CHPTER – 7 MEMORY

CLASS XI PSYCHOLOGY

1. What is memory?
Memory refers to retaining and recalling information over a period of time,
depending upon the nature of cognitive tasks you are required to perform.
2. What is the nature or process of memory?
Memory is conceptualized as a process consisting of three independent,
though interrelated stages. These are encoding, storage and retrieval.
Encoding: it is the first stage of memory development, it refers to the process
through which information is recorded or registered first time so that it will be
helpful to develop memory for the purpose of future usage. In encoding
incoming information is received and some meaning is derived.
Storage: it is the second process or stage of memory. Information which is
encoded must also be stored so that it can be put to use later. Storage is a
process where the information is stored and held for some period of time.
Retrieval: The last and final stage of memory and it is a process through which
the information already stored in our brain will be collected back for usage.
Retrieval refers to bringing back the stored information his/her awareness so
that it can be used for performing various functions in daily life.
3. Explain stage model theory of memory?
Atkinson and Shiffrin proposed the stage model theory of memory in the year
1968. According to state model theory or information processing approach of
memory there are three systems of memory which are sensory memory, short-
term memory, Long-term memory.
Information is the base for the development of memory
Sensory memory: It has a large storage capacity and whatever the information
enters through the sensory receptors is known as sensory memory. It is of

ISM/SENIOR SECTION/PSYCHOLOGY/OCT 2017 Page 1 of 7

 very short duration (Less than one second). It is a memory system which
registers the information form each of the senses with reasonable accuracy.
Short-term memory: The information which is entered through the sensory
receptors will move to the short term memory for processing due to the
attention shown by the individuals. STM holds a small amount of information
for less than 30 seconds of time. Atkinson and Shiffrin propose that
information is short term memory is primarily encoded acoustically. STM is
fragile but not as fragile as sensory memory.
Long-term memory: Due to the elaborative and maintenance rehearsals the
information kept in the short term memory will reach to the Long-term
memory. The information kept in long term memory is permanent and its
storage capacity is unlimited. The information in long term memory is stored
semantically in terms of meaning of the information.

4. What is working memory?

The multi component view of short term memory was proposed by
Baddeley(1986), He suggested that the short term memory is not a passive
storehouse but rather a work bench that holds a wide variety of information
that is constantly handled, manipulated and transformed as people perform
various cognitive tasks. The work bench is called as working memory and it is
having three components.
Phonological Loop: It holds a limited number of sounds and unless rehearsed
they decay within 2 seconds.
Visuospatial sketchpad: it stores visual and spatial information and its capacity
is limited.
Central executive: It organizes information from the discussed two parts and
form the base for long term memory. It allocates attentional resources among
various levels to perform various cognitive operations and monitors, plans and
controls the behavior.
5. What are the various classifications of long term memory?
ISM/SENIOR SECTION/PSYCHOLOGY/OCT 2017 Page 2 of 7
 Long term memory is known as permanent memory and it is divided in to
various ways for the sake of our understanding.
Declarative and Procedural memory: All the information pertaining facts,
names, dates, such as India got independence on August 15, 1947. The capital
city of Oman is Muscat….etc. are the concepts of declarative memory.
Procedural memory refers to the various processes or the methods used to
accomplish various tasks and skills such as how to prepare a Pizza, making a
cup of tea, how to swim….etc.
Tulving divided the declarative memory as two types one is episodic memory
and another one is Semantic memory.
Episodic memory contains biographical details of our life. Memories related to
personal life experiences constitute the episodic memory and it is for this
reason that its content is basically emotional in nature.
Semantic memory is the memory of general awareness and knowledge. All
concepts, ideas, rules of logic are stored in semantic memory.
Another classification of long term memory
Flashbulb memories: These are memories related to events which will arouse
in a surprising way. Such memories are very detailed and they are like a photo
taken with an advanced model camera. Flashbulb memories are like images
frozen in memory and tied to particular places, events, dates, times and
situations.
Autobiographical memory: The personal experiences are stored in
autobiographical memory, They are not distributed evenly throughout our
lives. Personal experiences around the age of 4 to 5 years can be recalled by
the people and before to this age period nothing will be remembered and it is
called as childhood amnesia.
Implicit memory: It is a kind of memory which an individual is not aware of it
and it is retrieved automatically. Implicit memories lie outside the boundaries
of awareness. In other words, we can say that an individual is not conscious

ISM/SENIOR SECTION/PSYCHOLOGY/OCT 2017 Page 3 of 7

 that the memory is existing until and unless we are not placed in a situation.
Like swimming, typing, cycling….etc.
6. What is forgetting?
In ability of an individual to retrieve the data or the information for the
purpose of future usage is known as forgetting.
7. What are the various methods of memory measurement?
There are different ways in which memory is measured experimentally. The
major methods of memory measurement are being presented here.
Free Recall and Recognition: In this method of memory measurement the
participants are presented with a list of words which they have to memories
and after they have to recall in any order. If they are able to recall more means
their memory is better and if they fail to recall means they have poor memory.
In recognition method the list of words memorized by the subjects will be
printed on cards and mixed with various other cards and the subjects have to
identify and find out the memorized words.
Sentence verification Task: It is a kind of memory measurement technique, the
subjects will be asked to prepare a particular topic and afterwards the subjects
are asked to verify the given sentences true or false. Faster the participants
respond is an indication of better memory.
Priming: We store many kinds of information which we can’t report verbally
for instance information necessary to ride a bicycle or play a musical
instrument along with it we also store some information which we are not able
to describe is called as implicit memory. In priming participants are asked to
perform a task or asked to recognize and complete the words.
8. Explain forgetting due to interference?
Forgetting due to interference is known as forgetting due to inhibition and it is
of two types, Proactive inhibition and Retroactive inhibition. In proactive
inhibition an individual is not able to recall the present learned information
due to the interference of past learned information. In retroactive inhibition

ISM/SENIOR SECTION/PSYCHOLOGY/OCT 2017 Page 4 of 7

 an individual is not able to recall or recognize the past learning due to the
interference of present learned information.
9. What is forgetting due to retrieval failure?
Each and every individual will try to develop certain retrieval cues to recollect
the stored information from their memory bank. Retrieval cues are aids are
supportive in data collection from the mind and in the absence of such cues
leading to forgetting. Tulving and his associates carried out several
experiments to show that content of memory becomes inaccessible due to
absence or inappropriate retrieval cues.
10.Explain forgetting due to trace decay and what are its limits?
Forgetting due to trace decay is an ancient theory to explain the nature of
forgetting. The encoded information in the human brain will be stored in the
form of various traces and these traces due to lack of usage will fade away.
This theory of forgetting is having a limitation and it is only related to verbal
learning and verbal memory. The skills which are learned while performing
certain tasks will never be forgotten even though if the individual is not
practicing example: swimming, driving, cycling…etc.

11.What are the various ways to improve or enhance memory?

Mnemonics using images
The key word method: In key word method an individual who is interested to
learn a foreign language will see the sounds similar to the language which he
or she is aware. For example, if a child want to remember a Spanish word for
duck which means “Pato” he or she will find the similar sound in English “Pot”
and will associated and learn.
The Method of Loci: In this method of memory development basically people
focus on a particular place and the items arranged in that place in an order. It
is a way of development of visual memory and this method will be helpful in
ISM/SENIOR SECTION/PSYCHOLOGY/OCT 2017 Page 5 of 7
 remembering various items in a serial order. For example a person want to
remember bread, eggs, tomatoes and he will imagine where this things are
kept in kitchen, When he or she enters the market they start imagining their
kitchen and recall the items.
Mnemonics using organization
Chunking: It is a way of dividing the entire content in to various meaningful
parts and studying these parts. It will be helpful to understand the larger
information in various simple forms and will support to develop the memory.
First Letter Technique: It is a way to develop the memory while picking a first
letter of each word, It is like learning various abbreviations. For example the
WHO means world health organization.
Engage in deep level processing: To develop an effective memory it is
important for each and every individual to engage or involve in deep thinking.
Craik & Lockhart demonstrated that processing of information in terms of
meaning that they convey leads to better memory as compared to attending to
their surface features.
Minimise interference: Reducing interference is a very important practice to
develop the memory. The content similarities basically leads to interference
and it is necessary to avoid the interference while pointing out the content
similarities and differences and understanding them in a good way.
Give yourself enough retrieval cues: Developing retrieval cues is very
important and it is necessary for each and every individual to think and
develop certain cues while considering the key elements of the content. The
cues development is basically a personal process and the nature of an
individual is important in development of cues.
PQRST method: Thomas and Robinson developed this acronym, This acronym
stands for preview, question, Read, Self – recitation and Test. This method
will be supportive to the development of memory in a much better way.

12.What is Eyewitness memory and false memory?

ISM/SENIOR SECTION/PSYCHOLOGY/OCT 2017 Page 6 of 7
 Eyewitness memory is considered as an important element in criminal trials
and it is a memory of the people who witness a particular crime or an accident
directly. In view of Loftus the eyewitness memory will change due to the
passage of time.
False memory can be induced by powerful imagination of events that did not
take place at all. Many times people develop and think certain events as really
happened and they tend to feel it as true.
13.What is repressed memory?
Repression is a way of forgetting by force, People try to forget the sad and
painful experiences by force and this information will be stored in unconscious
level of the mind and it is called as repressed memory.

ISM/SENIOR SECTION/PSYCHOLOGY/OCT 2017 Page 7 of 7