Arbitrary-Speed Curves∗

(Com S 477/577 Notes)

Yan-Bin Jia

Oct 8, 2020

The Frenet formulas are valid only for unit-speed curves; they tell the rate of change of the
orthonormal vectors T, N, B with respect to arc length. However, most curves that arise from prac-
tice are hardly parameterized with arc length. Also, for numerical computations, reparametrization
with arc length is impractical, since it is rarely possible to find an explicit formula.
When a regular curve α is not unit-speed, we can transfer to α the Frenet apparatus of a
unit-speed reparametrization α̃ of α, with no need of any closed form for α̃. Explicitly, if s is an
arc-length function for α, then
 
α(t) = α̃ s(t) , for all t,

or, in function notation, α = α̃(s). Now if α̃ has curvature κ̃ > 0, τ̃ , T̃ , Ñ , and B̃ are defined for
α̃ as we studied before. We define for α the

Curvature function : κ(t) = κ̃(s)

Torsion function : τ (t) = τ̃ (s)
Unit tangent : T (t) = T̃ (s)
Principal normal : N (t) = Ñ (s)
Binormal : B(t) = B̃(s)

1 Frenet Frame Computation

In general κ and κ̃ are different functions, defined
on different intervals. But they give exactly the T (t)
α(t)
same description of the turning of the common
route of α and α̃, since at any point α(t) = α̃(s(t)). N (t)
The numbers κ(t) and κ̃(s(t)) are by the definition
the same. Since only a change of parameterization B(t)
is involved, its fundamental geometric meaning is α α̃
the same as before. Similarly with the rest of the s
Frenet apparatus. In particular, T , N , B again
t s(t)
form an orthonormal basis at every point t on α.
The speed v of the curve is the proper correction
factor on the rate of change of T, N, B in the general case.
∗
All the materials are from [1].

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Lemma 1 If α is a regular curve in R3 with κ > 0, then

Ṫ = κvN,
Ṅ = −κvT + τ vB,
Ḃ = −τ vN

Proof Let α̃ be a unit-speed reparametrization of α. Then by definition, T = T̃ (s), where s is

an arc-length function for α. The chain rule as applied to differentiation gives

Ṫ = T̃˙ (s)ṡ.

By the usual Frenet equations, T̃˙ = κ̃Ñ . Substituting the function s in this equation yields

T̃˙ (s) = κ̃(s)Ñ (s) = κN

by the definition of κ and N in the arbitrary-speed case. Since ṡ is the speed function v of α, these
two equations combine to yield Ṫ = κvN . The formulas for Ṅ and Ḃ are derived in the same way.

Let us use the same letter to designate both a curve α and its unit-speed parameterization
α̃, and similarly with the Frenet apparatus of these two curves. Differences in derivatives are
handled by writing dT /ds for either T̃˙ or its reparametrization T̃˙ (s). With these conventions, the
proof above would combine the chain rule Ṫ = (dT /ds)ṡ and Frenet formula dT /ds = κN to give
Ṫ = κvN .
Curvature is revealed from the second order derivative, i.e., the acceleration, of the curve.
Only for a constant-speed curve is acceleration orthogonal to velocity, since β̇ · β̇ being constant is
d
equivalent to dt (β̇ · β̇) = 2β̇ · β̈ = 0. In the general case, we analyze velocity and acceleration by
expressing them in terms of the Frenet frame field.

Lemma 2 If α is a regular curve with speed function v, then the velocity and acceleration of α
are given by

α̇ = vT,
dv
α̈ = T + κv 2 N.
dt
Proof Since α = α̃(s), where s is the arc-length function of α, we find that

˙ ds
α̇ = α̃(s) = v T̃ (s) = vT.
dt
Then a second differentiation yields
dv dv
α̈ = T + v Ṫ = T + κv 2 N
dt dt
according to Lemma 1.

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 dv
T α̇ = vT
dt
T
α

α̈
N
κv 2 N

The formula α̇ = vT is to be expected — α̇ and T are each tangent to the curve, and T has
a unit length while kα̇k = v. The formula for acceleration is more interesting. By definition, α̈
is the rate of change of the velocity α̇, and in general both the length and the direction of α̇ are
changing. The tangential component v̇T of α̈ measures the rate of change of the length of α̇ (that
is, of the speed of α). The normal component κv 2 N measures the rate of change of the direction
of α̇. Newton’s laws of motion show that these components may be experienced as forces. For
example, in a car that is speeding up or slowing down on a straight road the only force one feels is
due to v̇T . If one takes an unbanked curve at speed v, the sideways force one feels is due to κv 2 N .
Here κ measures how sharply the road turns; the effect of speed is given by v 2 , so 60 miles per hour
is four times as unsettling as 30.
We now find effectively computable expressions for the Frenet apparatus.

Theorem 3 Let α be a regular curve in R3 with α̇ × α̈ 6= 0. Then

α̇
T = ,
kα̇k
α̇ × α̈
B = , (1)
kα̇ × α̈k
N = B × T,
kα̇ × α̈k
κ = , (2)
kα̇k3
... ...
(α̇ × α̈) · α det(α̇ α̈ α)
τ = = . (3)
kα̇ × α̈k2 kα̇ × α̈k2

Proof The equations for T and N follow from their definitions. So here we need only prove (1),
(2), and (3). Since v = kα̇k > 0, the formula T = α̇/kα̇k is equivalent to α̇ = vT . From the
preceding lemma we get
 
dv 2
α̇ × α̈ = (vT ) × T + κv N
dt
dv
= v T × T + κv 3 T × N
dt
= κv 3 B.

Taking norms we find

kα̇ × α̈k = kκv 3 Bk = κv 3

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because kBk = 1, κ ≥ 0, and v > 0. This proves (2). Indeed this equation shows that for regular
curves, kα̇ × α̈k > 0 is equivalent to the usual condition κ > 0. (Thus for κ > 0, α̇ and α̈ are
linearly independent and determine the osculating plane at each point, as do T and N .) Then

α̇ × α̈ α̇ × α̈
B= = .
κv 3 kα̇ × α̈k
...
Now only the formula for torsion remains to be proved. To find the dot product (α̇ × α̈) · α, we
express everything in terms of T , N , B. We already know that α̇ × α̈ = κv 3 B. Since B · T =
...
B · N = 0, we need only find the B component of α. But by Lemma 2,
 
... d dv 2
α = T + κv N
dt dt
d2 v dv d  2
= T + κvN + κv N + κv 2 Ṅ
dt2 dt
 2 dt   
3 d v 2 3 dv d 2
= κτ v B + −κ v T + κv + (κv ) N
dt2 dt dt
...
following Lemma 2. Consequently (α̇ × α̈) · α = κ2 v 6 τ . Equation (3) then follows since kα̇ × α̈k =
κv 3 .

Example 1. We compute the Frenet frame of the curve

t=2 α(t) = (3t − t3 , 3t2 , 3t + t3 ).

x
The derivatives are
z
α̇(t) = 3(1 − t2 , 2t, 1 + t2 ),
α̈(t) = 6(−t, 1, t),
...
α(t) = 6(−1, 0, 1).

And the velocity is

p √
v(t) = kα̇(t)k = α̇(t) · α̇(t) = 3 2(1 + t2 ).

Next, we have

α̇(t) × α̈(t) = 18(−1 + t2 , −2t, 1 + t2 ),

√
t = −2
kα̇(t) × α̈(t)k = 18 2(1 + t2 ).
...
The expressions above for α̇ × α̈ and α yield
...
(α̇ × α̈) · α = 6 · 18 · 2(1 − t2 + 1 + t2 ) = 216.

y It remains only to substitute this data into the formulas in Theorem 3,

α(t) = (3t − t3 , 3t2, 3t + t3 )

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 with N being computed by another cross product. The final results are

(1 − t2 , 2t, 1 + t2 )
T = √ ,
2(1 + t2 )
(−2t, 1 − t2 , 0)
N = ,
1 + t2
(−1 + t2 , −2t, 1 + t2 )
B = √ ,
2(1 + t2 )
1
κ = ,
3(1 + t2 )2
1
τ = .
3(1 + t2 )2

Example 2. Let us compute the torsion of the helix in its standard parameterization

γ(θ) = (a cos θ, a sin θ, bθ).

First, we have

γ̇ = (−a sin θ, a cos θ, b),

γ̈ = (−a cos θ, −a sin θ, 0),
...
γ = (a sin θ, −a cos θ, 0).

Hence,

γ̇ × γ̈ = (ab sin θ, −ab cos θ, a2 ),

kγ̇ × γ̈k2 = a2 (a2 + b2 ),
...
(γ̇ × γ̈) · γ = a2 b,

and so the torsion is

a2 b b
τ= 2 2 2
= 2 .
a (a + b ) a + b2

Let us summarize the situation. We now have the Frenet apparatus for an arbitrary-speed curve
α. This apparatus satisfies the extended Frenet formulas (with factor v) and may be computed by
Theorem 3. If v = 1, that is, if α is unit-speed curve, the Frenet formulas in Lemma 1 simplify
slightly, but Theorem 3 may be replaced by the much simpler definitions that we learned before.

2 An Application — Spherical Images

Let us consider one application of the results in the previous section. There are a number of
interesting ways in which one can assign to a given curve β a new curve β̄ whose geometric
properties illuminate some aspects of the behavior of β. For example, if β is a unit-speed curve,
the curve σ(s) = T (s) = β̇(s) is the spherical image of β. Here σ is the curve such that each point
σ(s) has the same Euclidean coordinates as the unit tangent vector T (s). Roughly speaking, σ(s)
is obtained by translating T (s) to the origin. The spherical image lies entirely on the unit sphere
Σ of R3 , since kσk = kT k = 1, and the motion represents the curving of β.

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 Figure 1: Spherical image, Fig. 2.17 on p. 71 of [1].

Example 3. Suppose β is the helix described by

 
s s bs
β(s) = a cos , a sin , ,
c c c
√
where c = a2 + b2 . Thus the spherical image of a helix lies on the circle cut from the unit sphere by the
plane z = cb .
There is no loss of generality in assuming that the original curve β has unit speed (in the case of the
helix given above), but we cannot also expect σ to have unit speed. In fact, since σ = T , we have

σ̇ = Ṫ = κN.

Thus σ moves always in the principal normal direction of β, with speed kσ̇k equal to the curvature κ of β.
Next we assume κ > 0, and use the Frenet formulas for β to compute the curvature of σ. Now
d
σ̈ = (κN )
dt
dκ
= N + κṄ
ds
dκ
= N + κ(−κT + τ B)
ds
dκ
= −κ2 T + N + κτ B.
ds
Thus

σ̇ × σ̈ = −κ3 N × T + κ2 τ N × B
= κ2 (κB + τ T ).

Therefore the curvature of the spherical image σ is

kσ̇ × σ̈k
κσ =
kσ̇k3
√
κ2 + τ 2
=
κ
  τ 2 1/2
= 1+
κ
> 1

and thus depends only on the ratio of torsion to curvature for the original curve β.

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References
[1] B. O’Neill. Elementary Differential Geometry. Academic Press, Inc., 1966.