2021

SANDRA TABON

2021Philippine Edition

PORTS AND
HARBORS
2021

SANDRA TABON

PORTS AND
HARBORS
2021 Philippine Edition

i
Copyright ©2021 Sandra Tabon

All rights reserved. Published in the Philippines.

ii
PREFACE

The book entitled Ports and Harbors Philippine Edition was conceived
as a substantial material for the introductory study on coastal and port
engineering. It is meant to include an introduction to the coastal
engineering and port development. It covers the principles and concepts
on port and harbor engineering. It is envisioned to enable the attainment
of learning toward the analysis of and the solution to the coastal and port
problems and to address the issues on port engineering.

This 2021 edition is hoped to have included the additional detail which is
believed to be essential to the development of the previous edition.

SANDRA TABON

April 4, 2021

iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Preface

Table of Contents

Glossary
Page

Chapter 1

Descriptions and Significance of Ports and Harbors 1

Chapter 2

Port and Harbor Regulations, Policies and Management 3

Chapter 3

Principles, Concepts and Approaches on Port and Harbor Engineering 7

Chapter 4

Issues, Problems, Disaster Response and Environmental Considerations 34

References

iv
GLOSSARY

Anchor - verb as synonymous with moor, berth, or be at anchor

Berthing - act of mooring

Buoy - noun as anchored float ; verb as mark with a buoy

Bulkhead - structure dividing land and water areas

Caisson - water tight chamber or retaining structure

Center of gravity - point at which the weight of a body or system acts

DWT - dead weight

Hull - water tight body of ship

Keel - longitudinal backbone of the ship

Leeward - sheltered side

Lock - device for raising or lowering ship

Marina - dock or basin with mooring for yachts and small boats

Pitch - distance between adjacent coils in spring from center of

one coil to the center of the other coil

Quay - noun synonymous to wharf, pier, jetty, or berth

Scow - sailing vessel

Slip - specialized docking facility

Slipway - boat ramp

Suction - flow into a region of low pressure

Tramway - lightly laid railway

Tugs - pull vessels

v
 Chapter 1
Descriptions and Significance of Ports and
Harbors

A port is a location where vessels can dock and transfer people, or load or unload
cargo to and from the land. It may include a harbor which is a protected body of
water which vessels can access from the sea or ocean.

Bays, lakes, lagoons, rivers, canals and estuaries with access to the sea, can
naturally function as harbors. Inland water bodies can be locations for harbors.
Such harbors can be classified as natural harbors. The ports developed with the
natural harbors maybe called as inland ports. An inland port allows a ship to sail
from the ocean inland to unload or load its cargoes.

A coast can be developed as a site for a harbor that is developed as a port which
is provided with the protective breakwater. This can be classified as an artificial
harbor.

When a harbor or a port is utilized for landing fish, the port is categorized as a
fishing port that can be a recreational facility though most of these types of ports are
usually commercialized. When the port is a place where passengers of cruise ships
board to start a cruise and disembark at the end of the cruise, the port is considered
as a cruise port. Ports that load and unload cargo or cargoes, are called cargo ports
and are categorized as bulk port, break bulk port or container port as these ports
handle only one cargo, handle many cargoes, and handle containerized cargo,
respectively. The cruise ports and cargo ports are called seaports.

A ship can make an intermediate stop as it sails to its sailing itinerary. The port
for this purpose is called a port of call.

In India, ports are either major ports or nonmajor ports depending upon the
quantity of cargoes serviced by the port and harbors. In New Zealand, ports can be
categorized into major ports, river ports and breakwater ports. Major ports got natural
anchorages and require a little improvement. River ports are naturally protected as
the river mouth gave natural shelter from sea currents, and waves. Improvement

1
such as dredging can be done to develop the port. Knowledge of the river
characteristic can be beneficial in any plan to improve the structure and hence
increase the efficiency and safety in the port.

Ports vary in sizes. There are small ports. There are medium sized ports and there
are large ports which can be either restricted or less restricted.

Harbors include entrance channels, interior channels, and support facilities for
repairing or refuelling vessels.

Ports have the role in the moving of the products. They facilitate the trade and
market exchanges. They reinforce the competitiveness in exports. They generate
jobs as well. In ways, they provide service to the industrial sectors. Eventually they
contribute to the economic growth.

Cargo navigation is considered to be an eco-friendly means of transportation.

The transport of the hazardous materials though the marine transportation facilities
which are catered by the ports and harbors, is considered to be less risky as the
risk is lower than that of the other means of transportation. As the moved goods
are monitored round the clock, there is the low rate of vandalism and theft on goods
transferred though marine transportation system by the ports and harbors.

2
 Chapter 2
Port and Harbor Regulations, Policies and
Management

Public Law 13-87 established the Jose D . Leon Guerrero Commercial Port as a
public corporation that is mandated to provide the needs of ocean commerce,
shipping, commercial and recreational boating, and navigation in the territory of
Guam. It is an enabling act which provides the port to be self supporting. The
Port Authority of Guam was established as a public corporation. Its duties include
the development and maintenance of the port facilities as well as the control of the
operators of the water terminal properties. The general manager of the Port
Authority of Guam has the charge and the control over planning, organization
staffing, direction and coordination of the Authority’s operation and business affairs.
He is hired and employed at the pleasure of the board of directors who are
nonsalaried members appointed by the Governor with the consent and the advice
of the Guam Legislature.

The Nigerian Ports Authority aims to provide an efficient and professional port
operation that meets the current and future needs of the customers. It utilizes a
proactive and innovative management approach hence maximizes operational
efficiencies and considers the real value for money.

In 1974, in the Philippines the Philippine Port Authority was created through the
Presidential Decree (PD) 505 which gave it the general jurisdiction and control
over all persons, corporations, firms or entities existing, proposed or otherwise to
be established within the different port districts in the Philippines and shall
supervise, regulate, and exercise its powers in accordance to the provisions of the
decree. In the following year the port administration and operational functions were

3
reorganized through the PD 857 which integrated and coordinated the port
planning, development, control and operations at the national level and promoted
the growth of the regional port bodies which are responsive to the needs of the
locality. For the use in the presidential decree, the port is defined as a place
where ships may anchor or tie up for the purpose of repair, loading or discharge of
cargo or for other activities connected with water-borne commerce, and including all
the land and water areas and the structures, equipment and facilities related to
these functions. Others terms were defined in the said presidential decree. In the
said law, the word anchorage means a place with sufficient depth of water where
vessels anchor or may ride at anchor within the harbor. The term dry dock was
taken as a type of dock. A search on the subject dock led to a description of the
word that it is a structure extended from the shore into the water body for boats to
be moored. So the dry dock as the dock is that from which water can be
temporarily excluded to effect repairs to hulls and keels of ships or vessels
according to the aforementioned presidential decree. Navigable waters as defined
within the provisions of the presidential decree meant all navigable portion of the
seas, estuaries and inland waterways. The term basin means a naturally or
artificially enclosed or nearly enclosed body of water in free communication with the
sea.

The Philippine Ports Authority (PPA) allows private organization, partnership or

corporation to file an application for clearance to develop a wharf, a pier or like port
facility or structure of estimated cost of improvement at a particular barangay of a
municipality submitting basic requirements that include unified application form
specifying the exact location of foreshore area, area size, intended purpose or use,
type of structure to put up, and estimated cost of the development with summary of
project scope, description and vicinity map as attachments. The private
organization needed to indicate the foreshore lease contract number and TCT
(Transfer Certificate of Title) number of back up area as well as the ECC
(Environmental Compliance Certificate) number. Having a clearance, the private
company may obtain the permit to construct the improvement from the PPA. The
same organization may apply in the PPA to operate the port improvement facility
thus constructed.

The following terms were defined in the PD 857 as found below.

4
"Authority" means the Philippine Ports Authority created by this Decree.

"Board" means the Board of Directors of the Authority appointed by the President
under Section 7 of this Decree.

"Functions" includes powers and duties.

"Port District" means the territorial jurisdiction under the control, supervision or
ownership of the Authority over an area (land or sea), declared as such in
accordance with Section 5 of this Decree including but not limited to any Port within
said District.

"Port" means a place where ships may anchor or tie up for the purpose of shelter,
repair, loading or discharge of cargo, or for other such activities connected with
water-borne commerce, and including all the land and water areas and the
structures, equipment and facilities related to these functions.

"Navigable waters" means all navigable portions of the seas, estuaries, and inland
waterways.

"Anchorage" means a place with sufficient depth of water where vessels anchor or
may ride at anchor within the harbor.

"Terminal Facility" includes the seaport and its facilities of wharves, piers, slips,
docks, dry docks, bulkheads, basins, warehouses, cold storage, and loading or
unloading equipment.

"Basin" means a naturally or artificially enclosed or nearly enclosed body of water

in free communication with the sea.

"Dock" includes locks, cuts, entrances, graving docks, inclined planes, slipways,
quays, and other works and things appertaining to any dock.

"Drydock" means a dock from which the water can be temporarily excluded, in
order to effect repairs to hulls and keels of ships or vessels.

"Pier" means any structure built into the sea but not parallel to the coast line and
includes any stage, stair, landing place, landing stage, jetty, floating barge or
pontoon, and any bridge or other works connected therewith.

"Warehouse" means a building or shed used for the storage of cargo.

5
"Transit Shed" means a building or shed which is situated at or near a quay, wharf
or pier, and is used for the temporary or short-term storage of goods in transit, or to
be shipped or discharge from a vessel.

"Wharf" means a continuous structure built parallel to along the margin of the sea
or alongside riverbanks, canals or waterways where vessels may lie alongside to
receive or discharge cargo, embark or disembark passengers, or lie at rest.

"Transportation Facility" includes rails and railcars, highways, wheeled vehicles,

bridges, tunnels, tramways, subways, passenger or cargo vessels, ferry-boats,
lighters, tugs, barges, scows, ramps, and any kind of facility in use or for use of the
transportation, movement, or carriage of goods or passengers.

"Lighter" means a flat-bottomed boat or barge used in loading or unloading cargo

to or from vessels,

"Vessel" includes any ship or boat, or any description of a vessel or boat.

"Goods" includes animals, carcasses, baggage, and any movable property of any
kind.

"Dues" includes harbor fees, tonnage and wharfage dues, berthing charges, and
port dues and any other dues or fees imposed by virtue of existing law or this
Decree.

"Rates" means any rates or charges including any toll or rent under existing law or
imposed by the Authority by virtue of this Decree for facilities used or services
rendered.

6
 Chapter 3
Principles, Concepts and Approaches on Port
and Harbor Engineering

Ports and harbor engineering involve principles which for years have been applied
in engineering works which include design and construction of structures.
Formulas adopting known principles and concepts are included here. A lot of
these are found in the book authored by Alonzo DeF. Quinn [1].

The pressure of the wind is given by the formula p = c v2 where c is a constant

usually taken as 0.00256 and v is the velocity of the wind. When the velocity is in
miles per hour, the p is in pounds per square foot. Conversion to metric system of
the aforementioned units may involve the use of conversion factors for equivalent
values as 2.2 pounds when approximated for a kilogram, one mile as 5,280
feet, and 3.28 feet when considered as one meter.

The expression for wind velocity pressure p in metric unit of newton per square
meter is expressed as 0.613 v2 where v is in the unit of meter per second.

For a low flat surface of a ship or a dock, the p is usually multiplied by the smaller
value in the factor ranging from 1.3 to 1.6. When the wind is stronger than 24
kilometers per hour, a wind pressure of 24 kilograms per square meter is
considered adequate. A design force of 97.8 kilograms per square meter is not
usually put into effect to consider severe weather conditions such as hurricanes.

Example

Determine the total wind force P which one ship exerts against a pier as the
exposed area of the ship when light is 30,000 square feet ((2788.518739 square
meter) and maximum wind velocity is 70 miles per hour (31.30081301 m/s) in the
direction normal to the pier while allowing a factor of 1.3 for suction on leeward
side of the ship.

7
Solution

The intensity of the wind velocity pressure is p = c v2 where c = 0.00256 when

p is to be expressed in pounds per square foot and v is in miles per hour (mph).

p = 0.00256 v2

= 0.00256 (70 mph)2

= 12.544 pounds per square foot or 601.1559191 N/m2

Total wind force P = 1.3 (12.544 lb/ft2)(30,000 ft2)

= 489216 lb or 244.608 tons (using 2000 lb = 1 ton)

In metric system, p = 0.613 v2 where v is in the unit of meter per second.

p = 0.613 v2

= 0.613 (31.30081301 m/s)2

= 600.5811687 N/m2

Total wind force P = 1.3 (600.5811687 N/m2)( 2788.518739 m2)

= 2,177,151.396 N

Deep-water waves have characteristic wave height, wave length and wave period.
The distance between the crest and the trough of the wave is the wave height.
Wave length is the measurement between two consecutive crest. The time for the
wave to travel between two consecutive crests is the wave period.

8
A relationship between the wave length, velocity of wave propagation, and wave
period was presented in a book authored by Quinn from the basic equation of the
velocity as being equal to the wave length divided by the time for the wave to travel
along the wave length. Other equations in the book by Quinn included such as the
following:

v = (gT)/(2π)

L = (gT2 )/(2π)

T = 2π v/g

Where v = velocity of wave propagation in feet per second

L = wave length in feet

T = wave period in seconds

g = acceleration of gravity in English system

which is 32.2 feet per second per second

The above expressions resulted to the ones below as in the book by Quinn.

v= 5.12 T

L = 5.12 T2

T =0.195v

The conversion of the units from English system to SI (Systems International)

system of units or the metric system for each expression above may be made
using 3.28 feet equal to 1 meter and g which is acceleration due to gravity equal to
9.8 meters per second per second.

At one time in 2021, an open source manual of the office of the transportation
department in Texas, US, presented some basic concepts in coastal processes.
Accordingly several equations and theories were made to approximate the wave
characteristics. For the Texas coastline, it was said that wave impacts should be

9
considered not only for transportation infrastructure along the open coast but also
for infrastructure that is affected by locally generated waves within inlets and bays.
Numerical and physical modeling may be done to approximate design wave
characteristics. Accordingly, a system of wave information studies is publicly
available for areas within the Gulf of Mexico where almost all waves are generated
by wind while the heights and period of waves are parameters which are important
in engineering calculations. In the manual, the water depth is defined as the
distance from the bottom surface to the stillwater level as the stillwater level is
described as the level of water in the absence of waves. Where accordingly there
is mild, sandy slope offshore of the roadway structure in Texas, for used in the
design, H = 0.8 d is described as a practical value for determining appropriate
wave heights where H maximum which may represent the so called significant
wave height, is expectedly what is described as the upper limit for a design wave
height for coastal structures in shallow water, and d is the local water depth which
includes tide and storm surge.

It is expected that appropriate conversion factors be applied to convert the resulting

values from the expressions written in English units of measure to that of metric
system.

Two vertical walls namely the breakwater and sea wall are subjected to waves and
winds. While the former is not subjected to breaking waves as the latter is, the
former must be built high enough so as not to be overtopped by the attacking
waves.

Subsurface conditions at locations of breakwaters and other marine structures

include water content, specific gravity and void ratio. Water content (w) in
percentage based on the weight of the solid is expressed as 100 multiplied by the
ratio of the weight of water to the weight of solid. Quinn described the voids ratio
( e ) as 1/100 of the water content times the specific gravity (G) of the solid
material.

When the angle of internal friction of soil is zero, the cohesion (or cohesive or
shearing strength) of soil (cohesive) is one half the unconfined compressive
strength (unconfined compression test of which is similar to the standard test on
concrete cylinder).

10
So that,

C = qu/2

where C = cohesion

qu = compressive strength at failure

A fender may be a system of wood or rubber provided at the dock to prevent the
ship or dock from being damaged due to movement caused the winds and waves
while the ship is mooring. Assuming that the ship hits the dock, the fender (
installed on the dock) is to absorb an energy which equals one half of E (as the
other half is assumed to be absorbed by the water and the ship). E is the kinetic
energy.

Where E = ½ (W/g) v2 , W is the displaced weight of ship and v is the velocity of

the ship normal to the dock. As the work done by the pier is ½ of F multiplied by d,
then ½ of E equals ½ of F multiplied by d where F is the force to be resisted and D
the distance through which the force moved.

Example

A dock is protected by a wood fender system. A ship of displaced weight of 14,000

long tons (14,254,545.45 kg) is to dock with a 0.15 ft/s (0.04573170732 m/s)
maximum speed normal to the dock. Compute the energy that is expected to be
absorbed by the fender system from impact by the docking ship.

Solution

The energy which is expected to be absorbed by the fender system is one half of E
= ½ (W/g) v2. Using the given ship’s displaced weight in kilograms from
conversion of long tons, the solution below yields. Obviously, kilogram is a unit of
mass. Nevertheless it is used here as a value to replace the value in long tons
while one long ton is equivalent to 2240 pounds.

E = ½ (W/g) v2

11
 = ½ (14,254,545.45 kg/9.8 m/s2 )(0.04573170732 m/s)2

= 1521.010221 kg-m or 14905.9002 N-m

However, it can be noticed that the use of the formula or the expressions below
yields to the value in newton-meter directly.

E= ½ m v2

= ½ (14,254,545.45 kg) (0.04573170732 m/s)2

= 14905.9002 N-m

The use of m/g in the expression for the E facilitated clear cancellation of terms to
obviously result to kg-m unless an acceleration due to gravity g is multiplied to it so
that the newton-meter unit will appear. The use of m/g or the use of W/g in the
expression for the energy of impact is as per convenience which either can offer.
The E= ½ mv2 is theoretically correct and the ships in the United States got
displaced weights which are expressed in tons which is an English unit for the W.
In the Philippines, the English units are converted to the metric equivalent.

The energy absorbed by the fender system is one half of E.

½ E = 7452.95 01N-m

The fender system is expected to absorb 7452.9501 N-m due to the ship docking
effect.

A lot of empirical formulas on port and harbor designs came out in publications.
One approach that is adopted in this text is that presented in the book by Quinn.

It would be necessary to obtain site information. A site investigation is to be

conducted. This consists of a topographic survey of the land for the terminal, a
soil investigation by probings on water and borings and or test pits on land,
hydrographic survey of the channel area, observations of the tide and current, and
obtaining information on the wind, and waves. It would be necessary to obtain

12
information about the earthquake trend in the area, the availability and cost of the
materials and labor for construction as well as building codes, and laws and
regulations on port and harbor projects, planning, construction, maintenance and
operations.

Both the hydrographic and the topographic surveys are needing a single control line
which is a series of lines with bearings and distances with intersection which can
be monumented for use during construction.

The hydrographic survey is made to determine the depths of the water body over
the area larger than that of the proposed harbor and channels. It is done to locate
also the shoreline at low and high water surface as well as obstructions and
structures in the water and in the shore. Soundings can be made at about 7.622
meter interval along lines spaced 15.244 meters to 30.488 meters on centers and
referred to from low water datum. The time and day the soundings were made are
recorded as the water depth during the sounding is referred to the level of the water
surface. If dredging is needed, another sounding can be made after the dredging.
The hydrographic map that will show the elevations of the bottom of the sea may
be done to represent 200 feet (60.976 meters) of the actual area by 1 inch (0.0254
meters) in the drawing which means a scale of 1:2000 can be used.

The topographic survey is to be conducted to determine the contour of the land

where the terminals are to be built. Contours of about 0.610 meter to 1.524 meter
interval can be adopted. Elevations at 7.622 meter centers at both direction can be
desirable. Abrupt changes in the contour of the ground warrants the determination
of the vertical height. The topographic map that is made from the data is to show
the contours of the site, the location of test pits and borings, prominent landmarks,
structures and buildings. The topographic map can done on a scale of 1:1000
which means that 0.0254 meters in the map represents 30.488 meters in the actual
site.

Borings or probings are to be made at strategic points in the site for the harbor and
the channels to characterize the location of breakwaters, wharves, piers and other
structures in the harbor. Borings should be made along a definite line like the
center line. For structures of considerable width, two or more lines can be
considered. The borings usually is made at 30.488 meters center to center.

13
Having a 12.20 meter penetration into the firm material for an adequate support, is
to be taken into consideration in the boring.

Dry sample wash borings should be made. Where the soil is plastic, undisturbed
soil sample borings and soil test will be desirable. When there is appreciable load
added to the underlying plastic soil, soil test maybe made on undisturbed sample to
determine the shearing strength and consolidation coefficient of the soil.

On the seabed that is to be subjected to dredging, borings are to be made 76.22

meters to 152.44 meter center to center. The depth of the boring should be 0.610
meters below the dredged bottom. If a rock is encountered along the level the
depth of the boring should be 1.524 meters.

Sieve analysis and sedimentation test will have to be performed in the laboratory.
The soil sample should be classified. A gradation curve is to be drawn. A soil
profile is to be diagrammed. The triangular soil classification chart can be used to
classify the soil.

Tests for the determination of the water content, specific gravity and voids ratio are
to be done. If the shearing resistance of the soil is dependent upon the friction and
cohesion, the triaxial shear test should be done.

The data about the general direction and velocity of the currents in the area are to
be obtained. The mean high tide and the mean low tide are to be determined and
the datum for referencing the water level is to be established during sounding. The
wave and the wind are to be observed. The wave height should be observed. The
directions of the incoming waves and winds are to be observed also. The time
between the successive wave peak is to be observed.

In locations where tidal information is not available, it is necessary to install a tide

gauge to determine the mean high- and mean low-water levels.

In proposing a design for a port and harbor, it is recommended that a hydraulic

model of the proposed port and harbor must be tested in an investigation or study
so as to put the design on a sound engineering basis. The hydraulic model maybe
constructed of concrete in a wave basin using a linear scale of model to prototype.
The model is to be designed and operated in accordance to acceptable model
laws. The purpose of the model is to investigate the adequacy of the proposed
design to protect the docking area and to make revision at minimum cost when the
design is found to be inadequate.

14
In the design of the port, the following factors are to be taken into consideration:
layout of the port; marine environment; geometry, depth, and configuration of
exterior navigation channels such as fairway, approach channel, entrance channel,
interior basins, turning basins, berths; local environmental conditions; and size and
number of ships calling at port.

The loads to be used in the design of the dock include the lateral loads. The lateral
loads along the mooring lines pull the ship along the dock or hold it against the wind
or current. The wind pressure formula p=0.00256v2 is multiplied by 1.3. The
maximum wind force is equal to the exposed area of the broadside of the ship in
light condition, multiplied by the wind pressure adjusted by factor 1.3. The force of
the current is equal to (wv2)/(2g) where w is the weight per volume of water, v the
velocity of the current, and g is the acceleration due to gravity.

The docking impact is considered in the design of the fender system. The
earthquake force is considered when the project is in the area of seismic
disturbance. This horizontal force at the center of gravity of the mass may vary
between 0.025 and 0.10 of the acceleration of gravity g times the mass. This is
therefore expressed at 0.025 to 0.10 times the weight which shall include the dead
load plus one half of the live load.

The horizontal forces which can act on either side of a pier are the docking force,
wind load, and the earthquake when the pier is in the location of earthquake zone.
These loads do not act concurrently. Whichever is bigger controls the design for
instance of a batter pile.

The vertical loads consist of the dead loads and the live loads. Considered are
uniform loads and wheel loads.

Breakwater is a structure that is constructed to protect a coastal portion from

natural environmental actions. The breakwater can be constructed in a port and
harbor for protection and for other purposes such as serving as a pier or portion of
a pier and so it is called as a quay or a breakwater pier, or supporting a roadway in
which case the breakwater is coined as a mole. The breakwater is dependent
upon the size of the coastal area to be protected or the size of the port. The size of

15
the port itself is influenced by the required area in the basin for ships to maneuver,
and the breakwater’s influence over the current, waves and sediment transport.

Breakwaters are of different types. A breakwater may be made of natural rocks or

concrete or a combination of the two materials.

Three writers one who was Helge Lundgren [2] identified three types of
breakwaters. One type of breakwater is the sloping breakwater which got a sloping
seaward face. Another is called vertical breakwater with vertical or near vertical
seaward face. The third type of breakwater is coined as the composite breakwater.
This type consisted of a vertical part on a foundation with slopes at both sides.

A kind of sloping breakwater is mentioned in the book by Quinn and is called a rock
mound breakwater. This kind of breakwater may consist of an envelope or cap of
armor rock which is separated from the core materials by one or more intermediate
layers. It has a slope of 1 on 2 at the seaward side and 1 and 1.5 at the harbor
side.

The seaward side cap materials consisting of pieces of material each unit of which
of weight W extends beyond the high water level as high as the wave run up to the
top of the breakwater and goes deeper from the high water level to an elevation as
low as the wave height. To an elevation from wave height to twice of wave height
below the high water level, a material consisting of pieces each having the weight
of half the W covers or caps an intermediate layer which consists of materials
each with weight which is 1/10 of W. This layer having an individual cap rock
weight of 1/10 of the W extends below the materials covering the top towards the
sloping harbor side; and this layer becomes thicker at harbor side at elevation
below the low water level to act as outer covering to the inner core consisting of
materials each of which weighs within the range of W/200 to W/6000. The outer
layer below the elevation twice of the wave height from high water level at seaward
side, is having rock pieces each of which weighs 1/15 of the W covering or
capping an intermediate layer consisting of materials each of which of weight
W/300. The material covering the intermediate layer on the harbor side above the
low water level is made of pieces each of which weighs W/2. The top of the
breakwater extends to a width measuring as wide as the height of the wave. Both
materials at the seaward side of individual weights of W/15 and W/300 are sloping
at 1 on 1.5.

This type of construction usually involves the operation of extending the core out
from the shore dumping from trucks which operate on the top of the core. The top
of the breakwater may have to be made wider allowing trucks to operate.

16
According to Quinn in his book, the minimum width of the top of the breakwater
should be approximated to the height of the maximum wave.

The W is as below. This is based from the book by Quinn who mentioned that the
formula resulted from tests by the United States Army Engineer Waterways
Experiment Station with results dated 1958.

The W in the formula below which is the weight of individual broken rock or armor
unit, can be computed while assuming a specific gravity S of 2.73 for armor stone
with the W as soon determined, is converted from pounds to its metric unit
equivalent when necessary.

W = (ɤH3)/[K(S-1)3 cot ∝]

where

W = individual broken rock or armor rock (in pounds)

H = height of wave (in feet)

K = damage coefficient equal to 3.2 for no damage and no

overtopping criteria

∝ = rubble rock slope angle with the horizontal

S = specific gravity of broken rock

ɤ = rock specific weight (in pounds per cubic foot)

Example

Determine the weight of a unit armor rock for a breakwater subjected to 20 ft

(6.0975 610 m ) wave height . The damage coefficient is 3.2, rubble rock slope
angle with the horizontal is 27 degrees, the specific gravity of the broken rock is
2.73 and the rock specific weight is 120 lb/ft3 (1924.775564 kg/m3).

Solution

W = (ɤH3)/[K(S-1)3 cot ∝]

= [(120 lb/ft3) (20 ft)3]/[(3.2)(2.73-1)3(Cot 270)]

= 29,522.20735 lb or 13,419.18516 kg

17
Interestingly, Quinn mentioned in his book that the elimination of the intermediate
layer or the omission of the core may be a modification to the described rock
mound of three components as the use of the larger and more extensive
breakwater might require.

Where the soil condition in the sea bottom is not favourable, a rock mound type of
breakwater should be used. When the bottom is soft, it is possible may be to
dump broken rock until a stabilized base is obtained and settlement allowed. It may
be possible also to dig a trench and fill this with broken rock or materials
appropriate to address the condition of poor foundation. When a rock mound
breakwater is to be constructed on a soft bottom, layer of broken rock has to be
placed over the bottom for a width that is wider than the base of the breakwater.
Any failure of the soil below will be by shearing along a curve plane, cutting the
bottom at some distance beyond the toe of the superimposed load. Needed
therefore is a base of stronger material provided beyond the toe and beyond the
suspected plane of failure. A factor of safety against shear failure at the toe, of 1.5
is to be provided.

The above arrangement of the rock mount breakwater is adopted in this text as
described in the book by Quinn who presented in his book a figure on the cross
section of Delaware breakwater which consisted of inner core rubbles from 500
lb(converted to 227.27273 kg) to 7 tons and outer rock rubbles covering and
capping the inner core. The breakwater had a harbour side slope of 1 on 1.5 from
the mean low water to base elevation of 30 ft (9.14634 m). It is noticed that the
harbour side slope above the mean low water is steeper at 1 on 0.75. The
breakwater seaward side slopes at 1 on 1.25 downward from elevation of 13.5 ft
(4.11585 m) at top of the structure to 5 ft (1.52439 m) elevation; and slopes flatter
at 1 on 3 from 5 ft (1.52439 m) elevation to elevation 12 ft (3.65854 m) below the
mean low water. From that elevation, the seaward side sloped steeper at 1 on 1.5
until the base. The width at the base extends to 167 ft (50.91463 m).The width at
the top of the structure is 22 ft (6.70732 m).

It is assumed that a mound breakwater is to be constructed over a depth of

seawater on a clay bottom having a shearing strength, the cohesion value, and a

18
 given angle of internal friction. The breakwater is to resist a given height of wave.
The thickness and width of the base of the breakwater are to be determined. These
are to safely support the mound breakwater which is to be constructed using
broken rock pieces. From comparative trial computations, the curve which defines
the weakest surface for a slide has to be found. The point 0 is named as the center
of rotation for this slide. The driving moment and the resisting moment about the
point 0 will have to be found. The ratio of the resisting moment to the driving
moment should not be less than prescribed 1.5 factor of safety against a shear
failure. While the weight of the materials above the plane of failure at one side of
the center of moment, is causing the driving moment, the weights of the materials
at the other side of the center of moment contributes to the resisting moment which
consisted not only of the moments due to these weights but also by the moments
of the friction forces offered by the clay bottom and the pieces of broken rocks;
and the clay cohesion force moment.

W1

D1 D2
W2
D
sea harbour

0
A
F2
F1
B
C
R
F3
clay bottom F4
Fc

Figure 1. The rock mound breakwater rests on clay bottom.

19
Looking at the Figure 1, the driving moment is caused by W 1 which is the resultant
of all the weights at one side of the center of moment 0. One resisting moment is
rendered by the W2 which is at the other side of the center of moment. The
cohesion force Fc along the ABCD plane of failure, is causing a resisting moment at
a moment arm equal to the radius of the circular plane about the 0. When the
cohesion of clay is in the unit of kg per square meter, and multiplied by the square
meter of the product of section BC of circular circumference and unit thickness of
the portion of the length of the breakwater from end toward the shore, the resulting
unit in kg multiplied by the radius in meter of the circular plane BC provides the
resisting moment due to the cohesion of clay material. The clay friction forces F3
and F4 are offering the resistance together with the broken rock friction forces F1
and F2. Each of these frictional forces are acting opposite to the direction of
motion. The friction force offered by the rock fragment is along the plane of motion
and is expressed as the product of the so called normal force due to the weight of
the column of rock fragment above the plane of motion and the tangent of the angle
of internal friction. Each force of friction offered by the clay is tangent to the curve
of the plane of motion at the point where the normal to the frictional force is located.
The normal is the component of the weight of the column section of clay above
the plane of motion. The frictional force is the product of the tangent of the angle of
internal friction of the clay by the normal to the frictional force at the point of
tangency along the curve of motion. Each clay frictional force multiplied by the
radius of the circular plane of motion is a resisting moment about the center O. A
product of a rock fragment force of friction by its moment arm about the center O is
a resisting moment.

The plane ABCD is the weakest surface of the slide of the structure determined by
comparing the results of the calculations made to try a particular location as the
center of moment and finding the ratio of the resisting moment to the driving
moment to establish the factor of safety against shear failure.

Example

Using Figure 1 for a given mound breakwater on a clay bottom where cohesion
has a value of 1,000 lb/ft2 (47923.78182 N/m2 ) determine the resisting moment
due to clay cohesion force Fc as the curve or arc BC is 171.1 ft (52.16463415 m)
and the radius of the circular place of failure ABCD is 87 ft (26.52439024 m).

20
 Solution

Resisting moment due to clay cohesion force Fc

= arc BC (unit width of the plane of failure) (cohesion value )(moment arm about 0)

= 52.16463415 m (1 m)(47923.78182 N/m2) (26.52439024 m)

= 66,309,027.27 N-m

W1

D1 D2
W2
D
sea harbour

0
A
F2
F1
B
C
R
F3
clay bottom F4
Fc

Example

Considering a section abcd of the mound breakwater shown in Figure 1, compute

the driving moment contributed by the wi with moment arm of 45 ft (13.72 m) if the
section got the dimensions of 25 ft ( 7.622m) by 40 ft (12.20 m) and a unit width
of the breakwater consisted of rock fragments with specific gravity of 1.92. It will be
noted that W1 is the resultant of wi , wj , wk , wl and wm.

21
 Solution

Driving moment due to wi

= 7.622 m (12.20 m) (1 m) (1.92) (1000 kg/m3)(9.8 m/sec2)(13.72 m)

= 24,005,500 N-m

W1

D1 D2
W2
D wj
sea harbour
b
a
wl wi 0
wk
A
F2 c
Wm d F1
B
C
R
F3
clay bottom F4
Fc

Quinn in his book had emphasized the importance of testing hydraulic models as a
sound engineering basis for the design of harbors. With the fast advancing
computing and electronic technologies, the use of physical models and virtual
laboratories have been explored in coastal and ports and harbour engineering. A
2013 posted video showed a composite breakwater tested for overtopping tsunami
[3]. A faculty of engineering in the University of Porto, Portugal in cooperation with

22
Deltares, The Netherlands tested a model of a rubble mound breakwater in
relation to wave topping and damage of armour layer of the breakwater [4]. A
consultant showed a model of effects of various coastal defences which included
the use of rubbles which demonstrated an effective way of dissipating wave effects
[5].

The use of caissons for breakwater is that type of construction which has the
advantage of reducing large amount of work on water. The caisson-type of
breakwater construction enables lots of work to be done on the land. A company
[6] promoted its capability to make large caissons. When caissons which are box
like units are used in the composite type of breakwater may be constructed on
land, launched and delivered to the site of the work. They are sunk in depths of
water on a prepared foundation consisting of rock fragments leveled off at the
depth below the surface level, filled with crushed aggregates, and capped with a
superstructure of required width at the top.

Certain type of breakwater may be designed as part of a marina development

project such as the one in Loch Lomond [7] or as a part of construction in a
harbour such as in waterfront Shell Cove [8].

Fenders have the functions to absorb the berthing impact energy. While E
represents the kinetic energy of impact, it is assumed that ½ of E is absorbed by
the fender system and the dock. The remaining half of the impact energy is taken
as absorbed by the water and the ship.

The design of a steel spring fender system is one which can be dealt when finding
the size for the spring component using the formulas presented in the strength of
materials book by Singer [9]. This constitutes the same approach provided by
Quinn in his book. The formulas used in both book are as found below.

𝛿 =( 64nFR3 )/(d4 G)

Safe shearing stress, S = 16FRk/𝜋d3

23
where

𝛿 = deflection of spring

n = number of coils

G = shearing modulus of elasticity taken as 10,500,000 pounds per inch squared

or 7,393,954,909.0950 kg per square meter which is 72,460,758,109.131 newton
per meter squared or approximately 72 GN/m2.

k= [(4h-1)/(4h-4)+ (0.615/h)]

F=safe load

d = diameter of wire (or rod)

R= mean radius of coil

P=pitch

h= 2R/d

It is noted that the length of spring of n coils, L is equal to 2𝜋𝑅𝑛 where R is the
mean radius of the coil and n is the number of coils as presented in the book by
Singer. The book by Quinn expressed the available length L for the spring as
below.

L = (n-1)(p-d) + nd

Example

A steel spring fender system is to be provided to protect the berthing ship from
berthing impact. Determine the force to be taken by the dock when the given
conditions include the ship displacement of 34,618,182 kg docking at an angle of
10 degrees with a speed of one knot (0.51494 meter per second). Find out if the
given spring will be able to resist the shearing load while assuming a maximum

24
spring deflection, 𝛿 of 0.30 m. Given is a spring of a hot-rolled carbon steel with
S=60,000 psi (approximately 414 MPa) of approximate length L = 43 inches
(109.22 cm) while d=1 5/8 inches (or 4.1275 cm) and pitch = 2 ½ inches (or 6.35
cm).

Solution

E = (Wv2)/(2g)

= (34,618,182 kg)[(0.51494 m/s) (sin 100)]2/[(2)(9.8 m/sec2)]

= 14,122 kg-m

½ E = 7,061 kg-m

½E=½F𝛿

F= 2 (7,061 kg-m)/(0.3 m)

= 47,074 kg

= 461,320 N or 461.320 kN.

Assume that the ship impact will be carried by four springs, spaced at 4.57317 m.

Load in each spring = F/4. The deflection of each spring is 0.3 m.

F/4 = 461,320 N/4

25
 = 115,330 N or 115.330 kN

𝛿 =( 64nFR3 )/(d4 G) which is further expressed in the book by Quinn as

𝛿 =( 4𝜋nSR2 )/(d Gk)

Safe shearing stress, S = 16FRk/𝜋d3

where

𝛿 = deflection of spring

n = number of coils

G = shearing modulus of elasticity

k= [(4h-1)/(4h-4)+ (0.615/h)]

F=safe load

d = diameter of wire (or rod)

R= mean radius of coil

h= 2 R/d

Using double heated- treated hot-rolled carbon steel with maximum shearing
strength of 60,000 psi converted to 42,251,170.90488 kg per square meter or
414,061,474.86782 newton per square meter in the unit of pascal which is
approximately 414 MPa.

L = (n-1)(p-d) + nd

109.22 cm = (n-1)(6.35 cm – 4.1275 cm) + n( 4.1275 cm)

109.22 = (n-1) (2.2225 ) + 4.1275 n

109.22 = 2.2225 n – 2.2225 + 4.1275 n

109.22 + 2.2225 = 6.35 n

26
111.4425 = 6.35 n

n = 17.55

This requires 18 coils in the spring.

From the formula of spring deflection, the expression in terms of English system
units below results.

𝛿 =( 4𝜋nSR2 )/(d Gk)

0.3 m =

[4 𝜋 (18 coils) (414,061,474.86782 N/m2)(R2)]/(0.041275 m)( 72,460,758,109.131 N/m2) k

0.3 = 31.31534772 R2/k equation 1

S = 16FRk/𝜋d3

414,061,474.86782 N/m2 = 16 (461,320 N) R k/ 𝜋(0.041275 m)3

0.01239235018 = R k equation 2

If k = 0.01239235018 / R then when used in equation 1, an equation as below will

result.

0.3 = 31.31534772 R2/k equation 1

0.3 = 31.31534772 R2/(0.01239235018 / R )

R3 = 1.187183067 x 10-4 m3

27
= 0.05065132829 m

= 5.0651 cm or say 52 mm

h= 2R/d

= 2 (0.052m)/ (0.041275 m)

=2.519685039

k= [(4h-1)/(4h-4)+ (0.615/h)]

={[4(2.519685039)-1]/[4(2.519685039) -4]} + [0.615/(2.519685039)]

= 1.2494

S = 16FRk/𝜋d3

= 16 (461,320 N) (0.052m) (1.2494)/ 𝜋(0.041275 m)3

= 2,170,780,905 N/m2 > 414,061,475 newton per square meter

The designs considerations for the pier or wharf includes the determination of the
size ;and layout; and the general type of design to be used as well as the loads to
be used in the design.

Bulkheads may consist of steel sheet piles, concrete piles and timber piles. In the
construction of the fill bulkhead, the piles are driven, the anchorage is constructed,
and the backfill is placed on the landside. The foundation engineering book written
by Ralph Peck and two other authors [10] provided clearer understanding
concerning the analysis for bulkheads. Accordingly, anchored bulkhead by fail in
one of at least three ways as are described below.

1. The under lying soil experiences a bearing capacity failure under the
unbalanced weight of the material behind the sheeting as the bulkhead is
founded above weak cohesive material. The authors explained that the
movements may take the form of a general rotation failure involving the

28
 sheeting and even the anchorage. The full weight of the soil and the water
behind the bulkhead are the forces tending to cause the bearing capacity
failure. The resisting forces include the weight Ww and lateral pressure Pw
as shown in Figure 2.

anchor plates
anchor rod
sheeting

Ww

sand
Pw

Soft clay

Figure 2. The anchorage may fail may be because the force in the anchor rods
has been underestimated.

2. The anchorage is in failure as the rods are subjected to additional tension

causing them to break or moved together with the bulkhead toward the
water.
3. The toe embedment experiences excessive lateral movement

29
Bulkheads may be anchored using anchor beam supported by batter piles as
shown in Figure 3. The sheet piles are supported by the embedment in the
underlying soil of their lower ends.

Sheet piles anchor beam

batter pile

soil

Figure 3. Bulkheads which are anchored not by anchor wall or rows of anchor
piles are may be supported by anchor beam as shown.

Steel sheet may be driven in the process of making the bulkhead [11]. Their lower
end may then be embedded in the under lying soil.

For berth surface elevation, a higher surface elevation is often chosen at around 2
meters above Mean Sea Level.

30
Apron width is the distance from the quay face to the transit shed. This maybe 20 to
40 meters.

The scour protection may consists of armour stones on the sea bed, a continuous
layer of smaller stones encased in steel wire cages, and a continuous concrete
pavement.

Passenger facilities are shelter for use while waiting for departure. Provisions for
refreshments, a limited shopping and toilet are to be considered. The total area
requirement should not be less than one square meter per passenger. In the
Philippines air space requirement, room dimension, height of building, floor area
and related structure measurements are governed by the PD 1096 that is called
the National Building Code of the Philippines which revised the Republic Act (RA)
6541.

A mole or a trestle maybe provided to access from the mainland to the inshore
end of a pier. The mole which can be of rock fragments extending out from shore
may have sloping sides of riprap or armor rock and upper surface of sufficient width
to serve the pier facilities like sidewalk or road tracks where the depth of the
water is approximately 10 ft (3.04878m) and the surface of the mole not higher
than 12 to 15 ft (3.658536585 m to 4.573170732 m) above the low water. The
trestle which is not to withstand the docking and the mooring loads should be
capable of carrying the vertical loads and should withstand the current, wind, ice
and earthquake loads when these occur. The vertical forces may consist of the
equipment such as cranes, pipelines, conveyors, railroad loads, trucks, and uniform
live load of 250 lb/ft2 (11980.94545 N/m2).

Prestressed and Precast concrete deck slab may be found in trestle construction.
A wood trestle construction presents a very economical one for short term
temporary use.

Dolphins may be of two types namely flexible and rigid. The wood pile cluster
dolphin is a flexible type of. Groups of steel pipe piles and large steel cylinders
were used to provide for flexible dolphins.

31
Example

A dolphin is to be put up to dock a ship with a displacement of 70,000 long tons

(which is 698472727.3 N using the conversion of 1 long ton = 2240 pounds) with
an approach speed of 20 ft per minute (0.333 ft/s or 0.102 m/s) normal to the face
of the dolphin and for breasting a ship off the dock against an offshore wind of 75
miles per hour (120.7317073 kph or 33.53658537 m/s). The exposed area of the
ship when light is 40,000 square feet (3718.024985 square meter).

Determine the total wind force against the side of the ship. Calculate the energy of
the docking ship.

Solution

Wind force p equals 0.613 v2 where v is in the unit of meter per second.

p = (1.3) 0.613 v2

= (1.3) 0.613 (33.53658537 m/s)2

= 896.2754685 N/m2 Use 900 N/m2

Total wind force against the side of the ship, P

P = 900N/m2 (3718.024985 m2)

= 3346222.487 N or approximately 800,000 lb or 400 short tons

The energy of the docking ship is E = Wv2/2g.

E = Wv2/2g

= 698472727.3 N (0.102 m/s)2/[2 (9.8 m/s2)]

= 370,760.7271 N-m or 400,000 N-m

or

32
 E = Wv2/2g

= (70,000 long tons) (2240 lb/long ton)(0.333 ft/s)2 /[2(32.2 ft/s2 )]

= 270,000 ft-lb or 400,000 N-m

A catwalk may be provided to give access between dolphins. Mooring of vessel

offshore by its own anchor or buoys or buoy may be made to address berthing
needs. This is done as close to the shore as possible with considerations of the
required water depth. Large super tankers required at loading point a depth of
about 60 ft (18.29268293 m). Those of 35,000 to 100,000 DWT (100,000 metric
tons or 100,000 short tons) require center to center berth spacing of 3500 ft
(1067.073171 m) to 5000 ft (1524.390244 m).

33
 Chapter 4
Issues, Problems, Disaster Response and
Environmental Considerations

The parts of the ports should be protected against the action of waves, wind,
currents, and ice. Cross currents and waves may interfere with the maneuvering
of the vessel when it passes along the harbor entrance when getting in and out of
the interior basin. Insufficient protection against these environmental variants might
interrupt the vessels loading or unloading operations. The situation might cause the
breakage of the moorings and the excessive movements of the ships at berth.

In the inland ports, vessels can be protected from strong current. At times, it is
necessary to provide additional provisions on the use of warping dolphins, mooring
bouys, quay- based winches and adequate fendering system.

One way to control the effect of the waves in the harbor is to restrict the width of the
entrance to the harbor. A proper geometry of the basin should be provided. A
suitable layout of the breakwater should be made. Effective short wave energy
dissipation sloping walls or permeable walls or perforated breakwaters maybe
designed. For protection against long waves, rubble mound breakwaters maybe
put in place. As needed, a special means of pneumatic or hydraulic breakwater
maybe installed.

According to Gregory Tsinker [12], the best solution to the wave based or current
based issues and problems in the ports, is through a hydraulic model studies on
the actual wave data, when the theoretical and numerical methods may be
employed to process the data in the course of investigating the behavior of the
waves, or by mathematical modelling on wave actions and currents. This involves
an accurate and adequate observation and recording of the field data.

34
 Inputs in a spreadsheet, the fit of a curve or a mathematical expression of a
model or a system like a first order differential equation or a linear programming
model can be manipulated for purposes which may include predictions or solutions
to the current problem.

Port operation and maintenance works are confronted by marine environmental

problems that include the issue on the presence of soft bottom sediments. The
elements of the ports and harbors should be protected against siltation. Lack of
protection can cause damage to vessels and wharves installations. A solution to
this according to Tsinker [12] is the mathematical modelling on sedimentation.
Accordingly, the solution to the problem on siltation can best be solved by properly
modelling all hydraulic parameters in the hydraulic model. This involves an accurate
and adequate survey data.

Persistently hot, humid climates responsible for high rates of steel corrosion in steel
structures build in the port or harbor can lead to high cost of maintenance work.

On October 15, 2006, a 6.7 magnitude earthquake struck the northwest coast of the
island of Hawaii causing significant damage to the port facilities at Kawaihae
Harbor. Days later, a 4 magnitude aftershock did further damage to the port
facilities. In response to the earthquake, the US president declared the event as a
disaster, which did allow the Federal government to provide recovery assistance
which included repairs of the damage. The Department of Homeland Security’s
Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) prepared a report [13] under
the Hazard Mitigation Technical Assistance Program, documenting the results of
the investigation of the Kawaihae Harbor. The report included the following
identified conditions common at many ports, which determine the vulnerability of
port facilities to damage from earthquake: poor quality soils close to water tending
to be alluvial in nature, poor quality fill soils, and port structure type like pier or
wharf prone to damage during shaking. Common forms of liquefaction-induced
damage at ports were listed as follow: deformation and failure of dikes; lateral,
rotational and vertical displacement and deformation of retaining structures and
their backfill materials; buckling, yielding, and fracture of pile supports at piers and
wharves (particularly batter piles); failure and collapse of cranes due largely to large
relative movement of the landward and seaward crane rails which were not

35
structurally connected; extensive settlement and cracking of pavement in storage
yards and along access roadways; and damage to buried pipelines.

After the October 15, 2006 seismic event, the following emergency measures were
undertaken by the Department of Transportation (DOT) Harbors Division:
immediate closure of the operation, reconnaissance and inspection, temporary
mooring anchors at Pier 1, fill and pavement placement in areas of subsidence,
reopening of operations, continuing interim restrictions, and coordination with the
FEMA Public Assistance (PA) program.

The FEMA report that covered the Kawaihae Harbor earthquake damage,
contained seismic mitigation guidelines for Pacific island ports.

The concepts for the recommended mitigations were aimed at identifying low cost
mitigation, utilizing limited local resources, and providing education on concepts of
tolerable risk. In the report are the field observation based descriptions of the
Kawaihae Harbor facilties which included the structural facilities as wharves and
mooring dophins enumerated as Pier 1 which is a concrete sheet pile bulkhead,
Pier 2A being a concrete wharf supported by concrete piles, Pier 2B that is also a
concrete wharf, mooring dolphins consisting of three reinforced concrete mooring
dolphins; structural waterfront buildings such as Pier 1: North Metal Building
referred to as North Transit Shed which is a single story structural steel building,
Pier 1: South Metal Building that is a single story pre-engineered metal building,
Pier 2 A:Transit Shed which is a single- story structural steel building, and brewer
building that is a single story high bay concrete building used for material storage;
and other structural site facilities which include fuel tanks, concrete plant which
included a steel silo and mechanical equipment as well as two story
administration building, control building consisting of two story light frame structure,
light poles which included the harbor yard several dozens of light poles made of
tapered steel shalfs bolted to the concrete base pedestal, drainage canal
consisting of grouted riprap and concrete-lined open channel canal forming a
storm water collection system around the perimeter of the main Kawaihae Harbor
facilities, underground utilities which include electrical conduits and water lines as
well as sewer lines and also the cement supply line between Pier 1 and the
concrete plant, and pavements.

36
The observation of the seismic performance of the Kawaihae Harbor supports the
the statement that the project team doing the evaluation believed that the bedrock
peak ground acceleration at Kawaihae Harbor was likely on the order of 0.3 g to
0.6g; that the majority of liquefaction occurred in uncemented dredged fills or only
very loose pockets within the natural corals; that the Pier 1 moved offshore by
approximately 1 to 5 inches from the south to the north end, with offshore
movement of up to 15 inches in adjacent riprap, Pier 2 A movement onshore by
about 1 inch, and Pier B appeared to have no appreciable lateral movement; that
the newer structures performed better than the older ones; that the State of Hawaii
personnel coordinating federal officials responded rapidly; that the newer
structures performed better than the older ones; that the State of Hawaii personnel
coordinating federal officials responded rapidly; and that the Kiholo Bay
earthquake represents a seismic event that is within the range of events
accommodated by the current building codes and is perhaps typical of the level of
seismic risk at other similar ports in the US territory Pacific islands.

Project proponents are faced by issues and problems and these days, they are also
greatly involved in environmental impact mitigations. One mitigation measure which
may be considered to address the visual impact of a project is the addition of
landscaping.

The considerations and development of mitigating measures in a project start at the

onset of the project process. According to the US Department of Transportation
Federal Highway Administration (US DOT FHWA), the initial mitigation efforts flow
from the project evaluation alternatives and are refined within the process in the
project [14]. The NEPA (National Environmental Policy Act) requires an ordered
approach to mitigation termed as the sequencing. Under this, the project sponsor
considers way to avoid the impact. If this is impossible, he then attempts to
minimize the impact. Lastly, the project sponsor compensates for any unavoidable
impact.

The federal funding is made available for mitigation efforts and programs which are
determined appropriate and reasonable by the FHWA. The DOT has
environmental mitigation strategies which the project sponsor may know. The office
also has checklist and computer programs to help keep track of commitments in the
project.

37
References

[1] Quinn, A. (1972). Design and Construction of Ports and Marine Structures
(2nd ed). New York: Mc Graw-Hill Book Company.

[2] Agerschou, H., et. Al. (1983). Breakwater design. Planning and Design of
Ports and Marine Terminals. New York: John Wiley and Sons.

[3] Tsunami Field Surveys. (2013). Tsunami overtopping a breakwater

(incoming wave).
Website: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E3Sk6w3Rdw

[4] Santos, P. (2017).Wave attack on rubble mound breakwater

-overtopping (HYDRALAB+).
Website: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=W1rGu66mzco&spfreload=10

[5] JBA Trust .(2016). Water tank demonstration showing the impact of coastal
defenses on flood risk..
website: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3yNoy4H2Z-o

[6] ACCIONA. (2016). Caisson technology in the construction of port

infrastructure.
Website:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iKeGKYBOK50

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