Lecture: 1

Section-B 06.04.2025

Rationality:

Differential geometry is the study of geometric properties using of

differential calculus and integral calculus, as well as linear algebra. The
study of plane, space curves and surfaces in three-dimensional
Euclidean space created the basis for development of differential
geometry in the 18th and 19th century. Differential geometry has grown
into a field concerned more with the geometric structures on
differentiable manifolds which have applications in physical science and
engineering
 Section-B
Content:

Helices, involute, Parametric surface, First fundamental form, Property of

evolute, Bertrand tangent and normal arc length and surface geodesics, geodesic
curves, envelope of surface Regular area, second curvature, torsion
and singularities on fundamental form, of geodesic, Gauss
surfaces Relation between E, f, G Bonnet theorem
and H, Weingarton
Equations, families of
curves

1st & 2nd fundamental Geodesic & Mapping

Special Curves Concept of surface
forms One Surface

Students will Students will

take classes on take classes on
this topic this topic
 CLO’s

Explain concepts of curves and surfaces at a higher level

Demonstrate abstract thinking of the geometry of space curves and surfaces

Describe the theory of curves, the definitions and properties of curvature and torsion.

Generalize the theory of surfaces and apply the properties of first and second fundamental forms in
different areas of mathematics

Appraise minimal surfaces and geodesics

Point out surfaces in Euclidean space, tangent spaces and vector fields with fundamental planes

Explain the concepts and language of differential geometry and its role in modern mathematics
 References:

1. Mittal &Agarwal (2014), Differential Geometry, Krishan Prakashan.

2. Manfredo, P.C. (2016), Differential Geometry of Curves and Surfaces,
Dover Publications.
3. Lipschutz M.M., (1969), Schaum's Outline of Differential Geometry
(Schaum's) 1st Edition, McGraw Hill.
4. Barrett O'Neill (2006), Elementary Differential Geometry, Academic
Press.
5. Somasundaram D. (2005), Differential Geometry, Alpha Science Pub.
 Best 1 within 2 CTs: 05
Group discussion (Presentations): 05
Group assignment on B: 05
Groups
Group-01: 211201,60,25,33,55,08,26,42,43, 201263
Group-02: 211222,46,03,13,37,19,28,12,201235,38
Group-03: 211234,30,16,44,45,31,06,09,14,201256
Group-04: 211218,48,29,32,05,50,47,39,58,23
Group-05: 211204,41,38,59,57,49,24,201261,02,191259
Group-06: 211211,51,15,36,35,10,17,201219,40
 Helices

Cylindrical Helix
A helix is a twisted, spiral shape, like a corkscrew

A helix is a curve

for which the tangent makes a constant angle with

a fixed line
  The generator/ fixed line is parallel to its axis
 Helix makes curve on cylinder
 Draw a tangent through a point of helix
 At the fixed point the angle of the tangent with the
generator is always constant
Generator
α  The tangent to a helix makes a constant angle with a
fixed direction, this fixed line (direction) is also known
as axis or generator of the cylinder.

i.e., Helix is a space curve which is traced on the

surface of a cylinder and cuts the generator at
constant angle (Known as cylindrical helix).
Base
Let,
𝑎 : Unit constant vector parallel to the generators of the cylinder
𝑡 : Unit tangent vector to the helix

∴ 𝑡. 𝑎 = cos 𝛼 ……… 1 𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑎 = 1 & 𝑡 = 1

Differentiate (1) w.r.t s

𝑑𝑡
𝑎=0
𝑑𝑠 Frenet–Serret formula
𝑡. 𝑎 = 0 𝑡 = 𝜅𝑛, where 𝜅 is the curvature and
𝑛 is a unit vector
𝜅𝑛. 𝑎 = 0
𝜅(𝑛. 𝑎) = 0
𝑛. 𝑎 = 0, since 𝜅 ≠ 0
 𝑛. 𝑎 = 0
𝑛 𝑎 cos 𝜃 = 0
cos 𝜃 = 0
i.e., 𝜃 = 900
Which means, 𝑛 and 𝑎 are perpendicular to each other

𝑛
 𝑂𝑄 = 𝑂𝑃 + 𝑃𝑄 𝑂𝑃
= cos 𝛼
𝑂𝑄
𝑂𝑄 = 𝑎 cos 𝛼 𝑡 + 𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛼 𝑏
𝑂𝑃 = 𝑎 cos 𝛼
= cos 𝛼 𝑡 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛼 𝑏
𝑃𝑄
𝑎 = cos 𝛼 𝑡 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛼 𝑏 = sin 𝛼
𝑄 𝑂𝑄
𝑑𝑎 𝑃𝑄 = 𝑎 sin 𝛼
𝑏 = cos 𝛼 𝑡 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛼 𝑏
𝑑𝑠
cos 𝛼 𝑡 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛼 𝑏 = 0
Frenet–Serret formula 𝑡 = 𝜅𝑛 & 𝑏 = −𝜏𝑛
𝛼
𝑂 cos 𝛼 𝜅𝑛 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛼 𝜏𝑛 = 0
𝑃 𝑡
𝑛 cos 𝛼 𝜅 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛼 𝜏 = 0
cos 𝛼 𝜅 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛼 𝜏 = 0
cos 𝛼 𝜅 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛼 𝜏 , 𝑛 ≠ 0

𝜅 sin 𝛼
= = tan 𝛼 =constant
𝜏 cos 𝛼
 𝜅
=constant= c
𝜏
𝜅 = 𝜏𝑐
i.e., 𝑡 + 𝑏 𝑐 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 = a
𝑡
= 𝜏𝑐 𝑡. 𝑡 + 𝑡. 𝑏𝑐 = 𝑡. 𝑎
𝑛
𝑡 = 𝑛𝜏𝑐 𝑡 𝑡 cos 0 + 𝑡 𝑏 cos 90 𝑐 = 𝑡. 𝑎

𝑡 = −𝑏𝑐 1 + 0 = 𝑡. 𝑎
𝑡 + 𝑏𝑐 = 0 𝑡. 𝑎 = 1
𝑑
(𝑡 + 𝑏 𝑐) = 0
𝑑𝑠

i.e., 𝑡 makes a constant angle 𝛼 with the fixed direction 𝑎 and hence the curve is a helix.
 1. Show that a necessary and sufficient condition for a curve to be helix is that the
ratio of the curvature and the torsion is constant.
𝜅
2. Show that for an helix =constant.
𝜏

HW-1(Page no: 69):

If a curve is drawn on any cylinder and makes a constant angle 𝛼 with the generators,
1 1
show that 𝜌 = 𝜌0 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝛼 and σ = 𝜌0 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐𝛼 sec 𝛼 , where and are curvatures of
𝜌 𝜌0

any point 𝑃 of the curve and the normal section of the cylinder through 𝑃.
Lecture: 2 & 3 Circular Helix 10.04.2025

Circular cylinder is a cylinder that has

 a closed circular surface having two parallel bases
on both the ends
 and whose elements are perpendicular to its base.

It is also called a right cylinder.

All the points, in a right circular cylinder, lying on the

closed circular surface is at a fixed distance from a
straight line known as the axis of the cylinder.
 Z

We have helix and we have to find the equation

Generator / fixed line

of the helix for given a point, say, P

O P Y
Base

x
 Z
P

Helix which is the curve / arc on cylindrical surface

O Y
Line from origin to P1
a
R
P1 Projection which is also a curve

x Perpendicular on x through P1
 Suppose (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) is the coordinate of the current
Z point P.
P
Here,
𝑥 = 𝑂𝑅
𝑦 = 𝑅𝑃1
𝜃 𝑧 = 𝑃𝑃1
s
O Y
𝛼 From the triangle △ 𝑂𝑅𝑃1 : Base ??
a 𝑂𝑅 Hypotenuse??
R = cos 𝛼
S P1 𝑂𝑃1
𝑂𝑅 = 𝑎 cos 𝛼
s1 &
x
𝑅𝑃1
= si𝑛 𝛼
𝑂𝑃1
𝑅𝑃1 = 𝑎 sin 𝛼
From the triangle △ 𝑃𝑃1 𝑆: Determine the arc length of a circle:
𝑃𝑃1
Base ?? = cos 𝜃
𝑃𝑆
Hypotenuse??
𝑃𝑃1 = 𝑠 cos 𝜃 𝑠1 = 𝑎. 𝛼
Base 𝑃𝑃1 &
Hypotenuse 𝑃𝑆 𝑆𝑃1 O
= si𝑛 𝜃 𝛼
𝑆𝑃 a a
𝑠1 = 𝑠 sin 𝜃 R
𝑠1 S P1
𝑠=
sin 𝜃
s1
∴ 𝑃 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 = 𝑃 𝑂𝑅, 𝑅𝑃1 , 𝑃𝑃1 ∴ 𝑃 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 = 𝑃(𝑎 cos 𝛼 , 𝑎 sin 𝛼 , 𝑎𝛼 cot 𝜃)
= 𝑃(𝑎 cos 𝛼 , 𝑎 sin 𝛼 , 𝑠1 cot 𝜃)

The equation of the circular helix at P is

𝑟 = 𝑎 cos 𝛼𝑖 + 𝑎 sin 𝛼 𝑗 + 𝑎𝛼 cot 𝜃 𝑘 = 𝑎(cos 𝛼𝑖 + sin 𝛼 𝑗 + 𝛼 cot 𝜃 𝑘)
Obtain the equation of a circular helix 𝑟 = 𝑎 cos 𝑢 , 𝑎 sin 𝑢 , 𝑏𝑢 , −∞ < 𝑢 < ∞, where a > 0,
reffered to 𝑠 as parameter and show that the length of one complete turn of the helix is 2𝜋𝑐,
where 𝑐 = 𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 .
1𝑠𝑡 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡 𝑎𝑙𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑢 = 𝛼 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏 = 𝑎 cot 𝜃

2𝑛𝑑 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡:
The range of the parameter u corresponding to one complete turn of the helix is
𝑢0 ≤ 𝑢 ≤ 𝑢0 + 2𝜋

Therefore, the limit u are from 𝑢 = 𝑢0 𝑡𝑜 𝑢 = 𝑢0 + 2𝜋

The equation of the circular helix is

𝑟 𝑢 = 𝑎 cos 𝑢 𝑖 + 𝑎 sin 𝑢 𝑗 + 𝑏𝑢𝑘
𝑑𝑟(𝑢)
𝑟 𝑢 = = − 𝑎 sin 𝑢 𝑖 + 𝑎 cos 𝑢 𝑗 + 𝑏𝑘 Then: page no-7, ex.2
𝑑𝑢
1. Define a circular helix. Show that if the curvature and torsion are both constant,
then the curve is a circular helix. [See HW-1]
2. Ex. 2(b), 3 to 9 [69 to 72 (Mittal Agarwal: 2006)]
 The Theory of Space Curve
Intrinsic Equations (Natural Equations)
𝑋
i.e., if we change the frame of
𝑋
reference , then it will change
𝑌 the equation of the point
position.
𝑌

𝑍
i.e., if we change the frame of
reference , we also change the
𝑍 equation of finding the
objective.

But here we have to express the equation as such a way

that, it will not change even the frame of reference
change.
 Notes

1) If we speak about position vector, then each cases it will change.

2) If we speak about arc length, then the equation never depend on the frame of
reference.

Arc length always be same and arc length is scalar quantity, so its only depend on its
magnitude, not on direction.
Definition:
If a curve is specified in such a way that its curvature (𝜅) and torsion (𝜏)are
functions of arc length s, say, 𝜅 = 𝑓 𝑠 , 𝜏 = 𝜙(𝑠). Then these are called the
intrinsic or natural equations of the curve.

Fundamental Theorems for Space Curves

Uniqueness Theorem for Space Curves

Statements:
A curve is uniquely determined except as to position in space, when its curvature
and torsion are given functions of its arc lengths.
Or
If these curves have the same intrinsic equations, then they are congruent.
Proof:
Suppose there is two curves 𝑟 and 𝑟1 having equal curvature (𝜅) and equal torsion (𝜏) for
the same values of 𝑠.
𝑟
𝑟1 𝒕, 𝒕𝟏 : 𝑇𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠
We have to prove that 𝑟 = 𝑟1 for every point of 𝑠. 𝒃, 𝒃𝟏 : 𝐵𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑠
𝒏, 𝒏𝟏 : 𝑁𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑠
Let, the arc length is 0, i.e., 𝑠 = 0
At this point, 𝒕 = 𝒕𝟏 ; 𝒃 = 𝒃𝟏 and 𝒏 = 𝒏𝟏

𝑑 𝑑𝒕𝟏 𝑑𝒕
We have: 𝒕. 𝒕𝟏 = 𝒕. + 𝒕𝟏
𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑠
= 𝒕. 𝒕𝟏 + 𝒕𝟏 𝒕
= 𝒕. 𝜅1 𝒏𝟏 + 𝜅𝒏. 𝒕𝟏
= 𝒕. 𝜅𝒏𝟏 + 𝜅𝒏. 𝒕𝟏 [∵ 𝜅1 = 𝜅 given+ … (1)
Similarly,
𝑑
𝒏. 𝒏𝟏 = 𝒏. 𝒏𝟏 + 𝒏𝟏 𝒏
𝑑𝑠
= 𝒏. 𝜏𝒃𝟏 − 𝜅𝒕𝟏 + 𝒏𝟏 . 𝜏𝒃 − 𝜅𝒕 ……… (2)

𝑑
𝒃. 𝒃𝟏 = 𝒃 −𝜏𝒏𝟏 + −𝜏𝒏 . 𝒃𝟏 … …(3)
𝑑𝑠

Adding equations (1), (2) and (3) we get,

𝑑
𝒕. 𝒕𝟏 + 𝒏. 𝒏𝟏 + 𝒃. 𝒃𝟏 = 0
𝑑𝑠
After integration we have
𝒕. 𝒕𝟏 + 𝒏. 𝒏𝟏 + 𝒃. 𝒃𝟏 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 = 𝑎 (𝑠𝑎𝑦)…….(4)

Since, 𝒕, 𝒕𝟏 , 𝒏, 𝒏𝟏 , 𝒃, 𝒃𝟏 all are unit vectors, then

𝒕 = 𝒕𝟏 = 𝟏, 𝒏 = 𝒏𝟏 = 𝟏 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒃 = 𝒃𝟏 = 𝟏

From (4) we have now: a= 𝟑

And
𝒕. 𝒕𝟏 + 𝒏. 𝒏𝟏 + 𝒃. 𝒃𝟏 = 𝟑
𝒕 . 𝒕𝟏 cos 𝜃 + 𝒏 . 𝒏𝟏 cos 𝜃 + 𝒃 . 𝒃𝟏 cos 𝜃 = 𝟑
3cos 𝜃 = 𝟑
cos 𝜃 =1
𝜽=0
Again
𝒕 = 𝒕𝟏 , means 𝑟 = 𝑟1

𝑑
𝑟 − 𝑟1 = 0
𝑑𝑠
𝑟 − 𝑟1 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 = 𝑐 (𝑠𝑎𝑦)

Now, if 𝑐 = 0, then 𝑟 = 𝑟1

i.e., for 𝑠 = 0, the curve is unique, and this theorem is known as

Uniqueness Theorem.

Note: Same theorem can also express other ways, see in book
Lecture: 4 Existence Theorem for Space 19.03.2024

Principal Normal (𝒏)

Tangent (𝒕)

Binormal (𝒃)
 𝟏) 𝒕: 𝑇𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑡 ( 𝜅 = 0 means straight line; 𝜅 is the
rotation of the tangent)
𝟐) 𝒃: 𝐵𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 (𝜏is the rotation of the 𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙)

If the C is a curve and the curve have 𝒕, 𝒃 and 𝒏 then:

1. 𝒕, 𝒃 and 𝒏 are unit vectors
2. Mutually perpendicular

Statement:
If 𝜅(𝑠) and 𝜏(𝑠) are continuous functions of a real variable s(s ≥ 0), then there exists a
space curve for which 𝜅 is the curvature, 𝜏 is the torsion, and 𝑠 is the arc length
measured from some suitable base point.
Let us consider 𝒕, 𝒏 and 𝒃 as 𝜶, 𝜷 and 𝜸 respectively

Similarly reducing Frenet–Serret formulas for 𝜶, 𝜷 and 𝜸 as:

𝑑𝛼
= 𝛼 = 𝜅𝛽 … … … … … … 1
𝑑𝑠

𝑑𝛽
= 𝛽 = 𝜏𝛾 − 𝜅𝛼 … … … … … … 2
𝑑𝑠

𝑑𝛾
= 𝛾 = −𝜏𝛽 … … … … … … . (3)
𝑑𝑠
𝜶, 𝜷 and 𝜸 they are themselves a vector giving a unique set of solution of co-ordinate along
their own co-ordinate system, i.e.,
(𝜶𝟏 ,𝜷𝟏 , 𝜸𝟏 ), (𝜶𝟐 ,𝜷𝟐 , 𝜸𝟐 ), (𝜶𝟑 ,𝜷𝟑 , 𝜸𝟑 ) as (𝟏, 𝟎, 𝟎), (𝟎, 𝟏, 𝟎), (𝟎, 𝟎, 𝟏) at 𝒔 = 𝟎

Now to prove that (𝜶, 𝜷, 𝜸) as unit vector:

𝑑
𝛼1 2 + 𝛽1 2 + 𝛾1 2 = 2𝛼1 𝛼1 + 2𝛽1 𝛽1 + 2𝛾1 𝛾1
𝑑𝑠

𝑑
Using (1), (2) and (3), we have: 𝛼1 2 + 𝛽1 2 + 𝛾1 2 = 0 … … … … … (4)
𝑑𝑠
Integrating (4), we have:
𝛼1 2 + 𝛽1 2 + 𝛾1 2 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 = 𝑎 𝑠𝑎𝑦
So, at initial 𝑠 = 0, 𝛼1 = 1, 𝛽1 = 0, 𝛾1 = 0 ; i.e., 𝑎 = 1
Then, 𝛼1 2 + 𝛽1 2 + 𝛾1 2 = 1
Similarly, 𝛼2 2 + 𝛽2 2 + 𝛾2 2 = 1
And 𝛼3 2 + 𝛽3 2 + 𝛾3 2 = 1
Now to prove them mutually perpendicular:

𝑑
𝛼1 𝛼2 + 𝛽1 𝛽2 + 𝛾1 𝛾2 = 𝛼1 𝛼2 + 𝛼2 𝛼1 + 𝛽1 𝛽2 + 𝛽2 𝛽1 + 𝛾1 𝛾2 + 𝛾2 𝛾1
𝑑𝑠
𝑑
𝛼1 𝛼2 + 𝛽1 𝛽2 + 𝛾1 𝛾2 = 0 … … … … (5), by using (1), (2) and (3).
𝑑𝑠
Integrating (5), we have:
𝛼1 𝛼2 + 𝛽1 𝛽2 + 𝛾1 𝛾2 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 = 𝑐 𝑠𝑎𝑦
At initial 𝑠 = 0, (𝛼1 , 𝛽1 , 𝛾1 ) = (1,0,0); (𝛼2 , 𝛽2 , 𝛾2 ) = 0,1,0 ; (𝛼3 , 𝛽3 , 𝛾3 ) = (0,0,1), i.e., 𝑐 = 0.
Then, 𝛼1 𝛼2 + 𝛽1 𝛽2 + 𝛾1 𝛾2 = 0
Similarly, 𝛼2 𝛼3 + 𝛽2 𝛽3 + 𝛾2 𝛾3 = 0 And 𝛼3 𝛼1 + 𝛽3 𝛽1 + 𝛾3 𝛾1 = 0
Which means they are mutually perpendicular.
We also know: 𝑡 = 𝑟
𝑠
Integrating w.r.t 𝑠, we have: 𝒓 = 0
𝒕 𝑑𝑠
𝑠
i.e., 𝒓 = 0
𝒕 𝑑𝑠 is the required curve and 𝒓 = 𝒓(𝑠) is the position vector of a point on a curve
with curvature (𝜅), torsion(𝜏) and arc (𝑠) length respectively
and 𝒕, 𝒏, 𝒃 as unit tangent vector, unit principal normal vector, unit binormal vector respectively.
Hence the existence of the curve is proved.
1. State the fundamental theorem for space curves and prove its existence part.

𝒅 𝝆
2. If a curve lies on a sphere show that 𝝆 and 𝝈 are related by 𝝈𝝆′ + = 𝟎. Show that a
𝒅𝒔 𝝈
𝝆 𝒅 𝝆′
necessary and sufficient condition that a curve lies on a sphere is that + = 𝟎 at every
𝝈 𝒅𝒔 𝝉
point on the curve.
Lecture: 5 & 6 The Circle of Curvature (The Osculating Circle) 20.03.2024

The circle which has three point contact

with the curvature at P is called the
osculating circle at a point P on curve.

Let a general point P(𝑥𝑖 ), center be 𝐶𝑖 and

radius is 𝑟.

As the curve is in space, therefore after

coincide, the space we get is sphere.

i.e., the sphere have three points of

contact with curve.
Now the equation of sphere
(𝑥1 − 𝑐1 )2 +(𝑥2 − 𝑐2 )2 +(𝑥3 − 𝑐3 )2 = 𝑟 2
𝑥𝑖 − 𝑐𝑖 𝑥𝑖 − 𝑐𝑖 = 𝑟 2
(𝑋 − 𝑐𝑖 )(𝑋 − 𝑐𝑖 ) = 𝑟 2 ……… (i), where 𝑋 in place of 𝑥𝑖 as vector

Now the equation of curve: 𝑥𝑖 = 𝑥𝑖 (𝑠)…………..(ii)

As both (i) and (ii) have point of contact together, therefore after intersection
equation can be expressed as:

F 𝑠 = 𝑥𝑖 − 𝑐𝑖 𝑥𝑖 − 𝑐𝑖 − 𝑟 2 and since they have point of contact , values

F 𝑠 = F 𝑠 = 0.
Now F 𝑠 = 𝑥𝑖 𝑥𝑖 − 𝑐𝑖 + 𝑥𝑖 𝑥𝑖 − 𝑐𝑖 = 0 𝐹(𝑠) = 𝑡𝑖 𝑥𝑖 − 𝑐𝑖 + 𝑡𝑖 . 𝑡𝑖 = 0
𝑜𝑟 2𝑥𝑖 𝑥𝑖 − 𝑐𝑖 = 0; 𝑥𝑖 𝑥𝑖 − 𝑐𝑖 = 0………………(iii) or, 𝜅𝑛𝑖 𝑥𝑖 − 𝑐𝑖 + 1 = 0
𝑏
1
𝑛𝑖 𝑥𝑖 − 𝑐𝑖 = − = −𝜌……..(vi)
𝜅
𝐹(𝑠) = 𝑥𝑖 𝑥𝑖 − 𝑐𝑖 + 𝑥𝑖 𝑥𝑖 = 0……….(iv)
Since 𝑥𝑖 − 𝑐𝑖 is in normal plane,
as well as Osculating plane,
We know, 𝑡 = 𝑥, then 𝑡𝑖 = 𝑥𝑖 and 𝑡𝑖 = 𝑥𝑖 𝑛means 𝑥 − 𝑐 is vector coming
𝑖 𝑖

from the intersection of normal

From (iii) and (iv) we have:
and osculating plane.
𝑡
F 𝑠 = 𝑡𝑖 𝑥𝑖 − 𝑐𝑖 ……………..(v)
i.e., 𝑡 is ⊥ on 𝑥𝑖 − 𝑐𝑖 and
𝑥𝑖 − 𝑐𝑖 is in normal plane.
As any vector: 𝑎 = 𝑎 𝑎 , similarly,
𝑥𝑖 − 𝑐𝑖 = (𝑥𝑖 − 𝑐𝑖 ) 𝑥𝑖 − 𝑐𝑖
𝑥𝑖 − 𝑐𝑖 = 𝑛𝑖 𝜆 … … … … .(vii) , 𝜆 is some scalar.

From (vii) and (vi) we have: 𝑛𝑖 . 𝑛𝑖 𝜆 = −𝜌, i.e., 𝜆 = −𝜌

From (vii): 𝑐𝑖 = 𝑥𝑖 + 𝜌𝑛𝑖 , which is the center of the circle.

We have: 𝑥𝑖 − 𝑐𝑖 𝑥𝑖 − 𝑐𝑖 = 𝑟 2
𝜌𝑛𝑖 . 𝜌𝑛𝑖 = 𝑟 2
𝜌2 = 𝑟 2 ; i.e., 𝜌 = 𝑟, which is the radius
Let C be the original curve, 𝐶1 be the locus of the center of the circle of curvature,
then show that:
I. The tangent to 𝐶1 lies in the normal plane at C.
II. If curvature of C is constant then curvature of 𝐶1 is also constant and torsion of 𝐶1
is inversely proportional to that of C.
1. Find the center and radius of circle of curvature.

1
2. Show that torsion of 𝐶1 ∝ of C ,where C is the curve and 𝐶1 is the lotus of the
torsion
center of circle of curvature.

3. Page 85 to 94: Solved examples Ex. 1 to 10 [(Mittal Agarwal: 2006)]

 Involute and Evolute

If the tangents to curve C are normal to another curve 𝐶1 , then 𝐶1 is called an

involute of 𝐶, and 𝐶 is called an evolute of 𝐶1 .

r 𝒓𝟏
Involute of a Curve 𝒓𝟏 = 𝒓𝟏 𝒔 :

Let 𝐶1 be an involute of 𝐶 and let equation of 𝐶 be 𝒓𝟏 = 𝒓𝟏 𝒔 . Let the quantities

belonging to 𝐶1 be distinguished by the suffix unity.

Any point 𝑃1 on 𝐶1 is given by 𝒓𝟏 = 𝒓 + 𝜇𝒕 … (1) , where 𝜇 is to be scalar.

Differentiating equation (1) with respect to s,

𝑑𝑠1
𝑡1 = 𝑡 + 𝜇′ 𝑡 + 𝜇𝜅𝑛 … (2)
𝑑𝑠

But 𝑡 is perpendicular to 𝑡1 for an involute, hence taking dot producer of both sides of
equation (2) with 𝑡 and, using 𝑡. 𝑡1 = 0.
We get, 1 + 𝜇′ = 0, i.e., 1 + 𝜇′ = 0, i.e., 𝑑𝑠 + 𝑑𝜇 = 0.
Hence on integration we get
𝑠 + 𝜇 = 𝑐 or, 𝜇 = 𝑐 − 𝑠, where c is constant of integration.

∴ 𝑟1 = 𝑟 + 𝑐 − 𝑠 𝑡. … (3)

This is the required equation of involute 𝐶1 of the curve 𝐶.

Substituting the value of 𝜇 in (2), the unit tangent vector 𝑡1 is,

𝑑𝑠
𝑡1 = 𝑐 − 𝑠 𝜅 𝑛. …………….. … (4), [∵ 𝜇′ = −1]
𝑑𝑠1

This result shows that unit tangent vector 𝑡1 to 𝐶1 is parallel to n.

We take the positive direction along the involute (see figure). so that 𝑡1 = 𝑛, hence
𝑑𝑠1
from (4) = 𝜅(𝑐 − 𝑠).
𝑑𝑠
 The curvature 𝜿𝟏 and torsion 𝝉𝟏 of the involute:
Differentiating 𝑡1 = 𝑛, we get

𝑑𝑠
𝜅1 𝑛1 = 𝜏𝑏 − 𝜅𝑡
𝑑𝑠1

𝜏𝑏−𝜅𝑡
= .
𝜅 𝑐−𝑠

1
𝜏2 +𝜅2 2 2
𝜏 +𝜅 2
Squaring both sides, we obtain 𝜅12 = or, 𝜅1 = … (5)
𝜅2 𝑐−𝑠 2 𝜅 𝑐−𝑠

(𝜏𝑏−𝜅𝑡)
Clearly the unit principal normal to involute is, 𝑛1 =
𝜅𝜅1 𝑐−𝑠

𝜏𝑏−𝜅𝑡 𝜅𝑏+𝜏𝑡
and 𝑏1 = 𝑡1 × 𝑛1 = 𝑛 × =
𝜅𝜅1 𝑐−𝑠 𝜅1 𝜅(𝑐−𝑠)
The torsion 𝜏1 is given by the formula,

𝑑𝑟1 𝑑2 𝑟1 𝑑3 𝑟1
,𝑑𝑠 , 2 , 2 -
1 𝑑𝑠1 𝑑𝑠1
𝜏1 =
𝜅12
𝑑𝑟1 𝑑 2 𝑟1 𝑑 3 𝑟1
Now we shall find , ,
𝑑𝑠1 𝑑𝑠12 𝑑𝑠13

𝑑𝑟1 𝑑 2 𝑟1 ′ 𝑑𝑠 𝜏𝑏−𝜅𝑡
= 𝑡1 = 𝑛, 2 = 𝑛 =
𝑑𝑠1 𝑑𝑠1 𝑑𝑠1 𝜅(𝑐−𝑠)

𝑑 3 𝑟1 𝜅 𝑐−𝑠 𝜏′ 𝑏++𝜏 −𝜏𝑛 −𝜅𝑡−𝜅.𝜅𝑛 − 𝜏𝑏−𝜅𝑡 (𝜅′ 𝑐−𝜅′ 𝑠−𝜅) 𝑑𝑠

=
𝑑𝑠13 𝜅2 𝑐−𝑠 2 𝑑𝑠1
 3
3 3 𝑑 𝑟1
𝜅 𝑐−𝑠 =
𝑑𝑠13
− 𝜅 3 𝑡 − 𝜅 𝑐 − 𝑠 𝜅 2 + 𝑟 2 𝑛 + 𝜅𝜏 + 𝑐 − 𝑠 𝜅𝜏 ′ − 𝜅 ′ 𝜏 𝑏

𝑑𝑟1 𝑑 2 𝑟1 𝜏𝑏−𝜅𝑡 𝜏𝑡+𝑏𝜅

Also = =𝑛× =
𝑑𝑠1 𝑑𝑠12 𝜅(𝑐−𝑠) 𝜅(𝑐−𝑠)

𝑑𝑟1 𝑑 2 𝑟1 𝑑 3 𝑟1 −𝜅2 𝜏+𝜅 𝑐−𝑠 𝜅𝜏′ −𝜏𝜅′ +𝜅𝜏 𝜅𝜏′ −𝜏𝑘′

Also , , = = … (6)
𝑑𝑠1 𝑑𝑠12 𝑑𝑠13 𝜅4 𝑐−𝑠 4 𝑘 3 𝑐−𝑠 3

𝜅𝜏′ −𝜏𝜅′ 𝜅2 𝑐−𝑠 2 𝜅𝜏′ −𝜅′𝜏

∴ 𝜏1 = × = … (7)
𝑘 3 𝑐−𝑠 2 𝜏2 +𝜅2 𝜅 𝑐−𝑠 𝜏2 +𝜅2

Derive the equation of evolute. Find the curvature and torsion of evolute.
Lecture: 7 The involutes of a circular helix are plane curves 28.03.2024

The parametric equation of circular helix is 𝑟 = (acos 𝑢 , asin 𝑢 , 𝑏𝑢)….(1)

Changing the parameter u to s,
𝑢 𝑢
𝑠= 𝑟 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑐𝑢
0 0
𝑠 = 𝑐𝑢, 𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑐 = 𝑎2 + 𝑏 2

Equation (1)=> 𝑟 = (acos 𝑠 𝑐 , asin 𝑠 𝑐 , 𝑏𝑠 𝑐)

The equation of involute is

𝑅 = 𝑟 + (𝑘 − 𝑠)𝑡
−𝑎 𝑎
𝑡 = 𝑟 = ( sin 𝑐 , cos 𝑠 𝑐 , 𝑏 𝑐)
′ 𝑠
𝑐 𝑐
 So now the equation , 𝑅 = 𝑟 + (𝑘 − 𝑠)𝑡
𝑠 𝑠 𝑏𝑠 −𝑎 𝑠 𝑎 𝑠 ,𝑏 )
= acos 𝑐 , asin 𝑐 , 𝑐 + 𝑘 − 𝑠 ( sin ,
𝑐 𝑐 cos 𝑐 𝑐
𝑐

𝑠 𝑎 𝑠 𝑠 𝑎 𝑠 𝑏
= acos 𝑐 − 𝑘 − 𝑠 sin 𝑐 , asin 𝑐 + 𝑘 − 𝑠 cos 𝑐 , 𝑘
𝑐 𝑐 𝑐
𝑏
z coordinate of any point 𝑧 = 𝑘 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑐

The involute lies on the plane.

So involutes of a circular helix are plane curves.

Find the involutes and evolutes of the circular helix 𝑥 = acos 𝜃 , 𝑦 = asin 𝜃 , 𝑧 = 𝑎𝜃 tan 𝛼.
Page 109 to 110: Solved examples Ex. 1 to 2
 Spherical Indicatrix

Spherical indicatrix of the tangent: It is the locus of a point whose position vector is equal
to the unit tangent t at any point of a given curve. Since such locus lies on the surface of a
unit sphere, hence the name is called Spherical indicatrix of the tangent.

curvature and torsion:

Let us use the suffix unity to distinguish quantities belonging to the indicatrix.
𝑑𝑠1
Then 𝒓𝟏 = 𝒕, differentiating we get, 𝒕𝟏 = 𝑘𝒏
𝑑𝑠
This shows that 𝑡1 is parallel to principal normal of the given curve, we may measure 𝑠1 so
𝑑𝑠1
that, 𝒕𝟏 = 𝒏 and hence = 𝑘. ……………………………(1)
𝑑𝑠
Differentiating relation 𝒕𝟏 = 𝒏, we get
𝑑𝒏 𝑑𝑠 1
𝑘1 𝒏𝟏 = = (𝜏𝒃 − 𝑘𝒕)
𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑠1 𝑘

Squaring both sides we get,

2 𝑘 2 +𝜏2 𝑘 2 +𝜏2
𝑘1 = or 𝑘1 =
𝑘2 𝑘

i.e., the curvature of the indicatrix is the ratio of the screw curvature to the circular curvature
of the curve.
1
Also 𝒃𝟏 = 𝒕𝟏 × 𝒏𝟏 = 𝒏 × 𝜏𝒃 − 𝑘𝒕
𝑘𝑘1

𝜏𝒕−𝑘𝒃
=
𝑘𝑘1
We can obtain torsion by differentiating this expression but an easier method is as
follows:
1
The indicatrix lies on the surface of a unit sphere, hence the curvature 𝑘1 (= ) and
𝜌1
1
torsion 𝜏1 (= ) are given by the relation,
𝜎1

1 = 𝜌1 2 + 𝜍1 2 𝜌1 ′2 [∵ 𝑅2 = 𝜌2 + 𝜍 2 𝜌′2 ]……………………… (2)

1 1 −𝑘1 ′ 2
or 1= + 2( 2)
𝑘1 2 𝜏1 𝑘1

𝑘1 ′
or 𝜏1 = …………………………………………………….. (3)
𝑘1 (𝑘1 2 −1)
 2𝑘(𝑘𝑘′ +𝜏𝜏′ )
−𝑘 ′ (𝑘 2 +𝜏2 )
(𝑘 2 +𝜏2 ) 2 (𝑘2 +𝜏2 ) 𝑑𝑠 𝜏(𝑘𝜏′ −𝑘 ′ 𝜏)
′
Also 𝑘1 = ∴ 𝑘1 = =
𝑘 𝑘2 𝑑𝑠1 𝑘3 (𝑘 2 +𝜏2 )

𝑘𝜏′ −𝑘 ′ 𝜏
Thus 𝜏1 =
𝑘(𝑘 2 +𝜏2 )

Define the spherical indicatrix (Spherical image) of the binormal. Also deduce the
curvature and torsion of the spherical indicatrix of binormal.

The locus of a point whose position vector is equal to the unit binormal b at any point of a
given curve is called the spherical indicatrix of the binormal.
The curvature and torsion:

Here 𝒓𝟏 = 𝒃

𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑠
After differentiating, 𝒕𝟏 = 𝒃 = −𝜏𝒏
𝑑𝑠1 𝑑𝑠1

𝑑𝑠1
We may measure 𝑠1 such that 𝒕𝟏 = −𝒏 and hence. =𝜏
𝑑𝑠

′ 𝑑𝑠 1
Differentiating 𝒕𝟏 = −𝒏 we get, 𝑘1 𝒏𝟏 = −𝒏 = − (𝜏𝒃 − 𝑘𝒕)
𝑑𝑠1 𝜏

2 𝜏2 +𝑘 2 𝜏2 +𝑘 2
Squaring we get, 𝑘1 = or 𝑘1 =
𝜏2 𝜏
 i.e., 𝑘1 is the ratio of the screw curvature and the torsion of the given curve. Then
𝑘1 ′
we get, 𝜏1 =
𝑘 (𝑘1 2 −1)

𝜏2 +𝑘 2 ′ 𝑘(𝜏𝑘 ′ −𝜏′ 𝑘)
But here𝑘1 = , ∴ 𝑘1 =
𝜏 𝜏3 𝜏2 +𝑘 2

𝜏𝑘 ′ −𝜏′ 𝑘
Hence 𝜏1 =
𝜏(𝜏2 +𝑘 2 )

1. Define the spherical indicatrix of the principal normal. Also deduce the curvature and
torsion of the spherical indicatrix of principal normal.
2. Investigate spherical images of the circular helix 𝐱 = 𝐚 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝐮 , 𝐲 = 𝐚 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝐮 , 𝐳 = 𝐜𝐮, 𝐜 ≠ 𝟎.
3. Show that the radii of curvature and torsion of the spherical indicatrix of the binormal are
𝛒𝟏 (𝛒𝟐 + 𝛔𝟐 ): (𝛒𝟐 + 𝛔𝟐 )/*𝛔 𝛔𝛒′ − 𝛔′ 𝛒 + , 𝛒 and 𝛔 have their usual meaning
 CT: 03.04.24

Assignment: 23.04.24

Students lectures: (24.04.24)

Group-1: Concept of surface + parametric curve (with also problems and theorems)

Group-2: Tangent and normal (with also problems and theorems)

Group-1: 191255, 201230, 47, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8, 24, 25, 28, 29, 32, 60, 62, 65, 67, 52, 53, 191248, 51,
171256 = 22

Group-2: 201255, 13, 17, 15,20, 21, 22, 23, 34, 37, 39, 42, 54, 55, 57, 58, 59, 50, 51, 191209, 42,
47=22
Lecture: 9 & 10 Bertnard Curves 03.04.2024

Definition: If a pair of curves, C and 𝑪𝟏 are such that the principal normal to C are
also principal normals to 𝑪𝟏 ,then pair of curves is said to be conjugate or associate
Bertnard curves.

b
t P
n C

𝒃𝟏
r
𝒕𝟏 Q
𝑪𝟏
𝒏𝟏
𝒓𝟏
 Properties: Let the quantities belongings to 𝐶1 , be distinguished by the use of
suffix unity.
𝑖 Let r and 𝑟1 be the position vectors of two corresponding points P and Q on
the curves C and 𝐶1 respectively with respect to some fixed origin.

Here clearly 𝒓𝟏 =r + an ……… 1 , where a is length PQ and is to be determined

Differentiating 1 with respect to ‘s’ and using Frenets formulae

𝑑𝑠1
𝒕𝟏 = 𝒕 + 𝑎′ 𝒏 + 𝑎 𝜏𝒃 − 𝜅𝒕 ….. …….. ….. 2
𝑑𝑠

Since principal normals to C are also principal normals to 𝐶1 ; we can choose their
direction so that
𝒏𝟏 =n….. …… ……… ……. ……. …… 3
Now multiply scalarly L.H.S. of 2 by 𝒏𝟏 and R.H.S. by n. [which is possible by virtue of (3) ]

Here , 0= 𝑎′ , integration gives a=constant.

𝑑𝑠1
Also we have 𝒕𝟏 = 𝒕 + 𝑎 𝜏𝒃 − 𝜅𝒕
𝑑𝑠
𝑑𝑠1
Or, 𝒕𝟏 = 1 − 𝑎𝜅 𝒕 + 𝑎 𝜏𝒃 …………(4) * Equation (2) +
𝑑𝑠

This relation reflects that 𝒕𝟏 ,𝒕,b are coplanar.

(ii) Let Ө be the angle between the tangents at P to C and at Q and 𝐶1 then ,
cos θ=𝒕. 𝒕𝟏 , Differentiation w.r.t ‘s’ gives

𝑑Ө 𝑑𝑠1
-sin θ = 𝜏𝒏. 𝒕𝟏 + 𝒕. 𝜏1 . 𝒏𝟏 [Using Frenets formulae]
𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑠
𝑑𝑠1
=𝜏𝒏𝟏 . 𝒕𝟏 - 𝜏1 t.n [Using 3 ]
𝑑𝑠

=0
𝑑Ө
Here = 0 integration gives Ө=constant (say 𝛼)
𝑑𝑠

Which proves that the tangent at P to C makes a constant angle with the tangent at Q
to 𝐶1 .
(iii) Since principal normals coincide and tangents are inclined at a constant angle 𝛼 and
therefore the binormals of the two curves are also inclined at an angle 𝛼.

We again observe here that t, b,𝒕𝟏 are coplanar since every one of them is
perpendicular to n. Hence we may write ,

𝒕𝟏 = 𝒕𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 + cos 90 + 𝛼 𝒃 𝒕1 𝒕

or 𝒕𝟏 = 𝒕𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 − 𝒃𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼….. ….. …….(5)

Equating coefficient in equation (4) and (5) 𝛼 900 + 𝛼

𝒃1
𝑑𝑠1 /𝑑𝑠 1−𝑎𝜅 𝑎𝜏 𝛼
= = 𝒏
1 cos α −sin α 𝒃
𝒏1
Or, 1 − 𝑎𝜅 sin α + 𝑎𝜏 cos𝛼=0 ……… (6)

Which shows that 𝜅 and 𝜏 of 𝐶are linearly connected.

Now we shall show that 𝜅1 and 𝜏1 of 𝐶1 are also linearly connected.
From equation (1) r = 𝒓𝟏 -an=𝒓𝟏 -a𝒏𝟏 [∵ n=𝒏𝟏 ]

Thus the point P (r) is at distant –a along the normal at 𝑄(𝒓𝟏 ); and also t
is inclined at angle −α to 𝒕𝟏 , i.e., the relation between C and 𝐶1 is a
reciprocal one.

Equation (6) can be expressed as 1 + 𝑎𝜅1 sin α + 𝑎𝜏1 cos 𝛼=0

[Putting a = −𝑎1 and α = −α1 -

HW: Theorem: 1 & 2 page 116

Ex. 1 to Ex. 13
[(Mittal Agarwal: 2006)]
 First Fundamental Form or Metric

Definition:
Let, 𝒓 = 𝒓 (𝑢, 𝑣) be the equation of a surface. The quadratic differential form
𝐸 𝑑𝑢2 + 2𝐹 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑣 + 𝐺 𝑑𝑣 2 𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑣, where 𝑬 = 𝒓𝟐𝟏 , 𝐹 = 𝒓𝟏 . 𝒓𝟐 , 𝐺 = 𝒓𝟐𝟐 , is called
metric or first fundamental form.

The quantities E, F, G are called first order fundamental magnitudes or first fundamental
coefficients, whose values vary from point to point on the surface as these quantities are
functions of 𝑢, 𝑣.
 Geometrical interpretation of metric:
Consider a curve u = u t , v = v (t) on the surface 𝒓 = 𝒓(𝑢, 𝑣).

Let 𝒓 and 𝒓 + 𝑑𝒓 Corresponding to the parameter values 𝑢, 𝑣 and 𝑢 + 𝑑𝑢 , 𝑣 + 𝑑𝑣

respectively be the position vectors of two neighboring points P and Q on the surface.

We can write: 𝑄(𝒓 + 𝑑𝒓)

𝝏𝒓 𝝏𝒓
𝑑𝒓 = 𝑑𝑢 + 𝑑𝑣
𝝏𝑢 𝝏𝑣 P(𝒓)
= 𝒓𝟏 𝑑𝑢 + 𝐫𝟐 𝑑𝑣
Let, the arc 𝑃𝑄 be 𝑑𝑠 . Since the points P and Q are neighboring points, then:

𝑑𝑠 = │𝑑𝒓│

Or, 𝑑𝑠 2 = 𝑑𝒓2

Or, 𝑑𝑠 2 = ( 𝒓𝟏 𝑑𝑢 + 𝒓𝟐 𝑑𝑣 )2

Or, 𝑑𝑠 2 = 𝒓𝟐𝟏 𝑑𝑢2 + 2 𝒓𝟏 . 𝒓𝟐 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑣 + 𝒓𝟐𝟏 𝑑𝑣 2

Or, 𝑑𝑠 2 = 𝐸 𝑑𝑢2 + 2 𝐹 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑣 + 𝐺 𝑑𝑣 2 (1)

Here, 𝑑𝑠 is the ‘infinitesimal distance’ from the point ( 𝑢 , 𝑣 ) to the point

(𝑢 + 𝑑𝑢, 𝑣 + 𝑑𝑣).
The arc length 𝒔 of the curve has the following relation with parameter 𝒕
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐
𝒅𝒔 𝒅𝒖 𝒅𝒖 𝒅𝒗 𝒅𝒗
=𝑬 + 𝟐𝑭 + 𝑮
𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕

Special cases: On the parametric curve 𝑢 = constant, 𝑑𝑢 = 0 and hence the metric
(1) reduce to 𝑑𝑠 2 = 𝐺 𝑑𝑣 2

The parametric curve 𝑣 = constant, 𝑑𝑣 = 0 and then the metric (1) reduces to
𝑑𝑠 2 = 𝐸𝑑𝑢2 .
Relation between the coefficient 𝑬 , 𝑭 , 𝑮 and 𝑯:
We have,
𝒓𝟏 × 𝒓𝟐 2 = 𝒓𝟐𝟏 𝒓𝟐𝟐 − 𝒓𝟏 . 𝒓𝟐 2

= 𝐸𝐺 − 𝐹 2 > 0 for 𝐸 > 0, 𝐺 > 0

Here,
𝐸 = 𝒓𝟐𝟏 , 𝐹 = 𝒓𝟏 . 𝒓𝟐 , 𝐺 = 𝒓𝟐𝟐

∴ 𝐸𝐺 − 𝐹 2 = 𝐻 2 (𝑠𝑎𝑦), is always positive quantity and H is taken to be the

positive square root of 𝐸𝐺 − 𝐹 2 .
 Important properties:

Property I: The metric is a positive quadratic form in 𝒅𝒖, 𝒅𝒗.

Since E > 0, we can write 𝐸 𝑑𝑢2 + 2𝐹 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑣 + 𝐺 𝑑𝑣 2
1
= 𝐸 2 𝑑𝑢2 + 2𝐸𝐹 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑣 + 𝐺𝐸 𝑑𝑣 2
𝐸
1 2
= 𝐸 𝑑𝑢 + 𝐹 𝑑𝑣 + 𝐸𝐺 − 𝐹 2 𝑑𝑣 2
𝐸
1 2
= 𝐸 𝑑𝑢 + 𝐹 𝑑𝑣 + 𝐻 2 𝑑𝑣 2
𝐸
≥ 0, as 𝐻 2 > 0 for all real values of 𝑑𝑢 and 𝑑𝑣
Again if 𝐸 𝑑𝑢2 + 2𝐹 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑣 + 𝐺 𝑑𝑣 2 = 0
2
𝑖. 𝑒., 𝐸 𝑑𝑢 + 𝐹 𝑑𝑣 + 𝐻 2 𝑑𝑣 2 = 0, then

𝐸 𝑑𝑢 + 𝐹 𝑑𝑣 2 =0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐻 2 𝑑𝑣 2 = 0
𝑖. 𝑒., 𝐸 𝑑𝑢 + 𝐹 𝑑𝑣 = 0 and dv = 0 as 𝐻 2 > 0
𝑖. 𝑒., 𝐸 𝑑𝑢 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑑𝑣 = 0 ,∵ 𝑑𝑣 = 0-
𝑖. 𝑒., 𝑑𝑢 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑑𝑣 = 0 𝑎𝑠 𝐸 > 0.

But both 𝑑𝑢 and 𝑑𝑣 can not vanish together.

Hence metric 𝑖. 𝑒. , 𝐸 𝑑𝑢2 + 2𝐹 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑣 + 𝐺 𝑑𝑣 2 is a positive definite quadratic form in
𝑑𝑢, 𝑑𝑣.
Lecture: 11 & 12 04.04.2024
Property II: The invariance property:
The metric remains invariant if the parameters 𝑢, 𝑣 are transformed to the parameters 𝑢
and 𝑣 by the relations (say):
𝑢 = 𝜑 𝑢, 𝑣 , 𝑣 ′ = 𝝍 u, v
𝜕𝒓 𝜕𝒓 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝒓 𝜕𝑣
There 𝒓′𝟏 = = +
𝜕𝑢′ 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢′ 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢′
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
= 𝒓𝟏 ′ + 𝒓𝟐 ′ … … … … … … … … … …(1)
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢
𝜕𝒓 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
Similarly 𝒓′𝟐 = = 𝒓𝟏 ′ + 𝒓𝟐 ′ … … … … … … … (2)
𝜕𝑣 ′ 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣
𝜕𝑢 ′ 𝜕𝑢 ′ … … … … … … … … … (3)
Again 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑑𝑢 + 𝑑𝑣
𝜕𝑢′ 𝜕𝑣 ′
𝜕𝑣 ′ 𝜕𝑣 ′ … … … … … … … … … . . (4)
And 𝑑𝑣 = 𝑑𝑢 + 𝑑𝑣
𝜕𝑢′ 𝜕𝑣 ′
Now we have
𝐸 ′ 𝑑𝑢 ′ + 2𝐹′2 𝑑𝑢′ 𝑑𝑣 ′ + 𝐺 ′ 𝑑𝑣 2
2
= 𝒓′𝟐𝟏 𝑑𝑢′ + 2𝒓′𝟏 . 𝒓𝟐𝟐 𝑑𝑢′ 𝑑𝑣 ′ + 𝒓′𝟐
𝟐 𝑑𝑣′
2

= 𝒓′𝟏 𝑑𝑢′ + 𝒓′𝟐 2

𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 2
= 𝒓𝟏 ′ + 𝒓𝟐 ′ 𝑑𝑢′ + 𝒓𝟏 ′ + 𝒓𝟐 ′ 𝑑𝑣 ′ [ from (1)&(2)]
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣

2
𝜕𝑢 ′
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 ′
𝜕𝑣
= 𝒓𝟏 ′
𝑑𝑢 + ′ 𝑑𝑣′ + 𝒓𝟐 ′
𝑑𝑢 + ′
𝑑𝑣′
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
= 𝒓𝟏 𝑑𝑢 + 𝒓𝟐 𝑑𝑣 2

= 𝒓𝟐𝟏 𝑑𝑢2 + 2𝒓𝟏 . 𝒓𝟐 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑣 + 𝒓𝟐𝟐 𝑑𝑣 2

= 𝐸 𝑑𝑢2 + 2𝐹 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑣 + 𝐺 𝑑𝑣 2
Hence the metric is invariant.
 Element of area

Consider the figure ABCD whose vertices A,B,C,D have

parameter values
D(u,v+dv) (𝑢, 𝑣), (𝑢 + 𝑑𝑢, 𝑣) (𝑢 + 𝑑𝑢, 𝑣 + 𝑑𝑣), (𝑢, 𝑣 + 𝑑𝑣) respectively .
C(u+du,v+dv)

𝑟2 𝑑𝑣
If 𝑑𝑢 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑑𝑣 Are small and positive, then the figure ABCD is
approximately a parallelogram.
𝑟1 𝑑𝑢 B(u+du,v)
A(u,v) Let 𝑟 denote the position vector of any point on the figure, then

𝑨𝑫 = Position vector of 𝐷 – Position vector of 𝐴

= 𝒓 𝑢, 𝑣 + 𝑑𝑣 − 𝒓(𝑢, 𝑣)
𝜕𝒓
= 𝒓 𝑢, 𝑣 + 𝑑𝑣 − 𝒓(𝑢, 𝑣)
𝜕𝑣
𝜕𝒓
= 𝑑𝑣 = 𝒓𝟐 𝑑𝑣.
𝜕𝑥
Similarly 𝑨𝑩 = 𝒓𝟏 𝑑𝑢.

Hence the area 𝑑𝑆 of the parallelogram 𝐴𝐵𝐶𝐷 is given by

𝑑𝑆 = 𝒓𝟏 𝑑𝑢 × 𝒓𝟐 𝑑𝑣 = 𝒓𝟏 × 𝒓𝟐 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑣 = 𝐻 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑣.

Thus the element of area on the surface at the point (𝑢, 𝑣) is taken to 𝐻 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑣.
 Second Fundamental Form

Let 𝒓 = 𝒓(𝑢, 𝑣) be the equation of a surface . The quadratic differential form

𝐿𝑑𝑢2 + 2𝑀𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑣 + 𝑁
𝑑𝑢, 𝑑𝑣 is called the second fundamental form . The quantities 𝐿, 𝑀, 𝑁 are called second
order fundamental magnitudes or second fundamental coefficients and explained as follows:
𝜕2 𝒓 𝜕2 𝒓 𝜕2 𝒓 𝜕2 𝒓
We know 𝒓𝟏𝟏 = , 𝒓𝟏𝟐 = = = 𝒓𝟐𝟏 , 𝒓𝟐𝟐 =
𝜕𝑢2 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 2

𝒓𝟏 × 𝒓𝟐 𝒓𝟏 × 𝒓𝟐
𝑁= =
𝒓𝟏 × 𝒓𝟐 𝐻
Where 𝑵 is the unit normal vector to the surface at the point 𝒓(𝑢, 𝑣) .
 We denote the resolved part of the vector 𝑟11 , 𝑟12 , 𝑟22 along the surface normal 𝑵 by
𝐿, 𝑀, 𝑁 respectively ; thus
𝐿 = 𝑵. 𝒓𝟏𝟏 ; 𝑀 = 𝑵. 𝒓𝟏𝟐 ; 𝑁 = 𝑵. 𝒓𝟐𝟐
And 𝐿𝑁 − 𝑀2 = 𝑇 2 (say), where 𝑇 2 is not necessarily positive .

Geometrical interpretation of the second fundamental form :

Consider 𝑝(𝒓) the point of contact of the tangent plane with the surface , with
parameter values 𝑢, 𝑣 . Let 𝑄(𝒓 + 𝑑𝒓) be the neighboring point with parameter
values 𝑢 + 𝑑𝑢 , 𝑣 + 𝑑𝑣 on the surface . The Taylor’s series gives
1
𝒓 + 𝑑𝒓 = 𝒓 + 𝒓𝟏 𝑑𝑢 + 𝒓𝟐 𝑑𝑣 + 𝒓𝟏𝟏 𝑑𝑢2 + 2𝒓𝟏𝟐 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑣 + 𝒓𝟐𝟐 𝑑𝑣 2 + ⋯
2
Let 𝑄𝑅 be the length of the perpendicular from 𝑄 on the tangent plane at 𝑃

∴ 𝑄𝑅 = Projection of the vector 𝑃𝑄(= 𝑑𝑟) on the normal at

𝑃 = 𝑁. 𝑑𝑟
1
= 𝑁. 𝑟1 𝑑𝑢 + 𝑟2 𝑑𝑣 + 𝑟11 𝑑𝑢2 + 2𝑟12 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑣 + 𝑟22 𝑑𝑣 2 + ⋯
2
P(r)
1
= 𝑁. 𝑟1 𝑑𝑢 + 𝑁. 𝑟2 𝑑𝑣 + ,𝑁. 𝑟11 𝑑𝑢2 + 2𝑁. 𝑟12 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑣
2
+ 𝑁. 𝑟22 𝑑𝑣 2 - + ⋯

1
= ,𝐿𝑑𝑢2 + 2𝑀𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑣 + 𝑁𝑑𝑣 2 -
2
∴ 𝐿𝑑𝑢2 + 2𝑀𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑣 + 𝑁𝑑𝑣 2 = 2𝑄𝑅.
Thus geometrically the second fundamental form namely 𝐿𝑑𝑢2 2𝑀𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑣 + 𝑁𝑑𝑣 2 at any
point 𝑃 of the surface has the value which is equal to twice the length of the contiguous
point 𝑄 on the tangent point at .

Some important products: page 150-151

Derivative of N (the surface normal); Weingarton equations: page 154-155

Page 151-154: Ex. 1 to7

Page 156-158: Ex,1 -3

Angle between parametric curves:

We have already defined parametric curves. Since

𝑟2 𝑟1 and 𝑟2 are the tangent vectors to the parametric
v-curve u=c curves and so the parametric direction are given
by 𝑟1 and𝑟2 . Now if 𝜔 be the angle between them,
it is given by
𝜔 𝑟1
𝑟1 . 𝑟2 𝐹
u-curve v=c cos 𝜔 = =
𝑟1 𝑟2 𝐸𝐺

𝑟1 × 𝑟2 𝐻
sin 𝜔 = =
𝑟1 𝑟2 𝐸𝐺

𝐻
tan 𝜔 =
𝐹
 Cor. If𝜔 = 90, the two parametric curves through a point 𝑃(𝑟) are orthogonal and
the condition then is 𝐹 = 𝑟1 . 𝑟2 = 0. If this condition is satisfied at all points, the two
system of parametric curves are said to be orthogonal.

HW:
Show that the curve bisecting the angles between the parametric curves are given by 𝑬𝒅𝒖𝟐 − 𝑮𝒅𝒗𝟐 = 𝟎.