MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD

MODULE 3: THE MATHEMATICS OF GRAPHS

Section 3.1: Euler Paths and Circuits

In this section, you will be introduced to one of

the most important, powerful and deep
mathematical theories, and an active field of
research known a s the “graph theory” and how
it was originally applied by the Swiss
mathematician Leonhard Euler (1707-1783) to
solve an old recreational puzzle in the early
eighteenth century. Also referred to as the
Source: http://mathonline.wikidot.com/eulerian-graphs-
“geometry of position”, graph theory is used to and-semi-eulerian-graphs

analyze and solve a variety of problems, such as Definition: Graph

determining whether or not it is possible for a -A generalization of the simple concept of a set of
vehicle to traverse all trails exactly once and points called vertices or nodes, and line segments
return to the starting point without repeating or curves called edges that connect the vertices.
any trail in a trip. The latter, being the focus of
Constructing a Graph
this topic, actually involves finding an Eulerian
◼ The following table lists eleven
graph which used every edge of a graph, and
cities/countries connected by an airline
must start and end at the same vertex. This type
flight. The symbol ✔ indicates that the
of graph was named after its proponent, Euler.
cities/countries have direct flights.
Hence, in this section, you will be later on tasked
◼ Draw a graph that represents this
to construct a graph and be able to trace either
information where each vertex represents
an Euler path or Euler circuit for a particular
a city/country and an edge connects two
application.
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vertices if the two cities/countries have a
direct flight.
 MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD

Table 3.1
We plot 11 vertices to represent the 11 cities.
Figure 3.2
We can do this in any configuration we like,
but in this example, the vertices are plotted
Figure 3.2 shows the more vivid picture of the
with respect to the approximate location of the resulting graph.
places in the map. Then we connect the Note:
vertices with edges according to the data on Manila vertex has the most number of edges
Table 3.1. attached to it, hence Manila has the most
number of direct flights.
Macau vertex is connected only to one node,
hence it has the least number of direct flight.
Brunei is not connected to any node, hence it
does not have a direct flight to any of the 10
countries.

Figure 3.1

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 MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD

Definition of Terms Directed Graph: G(V, E), set of vertices V, and

set of Edges E, that are ordered pair of elements of
Loop: A loop is an edge whose endpoints are
V (directed edges)
equal i.e., an edge joining a vertex to itself is
Representation Example: G(V, E), V = {u, v, w},
called a loop.
E = {(u, v), (v, w), (w, u)}
Represented as {u, u} = {u}

Multiple Edges: Two or more edges joining

the same pair of vertices.

Path: An alternating sequence of vertices and

edges.

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A graph is connected if there is a path connecting
#4%/"$%& &3-&25 6/ 7102"2/2 18 9: ) 010&#$/;
all the vertices.
2&/ 18 <&(/"7&2: )03 =: ) 2&/ 18 401(3&(&3
$)"(2 18 3"2/"07/ &%&#&0/2 18 9 7)%%&3
If a path begins and ends with the same vertex, it is
&3-&2 5 , 2"#$%& -()$* 7)0 >& 3"(&7/&3 1(
a closed path or a circuit/cycle.
403irected like the graph shown below.

Examples:
Representation Example: G(V, E),

Two vertices are adjacent if there is an edge

V = {u, v, w}, E = {{u, v}, {v, w}, {u, w}}
joining them.

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 MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD

If every pair of vertices of a graph are adjacent, Bipartite Graphs

the graph is complete. A complete graph with n In a simple graph G, if V can be partitioned
vertices is denoted by Kn. into two disjoint sets V1 and V2 such that
Complete graph: Kn, is the simple graph that every edge in the graph connects a vertex in
contains exactly one edge between each pair of V1 and a vertex V2 (so that no edge in G
distinct vertices. connects either two vertices in V1 or two
Representation Example: K1, K2, K3, K4 vertices in V2)

Application example: Representing Relations

Representation example: V1 = {v1, v2, v3} and
V2 = {v4, v5, v6}

The degree of a vertex is the number of edges

attached to it.

Let e be the number of edges in a complete graph.

From the previous slide, we note that:

K1: e = 0, degree of the vertex is 0

K2: e = 1, degree of each vertex is 1 Complete Bipartite Graphs
K3: e = 3, degree of each vertex is 2 Km,n is the graph that has its vertex set
K4: e = 6, degree of each vertex is 3 portioned into two subsets of m and n vertices,
respectively There is an edge between two
For n ≥ 3, the number of edges is given by the vertices if and only if one vertex is in the first
formula: subset and the other vertex is in the second
𝟏 subset.
𝒆𝒏 = 𝒏(𝒏 − 𝟏)
𝟐 Representation example: K2,3, K3,3

The degree of each vertex is n – 1.

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 MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD

A subgraph of a graph G = (V, E) is a graph H =(V’, The Bridges of Königsberg

E’) where V’ is a subset of V and E’ is a subset of E —The Birth of Graph Theory

Application example: solving sub-problems within a

graph

Representation example: V = {u, v, w}, E = ({u, v},

{v, w}, {w, u}}, H1 , H2

w
w
Source: https://slideplayer.com/slide/6237257/

G = H1 U H2 wherein E = E1 U E2 and V = V1 U V2,

Watch this video!
G, H1 and H2 are simple graphs of G
How the Königsberg bridge problem
Representation example: V1 = {u, w}, E1 = {{u, w}}, changed mathematics?
V2 = {w, v},
https://ed.ted.com/lessons/how-the-
E1 = {{w, v}}, V = {u, v ,w}, E = {{{u, w}, {{w, v}} konigsberg-bridge-problem-changed-
mathematics-dan-van-der-vieren

The problem is stated as follows: In the town of

Königsberg in Russia, there is an island called
Kneiphhof, with the two branches of the river Pregel
flowing around it. There are 7 bridges crossing the
two branches. The question is whether a person can
plan a walk in such a way that he will cross each of
these bridges once but not more than once.

G = G1 U G2 wherein E = E1 U E2 and V = V1 U V2,

G, G1 and G2 are simple graphs of G

Representation example: V1 = {u, w}, E1 = {{u, w}},

V2 = {w, v},

E1 = {{w, v}}, V = {u, v ,w}, E = {{{u, w}, {{w, v}}

Figure 3.1.__: Geographic Map of

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the Königsberg Bridges
 MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD

Euler Circuits and Path The Bridges of Königsberg Puzzle :

The Birth of Graph Theory

Question 1—Is there a way to visit each land mass

using a bridge only once? (Euler path)
Question 2—Is there a way to visit each land mass
using a bridge only once and beginning and
arriving at the same point? (Euler circuit)

Source: https://www.latimes.com/science/la-
xpm-2013-apr-15-la-sci-sn-leonhard-euler-
google-doodle-20130415-story.html
Sou
Leonhard Euler (1707-1783)

In honor of Leonhard Euler, a Swiss

mathematician and physicist who helped solve
the Bridges of Königsberg puzzle, a path that
uses each edge of a graph exactly once and ends
at the starting vertex is called an Eulerian
circuit. In the Königsberg bridge problem, note that:

Euler also noticed that if a connected graph had

exactly two odd vertices, it was possible to use
each edge of the graph exactly once but to end at
a vertex different from the starting vertex. Such
a path is called an Eulerian path.

The graph is NOT Eulerian. In fact, the it does

not contain any Euler path.

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 MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD

Definitions Example 3.2.2:

Determine whether the following graph is Eulerian.

An Euler path (Eulerian trail, Eulerian walk) in
If it is, find an Eulerian circuit. If it is not, explain
a graph is a path that uses each edge precisely
why.
once. If such a path exists, the graph is called
traversable.

An Euler circuit (Eulerian cycle, Eulerian tour)

in a graph is a closed path or circuit that uses each
edge precisely once. The path may cross through
vertices more than once. For an Euler circuit to
exist, the degree of each vertex in the graph must
be even. Hence, such a graph is called Eulerian.

Answer:
Example 3.1.1:
The given graph is Eulerian since the degree of
each vertex is even. The path:
The graph below has the Eulerian path
A–B–C–D–E–C–F–A
A-C-D-E-B-D-A-B
starts at vertex A and ends at vertex A; hence it is
a circuit. Moreover, it is an Eulerian circuit
because it uses all the edges only once.

Figure 3.1.__

Can you name other Euler paths from this

graph?

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