens)/appear to diverge from
(𝐹 or 𝐹′)
(for concave lens) after passing through the lens
Focal length (𝑓) The distance between a principal focus and 𝐶
A plane perpendicular to the principal axis that passes
Focal plane
through a principal focus
Notice that each lens has two principal foci, one on each side; a lens with a
larger curvature has a shorter focal length.
 Parallel rays converge to (for convex lens)/appear to diverge from (for
concave lens) a point on a focal plane after passing through the lens.
 Image formed by lenses can be constructed by first applying two of the
corresponding construction rules (will be mentioned below), and then
locating the intersection of the two refracted rays (extend behind the lens
using dotted lines if necessary). This intersection will be the position of the
image.「過咗塊鏡嘅光集中嗰點就係 image 嘅位置。」 (Credit to Mr. Choi
Kam To) A real image is drawn in solid lines while a virtual image is drawn
in dotted lines.
ℎ 𝑣
 Magnification: 𝑚 = ℎ 𝑖 = 𝑢. (ℎ𝑜 , ℎ𝑖 : heights of the object and the image; 𝑢, 𝑣:
𝑜

distances between the lens and the object (object distance) and the image
(image distance))
1 1 1
 The lens formula: 𝑢 + 𝑣 = 𝑓 . The signs of the variables follow the table

below:
𝑣 𝑓
𝑢
Real image Virtual image Convex lens Concave lens
+ + − + −
Convex lenses:
 In a ray diagram, a convex lens is represented by this symbol:
7

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5F Class Council
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 The construction rules of a convex lens are as follows:

A ray parallel to the

A ray passing through a
A ray passing through principal axis is bent
principal focus emerges
the optical center is not such that it passes
parallel to the principal
bent. through the principal
axis.
focus on the other side.
 The nature and position of images
formed by a convex lens can be
summarised in the figure to the
right. (2F ′ is a point at a distance
of 2𝑓 from the lens)

Concave lenses:
 In a ray diagram, a concave lens is represented by this symbol:
 The construction rules of a concave lens are as follows:

A ray parallel to the

principal axis is bent A ray directed at a
A ray passing through
such that it appears to principal focus emerges
the optical center is not
emerge from the parallel to the principal
bent.
principal focus on the axis.
original side.

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 A concave lens always forms virtual, erect and diminished images and the
image distance is always between 0 and 𝑓. (𝑣 = 𝑓 for object at infinity)
Examples:
1. The figure shows the path of a ray
from an object.
(a) Locate the image and state
its nature.
(b) Estimate the focal length of
the lens graphically.
(c) Hence, find the magnification
if the object distance is
halved.
Solution:
(a) The image is real, inverted and magnified.

(b) The focal length is approximately 6 cm.

(Note: To find the focal length, a ray parallel to the given ray from the object
and passes through the optical center is drawn. Since parallel rays converge
to a point on a focal plane, the point where the two refracted rays (light rays
passing through the optical center continues straight on) meet is one focal
length from the lens. A similar technique can be used to find the focal length
of a concave lens. The focal length can also be found using one of the
construction rules, do you know how?)
9

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10
(c) New image distance = = 5 cm
2

By the lens formula,

1 1 1 1 1 1
+ = ⇒ + = ⇒ 𝑣 = −30
𝑢 𝑣 𝑓 5 𝑣 6
𝑣 30
Magnification = = =𝟔
𝑢 5
2. Find the object distance in each of the following situation:
(a) A virtual, diminished image is formed by a lens of focal length 20 cm
with an image distance of 13 cm.
(b) The lens is a concave lens with a focal length of 12 cm and the
magnification is 0.4.
(c) A real and magnified image is formed by a lens with a focal length of 10
cm and the distance between the object and the image is 45 cm.
Solution:
(a) The lens is concave as only concave lenses form virtual, diminished images.
1 1 1 1 1 1
By the lens formula, + = ⇒ + = ⇒ 𝑢 = 37.1 cm
𝑢 𝑣 𝑓 𝑢 −13 −20
∴ The object distance is 𝟑𝟕. 𝟏 𝐜𝐦.
𝑣
(b) Magnification = 𝑢

𝑣
∴ = 0.4 ⇒ 𝑣 = 0.4𝑢
𝑢
By the lens formula,
1 1 1 1 1 1 3 1
+ = ⇒ + = ⇒− =− ⇒ 𝑢 = 18 cm
𝑢 𝑣 𝑓 𝑢 −0.4𝑢 −12 2𝑢 12
∴ The object distance is 𝟏𝟖 𝐜𝐦.
(c) The lens is convex as only convex lenses form real images.
Distance between the object and a real image = 𝑢 + 𝑣
∴ 𝑢 + 𝑣 = 45 ⇒ 𝑣 = 45 − 𝑢
By the lens formula,
1 1 1 1 1 1 45 1
+ = ⇒ + = ⇒ =
𝑢 𝑣 𝑓 𝑢 45 − 𝑢 10 𝑢(45 − 𝑢) 10
⇒ 𝑢2 − 45𝑢 + 450 = 0 ⇒ (𝑢 − 15)(𝑢 − 30) = 0
⇒ 𝑢 = 15 cm or 30 cm
However, 30 cm > 2𝑓 = 20 cm ⇒ When 𝑢 = 30 cm, the image is diminished.
∴ The object distance is 𝟏𝟓 𝐜𝐦.

10

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The electromagnetic spectrum

 As white light passes through a prism, a band of colours is formed due to
dispersion. This band is called the visible spectrum.
 In glass, the speed of light decreases and the refractive index increases from
red to violet.
 The electromagnetic (EM) spectrum consists of 7 main groups of
electromagnetic waves. They are radio waves, microwaves, infra-red
radiation (IR), visible light, ultra-violet radiation (UV), X-rays and gamma
rays.
 Some applications of the invisible EM waves:
Radio waves radio and TV broadcasting, telecommunications
radar, microwave ovens, satellite
Microwaves
telecommunications, Wi-Fi
thermography, remote control, auto-focus cameras,
Infra-red radiation
data transmission, burglar alarm
Ultra-violet radiation sterilisation, detection of fake banknotes
medical diagnoses, security check, study of crystal
X-rays
structures
Gamma rays radiotherapy, sterilisation, medical imaging,
 UV, X-rays and gamma rays can cause cancer. Moreover, UV and microwaves
may cause cataracts.
 All electromagnetic waves travel in a vacuum at a same speed,
approximately equal to 3 × 108 ms −1.
Examples:
1. Microwaves can be used in radars. A microwave pulse reflected off an
aircraft is detected 30 μs after it is emitted from the radar station.
(a) Find the distance between the radar station and the aircraft.
(b) State two other applications of microwaves.
Solution:
1
(a) Required distance = (3 × 108 × 2 × 30 × 10−6 ) m = 4500 m = 𝟒. 𝟓 𝐤𝐦

(b) Wi-Fi, satellite telecommunications, microwave ovens (any 2)

Disclaimer:
Solutions presented here may not be able to match with the completeness and
specificity required in examinations and is not meant to serve this purpose. They
should only be used as references; all images are either made by us or in the
public domain (or the combination of the two).

11

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