Chapter-3

Bases of Human
Behaviour
 Content
• Introduction
• Evolutionary Perspective
• Biological and Cultural Roots
• Biological Basis of Behaviour
• Neurons
• Structure and Functions of Nervous System and Endocrine System
and their Relationship with Behaviour and Experience
• The Nervous System
• The Endocrine System
• Heredity: Genes and Behaviour
• Cultural Basis : Socio-Cultural Shaping of Behaviour
• Enculturation
• Socialisation
• Acculturation
 Evolutionary perspective
Evolution refers to gradual and orderly biological changes that result in a species from
their pre-existing forms in response to the changing adaptational demands of their
environment. Physiological as well as behavioural changes that occur due to the
evolution process are so slow that they become visible after hundreds of generations.
Three important features of modern human beings differentiate them from their
ancestors:
(i)a bigger and developed brain with increased capacity for cognitive behaviours like
perception, memory, reasoning, problem solving.
(ii) use of language for communication, ability to walk upright on two legs.
(iii) a free hand with a workable opposing thumb. These features have been with us for
several thousand years.
•These evolutions have resulted due to the influence of environmental demands. Some
behaviours play an obvious role in evolution. For example, the ability to find food, avoid
predators, and defend one’s young are the
•objectives related to the survival of the organisms as well as their species. The
biological and behavioural qualities, which are helpful in meeting these objectives,
increase an organism’s ability to pass it on to the future generation through its genes.
 Biological and cultural roots
• As human beings, we not only share a biological system, but also certain
cultural systems. These systems are quite varied across human
populations. All of us negotiate our lives with the culture in which we are
born and brought up. Culture provides us with different experiences and
opportunities of learning by putting us in a variety of situations or placing
different demands on our lives. Such experiences, opportunities and
demands also influence our behaviour considerably. These influences
become more potent and visible as we move from infancy to later years of
life. Thus, besides biological bases, there are cultural bases of behaviour
also.
 Biological basis of behaviour
• Neurons
Neuron is the basic unit of our nervous system. Neurons are specialised cells,
which possess the unique property of converting various forms of stimuli into
electrical impulses. They are also specialised for reception, conduction and
transmission of information in the form of electrochemical signals. They receive
information from sense organs or from other adjacent neurons, carry them to the
central nervous system (brain and spinal cord), and bring motor information from
the central nervous system to the motor organs (muscles and glands).
They come in different shapes. They may also be classified according to their major
functioning
• Sensory neurons- They gather information from the environment and transmit
them to the brain
• Motor neurons - Those that accomplish movement of the muscles
• Interneurons - Can be found in the central nervous system; responsible for
perceiving, learning, remembering, planning, and deciding among other
important neural activities.
 Basic Structure of Neuron
• Soma- Contains the nucleus and other parts that are responsible providing the
life processes of the cell.
• Dendrites- Tree-like structures that serve as the recipient of messages coming
from the neighbouring neurons.
• Axon- The axon is a long slender tube, covered by a fatty insulator called the
myelin sheath, that carries information from the cell body to the terminal
button.
• Node of Ranvier- periodic gap in the insulating sheath (myelin) on the axon of
certain neurons that serves to facilitate the rapid conduction
of nerve impulses. It is approximately 1 μm wide and expose
the neuron membrane to the external environment.
• Bundles of axons constitute nerves
• Terminal Buttons - Knob-like structures at the end of the axon’s twigs.
• Action potential- brief electrical/ chemical event.
• Neurons generally conduct information in one direction, that is, from the
dendrites through soma and axon to the terminal buttons.
• Nerves are mainly of two types:
sensory and motor.
Sensory nerves, also called afferent
nerves, carry information from sense
organs to central nervous system.
On the other hand, motor nerves, also
called efferent nerves, carry
information from central nervous
system to muscles or glands.
A motor nerve conducts neural
commands which direct, control, and
regulates our movements and other
responses.
 Nerve Impulse
• Information travels within the nervous system in the form of a nerve impulse.
When stimulus energy comes into contact with receptors, electrical changes
in the nerve potential start. Nerve potential is a sudden change in the
electrical potential of the surface of a neuron.
• All or None Principle-
The nerve fibers work according to the “all or none principle”, which means
that they either respond completely or do not respond at all. When the
stimulus energy is relatively weak, the electrical changes are so small that
the nerve impulse is not generated, and we do not feel that stimulus. If the
stimulus energy is relatively strong, electrical impulses are generated and
conducted towards the central nervous system. The strength of the nerve
impulse, however, does not depend on the strength of the stimulus that
started the impulse.
 Synapse
• The axon tip of a preceding neuron make functional connections or synapse
with dendrites of the other neuron. A neuron is never physically connected
with another neuron; rather there is a small gap between the two. This gap
is known as synaptic cleft. The neural impulse from one neuron is
transmitted by a complex synaptic transmission process to another neuron.
The conduction of neural impulse in the axon is electrochemical, while the
nature of synaptic transmission is chemical. The chemical substances are
known as neurotransmitters.
Structure And Functions Of Nervous
System
 The Peripheral Nervous System
The PNS is composed of all the neurons and nerve fibers that connect the CNS to the rest of
the body. The PNS is divided into Somatic Nervous System and Autonomic Nervous System.
•The Somatic Nervous System
This system consists of two types of nerves, called cranial nerves and spinal nerves. There
are twelve sets of cranial nerves which either emanate from or reach different locations of
the brain. There are three types of cranial nerves - sensory, motor, and mixed. Sensory
nerves collect sensory information from receptors of the head region (vision, audition, smell,
taste, touch, etc.) and carry them to the brain. The motor nerves carry motor impulses
originating from the brain to muscles of the head region. For example, movements of the
eyeballs are controlled by motor cranial nerves. Mixed nerves have both sensory and motor
fibers, which conduct sensory and motor information to and from the brain.
There are thirty one sets of spinal nerves coming out of or reaching to the spinal cord.
Each set has sensory and motor nerves. Spinal nerves have two functions. The sensory
fibers of the spinal nerves collect sensory information from all over the body (except the head
region) and send them to the spinal cord from where they are then carried out to the brain. In
addition, motor impulses coming down from the brain are sent to the muscles by the motor
fibers of the spinal nerves.
The Autonomic Nervous System
•This system governs activities which are normally not under direct control of
individuals. It controls such internal functions as breathing, blood circulation,
salivation, stomach contraction, and emotional reactions. These activities of the
autonomic system are under the control of different structures of the brain. The
Autonomic Nervous System has two divisions: Sympathetic division and
Parasympathetic division. Although the effect of one division is opposite to the
effect of the other, both work together to maintain a state of equilibrium. The
sympathetic division deals with emergencies when the action must be quick and
powerful, such as in situations of fight or flight. During this period, the digestion
stops, blood flows from internal organs to the muscles, and breathing rate, oxygen
supply, heart rate, and blood sugar level increases.
•The Parasympathetic division is mainly concerned with conservation of energy. It
monitors the routine functions of the internal system of the body. When the
emergency is over, the parasympathetic division takes over; it decelerates the
sympathetic activation and calms down the individual to a normal condition. As a
result all body functions like heart beat, breathing, and blood flow return to their
normal levels.
 The Central Nervous System
• The most amazing thing about the brain is not its number of neurons but its
ability to guide human behaviour and thought. The brain is organised into
structures and regions that perform specific functions. Brain scanning
reveals that while some mental functions are distributed among different
areas of the brain, many activities are localised also. For example, the
occipital lobe of the brain is a specialised area for vision.
• Science has made huge strides in understanding the human brain and how
it functions. For example, we know that the frontal lobes are the center of
rational thinking and of self control. It is also understood that
neurotransmitters, or brain chemicals, are responsible for our moods and of
the general state that we are in. It is also known that severe mental
illnesses, such as Schizophrenia and Bipolar Disorder, are diseases of the
brain. Lesions or damage to the frontal lobes and to other parts of the brain
can and affect impulses and impulsive behaviors.
• Hindbrain
This part of the brain consists of the following structures:
1. Medulla Oblongata : It is the lowest part of the brain that exists in continuation of the spinal
cord. It contains neural centres, which regulate basic life supporting activities like
breathing, heart rate, and blood pressure. This is why medulla is known as the vital centre
of the brain. It has some centres of autonomic activities also.
2. Pons : It is connected with medulla on one side and with the midbrain on the other. A
nucleus (neural centre) of pons receives auditory signals relayed by our ears. It is
believed that pons is involved in sleep mechanism, particularly the sleep characterised by
dreaming. It contains nuclei affecting respiratory movement and facial expressions also.
3. Cerebellum : This highly developed part of the hindbrain can be easily recognised by its
wrinkled surface. It maintains and controls posture and equilibrium of the body. Its main
function is coordination of muscular movements. Though the motor commands originate
in the forebrain, the cerebellum receives and coordinates them to relay to the muscles. It
also stores the memory of movement patterns so that we do not have to concentrate on
how to walk, dance, or ride a bicycle.
• Hindbrain-
• Midbrain
The midbrain is relatively small in size and it
connects the hindbrain with the forebrain. A
few neural centres related to visual and
auditory sensations are found here.
An important part of midbrain, known as
Reticular Activating System (RAS),
is responsible for our arousal. It makes us
alert and active by regulating sensory inputs.
It also helps us in selecting information from
the environment.
Parkinson's disease, a degenerative disease of
the brain that causes involuntary tremors on affected
body parts, damages a section near the bottom of the midbrain.
• Forebrain

1. Hypothalamus : The hypothalamus is

one of the smallest structures in the
brain, but plays a vital role in our
behaviour. It regulates physiological
processes involved in emotional and
motivational behaviour, such as
eating, drinking, sleeping,
temperature regulation, and sexual
arousal. It also regulates and controls
the internal environment of the body
(e.g., heart rate, blood pressure,
temperature) and regulates the
secretion of hormones from various
endocrine glands.
2. Thalamus : It consists of an egg-
shaped cluster of neurons situated on
the ventral (upper) side of the
hypothalamus. It is like a relay station
that receives all incoming sensory
signals from sense organs and sends
them to appropriate parts of the cortex
for processing. It also receives all
outgoing motor signals coming from
the cortex and sends them to
appropriate parts of the body.
3.The Limbic System : This system is
composed of a group of structures. It
helps in maintaining internal
homeostasis by regulating body
temperature, blood pressure, and blood
sugar level. It has close links with the
hypothalamus. Besides hypothalamus,
the limbic system comprises the
Hippocampus and Amygdala. The
hippocampus plays an important role in
long-term memory. The amygdala plays
an important role in emotional behaviour.
4. The Cerebrum : Also known as
Cerebral Cortex, this part regulates all
higher levels of cognitive functions, such
as attention, perception, learning,
language behaviour, reasoning, and
problem solving. The cerebrum makes
two-third of the total mass of the human
brain. Its thickness varies from 1.5 mm to
4 mm, which covers the entire surface of
the brain and contains neurons, neural
nets, and bundles of axons. All these
make it possible for us to perform
organised actions and create images,
symbols, associations, and memories.
• Link for further study-
http://general-psychology.weebly.com/what-are-the-parts-of-
the-brain-and-their-functions.html
https://www.braininjury-explanation.com/

• Quiz
https://quizlet.com/7959778/psychology-quiz-brain-parts-and-
functions-flash-cards/
https://www.proprofs.com/quiz-school/story.php?title=psych-
quiz-brain-physiology
https://www.sporcle.com/games/Desdichado94/brain-
structure-functions
Cerebrum-
The cerebrum is divided into two
symmetrical halves, called the
Cerebral Hemispheres. Although the
two hemispheres appear identical,
functionally one hemisphere usually
dominates the other. For example, the
left hemisphere usually controls
language behaviour. The right
hemisphere is usually specialised to
deal with images, spatial relationships,
and pattern recognition. These two
hemispheres are connected by a white
bundle of myelinated fibers, called
Corpus Callosum that carries
messages back and forth between the
hemispheres.
Functions of Left and Right
Hemispheres
 Four lobes
• The Frontal lobe is mainly concerned with
cognitive functions, such as attention,
thinking, memory, learning, and reasoning,
but it also exerts inhibitory effects on
autonomic and emotional responses.
• The Parietal lobe is mainly concerned with
cutaneous sensations and their
coordination with visual and auditory
sensations.
• The Temporal lobe is primarily concerned
with the processing of auditory information.
Memory for symbolic sounds and words
resides here. Understanding of speech and
written language depends on this lobe.
• The Occipital lobe is mainly concerned
with visual information. It is believed that
interpretation of visual impulses, memory
for visual stimuli and colour visual
orientation is performed by this lobe.
 Spinal Cord
• Structure-
The spinal cord is a long rope-like collection of nerve fibers, which run along the full length inside the spine. Its
one end is connected with the medulla of the brain and another is free at the tail end. The butterfly shaped
mass of grey matter present in the centre of the spinal cord contains association neurons and other cells.
Surrounding the grey matter is the white matter of the spinal cord, which is composed of the ascending and
descending neural tracts. These tracts (collections of nerve fibers) connect the brain with the rest of the body.
• Function-
The spinal cord plays the role of a
huge cable, which exchanges
innumerable messages with the
CNS. There are two main functions
of the spinal cord. Firstly, it carries
sensory impulses coming from the
lower parts of the body to the
brain; and motor impulses
originating from the brain to all
over the body. Secondly, it
performs some simple reflexes that
do not involve the brain. Simple
reflexes involve a sensory nerve, a
motor nerve, and the association
neurons of the grey matter of the
spinal cord.
• Reflex Action-
A reflex is an involuntary action that occurs very quickly after its specific kind of
stimulation. The reflex action takes place automatically without conscious decision of
the brain. Reflex actions are inherited in our nervous system through evolutionary
processes, for example, the eye-blinking reflex. Whenever any object suddenly
comes near our eyes, our eyelids blink. Reflexes serve to protect the organism from
potential threats and preserve life. Though several reflex actions are performed by
our nervous system, the familiar reflexes are the knee jerk, pupil constriction, pulling
away from very hot or cold objects, breathing and stretching. Most reflex actions are
carried out by the spinal cord and do not involve the brain.
 The Endocrine System
The endocrine glands play a crucial role in our
development and behaviour. They secrete specific
chemical substances, called hormones, which
control some of our behaviours. These glands are
called ductless glands or endocrine glands,
because they do not have any duct (unlike other
glands) to send their secretions to specific places.
Hormones are circulated by the bloodstream.
The endocrine glands form the endocrine system
of the body. This system works in conjunction with
different parts of the nervous system. The whole
system is thus known as neuroendocrine
system.
1. Pituitary Gland
This gland is situated within the cranium just below the
hypothalamus. The pituitary gland is divided into anterior
pituitary and posterior pituitary. The anterior pituitary is
directly connected with hypothalamus, which regulates its
hormonal secretions. The pituitary gland secretes the growth
hormone and many other hormones, which direct and
regulate the secretions of many other endocrine glands
found in our body. This is why the pituitary gland is known as
the “master gland”.
Some hormones are secreted at a steady rate throughout
life, while others are secreted at an appropriate time in life.
For example, the growth hormone is released steadily
through childhood, with some spurt during adolescence, but
gonadotropic hormones are secreted at the age of puberty,
which stimulates the secretion of appropriate sex hormones
among boys and girls. As a result, primary and secondary
sexual changes take place.
2.Thyroid Gland
This gland is located in the neck. It produces
thyroxin that influences the body’s metabolic
rate. Optimum amount of thyroxin is secreted
and regulated by an anterior pituitary
hormone, the Thyroid Stimulating Hormone.
(TSH). The steady secretion of this hormone
maintains the production of energy,
consumption of oxygen and elimination of
wastes in body cells. On the other hand,
underproduction of thyroxin leads to physical
and psychological lethargy. If thyroid gland is
removed in young animals, their growth is
stunted and they fail to develop sexually.
3. Adrenal Gland
This gland is located above each kidney. It has two
parts, adrenal cortex and adrenal medulla, each
secreting different hormones. The secretion of
adrenal cortex is controlled and regulated by
Adrenocorticotrophic Hormone (ACTH) secreted by
anterior pituitary gland. When the secretion of
adrenal cortex goes down, anterior pituitary gets
the message and increases the secretion of ACTH,
which stimulates the adrenal cortex to secrete more
hormones.
The adrenal cortex secretes a group of hormones,
called corticoids, which are utilised by the body for
a number of physiological purposes, e.g.,
regulation of minerals in the body, particularly
sodium, potassium, and chlorides. Any disturbance
in its function seriously affects the functions of the
nervous system.
Adrenal medulla secretes two hormones,
namely epinephrine and norepinephrine
(also known as adrenaline and noradrenaline,
respectively). Sympathetic activation, such as
increased heart rate, oxygen consumption,
metabolic rate, muscle tone, etc., take place
through the secretion of these two hormones.
Epinephrine and norepinephrine stimulate the
hypothalamus, which prolongs emotions in an
individual even when the stressor has been
removed.
4. Pancreas
The pancreas, lying near the stomach,
has a primary role in digestion of food,
but it also secretes a hormone known as
insulin. Insulin helps the liver to break
down glucose for use by the body or for
storage as glycogen by the liver. When
insulin is not secreted in proper amount,
people develop a disease, called diabetic
mellitus or simply diabetes.
5. Gonads
Gonads refer to testes in males and ovaries in
females. The hormones secreted by these
glands control and regulate sexual behaviours
and reproductive functions of males and
females. Secretion of hormones of these
glands is initiated, maintained and regulated
by a hormone, called gonadotrophic
hormone (GTH) secreted by the anterior
pituitary. The secretion of GTH starts at the
age of puberty (10 to 14 years in human
beings) and stimulates gonads to secrete
hormones, which in turn stimulates
development of primary and secondary sexual
characteristics.
• The ovaries in females produce estrogens and progesterone. Estrogens guide the sexual
development of the female body. Primary sexual characteristics related with reproduction,
such as development of ovum or egg cell, appear on every 28 days or so in the ovary of a
sexually mature female. Secondary sexual characteristics, such as breast development,
rounded body contours, widened pelvis, etc., also depend on this hormone. Progesterone
has no role in sexual development. Its function is related with preparation of uterus for the
possible reception of fertilised ovum.
• The hormonal system for reproductive behaviour is much simpler in the male because
there is no cyclic pattern. Testes in males produce sperm continuously and secrete male
sex hormones called androgens. The major androgen is testosterone. Testosterone
prompts secondary sexual changes such as physical changes, growth of facial and body
hairs, deepening of voice, and increase in sexually oriented behaviour. Increased
aggression and other behaviours are also linked with testosterone production.
Health issues related to Endocrine system
As you get older, it’s natural to notice some things related to your endocrine
system. Your metabolism tends to slow down. So you might gain weight even
though you haven’t changed how you eat or exercise. Hormonal shifts also
explain, at least in part, why you’re more likely to have heart disease,
osteoporosis, and type 2 diabetes as you age.
No matter how old you are, stress, infections and being around certain
chemicals can also mess with parts of your endocrine system. Genetics and
lifestyle habits can increase your chances of an endocrine disorder like
hypothyroidism, diabetes, or osteoporosis
Causes-
•Endocrine disease that results when a gland produces too much or too little of
an endocrine hormone, called a hormone imbalance.
•Endocrine disease due to the development of lesions (such as nodules or
tumors) in the endocrine system, which may or may not affect hormone levels.
• Quiz related to various glands and their
hormones-
http://www2.yvcc.edu/Biology/230Modules/
BIOL230Modules/multi_dropquiz/
glands.html
 Heredity : Genes And Behaviour
The study of the inheritance of physical and psychological characteristics from
ancestors is referred to as genetics.
Chromosomes
They are threadlike-paired structures in the nucleus of each cell. The number of
chromosomes per nucleus is distinctive, and is constant for each living organism.
The gametic cells (sperm and ovum) have 23 chromosomes but not in pairs. A new
generation results from the fusion of a sperm cell and an egg cell. At the time of
conception, the organism inherits 46 chromosomes from parents, 23 from the
mother and 23 from the father. Each of these chromosomes contains thousands of
genes. However, the sperm cell (fathers’) differs from the egg cell (mother’s) in one
important respect. The 23rd chromosome of the sperm cell can be either the capital
X or Y type of the english alphabet. If the X type sperm fertilises the egg cell, the
fertilised egg will have an XX 23rd chromosome pair, and the child will be a female.
On the other hand, if a Y type sperm fertilises the egg, the 23rd chromosome pair
will be XY, and the child will be a male.
• Example of abnormality in chromosome-
Down syndrome Also called: Trisomy 21
A genetic chromosome 21 disorder causing developmental and intellectual
delays. Fewer than 1 million cases per year (India)
Treatment can help, but this condition can't be cured
Down's syndrome is a genetic disorder caused when abnormal cell division
results in extra genetic material from chromosome 21. Down's syndrome
causes a distinct facial appearance, intellectual disability and developmental
delays. It may be associated with thyroid or heart disease. Early intervention
programmes with a team of therapists and special educators who can treat
each child's specific situation are helpful in managing Down's syndrome.
Genes
Genotype is the genetic makeup of an organism and it results in some of the physical
characteristics of that organism. Genotypes can only be determined by biological tests, not
observations. Genotype is an inherited trait and hereditary information passed by the
parents determines genotype. The entire genetic information about an organism is
contained in a genotype – even those characteristics which are not expressed visually.
Examples of genotype are the genes responsible for:
•eye color
•hair color
•Height
‘In contrast, your phenotype is a description of your actual physical characteristics. This
includes straightforward visible characteristics like your height and eye color, but also your
overall health, your disease history, and even your behavior and general disposition. Do
you gain weight easily? Are you anxious or calm? Do you like cats? These are all ways in
which you present yourself to the world, and as such are considered phenotypes.
Most phenotypes are influenced by both your genotype and by the unique circumstances
in which you have lived your life, including everything that has ever happened to you. We
often refer to these two inputs as “nature,” the unique genome you carry, and “nurture,”
the environment in which you have lived your life.
A given gene can exist in several different forms. Change of a gene from one
form to another is called mutation. The type of mutation that occurs
spontaneously in nature provides variation in genotypes and permits the evolution
of new species. Mutation permits recombination of new genes with the genes
already present. This new combination of genes structure is then put to test in the
environment
 Cultural Basis : Socio-cultural
Shaping Of Behaviour

• Hormones and reflexes do not explain all of our behaviour Human nature
has evolved through an interplay of biological and cultural forces. In the
simplest terms, culture refers to “the man-made part of the
environment”. It comprises diverse products of the behaviour of many
people, including ourselves. These products can be material objects (e.g.,
tools, sculptures), ideas (e.g., categories, norms) or social institutions (e.g.,
family, school). It contains values that will be expressed and a language in
which to express them. It contains a way of life that will be followed by most
of us who grow up in that context.
• Culture exerts many real influences on human behaviour. It allows us to
categorise and explain many important differences in human behaviour that
were previously attributed to biological differences.
• Enculturation refers to all learning that takes place without direct, deliberate
teaching. We learn certain ideas, concepts, and values simply because of their
availability in our cultural context. For example, what is “vegetable” and what is
“weed” or what is “cereal” and what is “non-cereal” is defined by what is already
there, previously labelled as “vegetable” or “cereal” and agreed upon by people at
large.
• Socialisation is a process by which individuals acquire knowledge, skills and
dispositions, which enable them to participate as effective members of groups
and society. It is a process that continues over the entire life-span, and through
which one learns and develops ways of effective functioning at any stage of
development. Socialisation forms the basis of social and cultural transmission
from one generation to the next.
• A number of people who relate to us possess power to socialise us. Such people
are called “socialisation agents”. Parents and family members are the most
significant socialisation agents. Some of the socialisation agents are Parents,
school, peer groups and social media.
• Acculturation refers to cultural and psychological changes resulting from contact
with other cultures. Based on people’s positive or negative answer to these
issues, the following four acculturative strategies have been derived:
• Integration : It refers to an attitude in in which there is an interest in both,
maintaining one’s original culture and identity, while staying in daily interaction
with other cultural groups. In this case, there is some degree of cultural integrity
maintained while interacting with other cultural groups.
• Assimilation : It refers to an attitude, which people do not wish to maintain their
cultural identity, and they move to become an integral part of the other culture. In
this case, there is loss of one’s culture and identity.
• Separation : It refers to an attitude in which people seem to place a value on
holding on to their original culture, and wish to avoid interaction with other cultural
groups. In this case, people often tend to glorify their cultural identity.
• Marginalisation : It refers to an attitude in which there is little possibility or interest
in one’s cultural maintenance, and little interest in having relations with other
cultural groups. In this case, people generally remain undecided about what they
should do, and continue to stay with a great deal of stress.
 Review Questions
1. How does the evolutionary perspective explain the biological basis of behaviour?
2. Describe how neurons transmit information?
3. Name the four lobes of the cerebral cortex. What functions do they perform?
4. Name the various endocrine glands and the hormones secreted by them. How does the
endocrine system affect our behaviour?
5. How does the autonomic nervous system help us in dealing with an emergency
situation?
6. Explain the meaning of culture and describe its important features.
7. Do you agree with the statement that ‘biology plays an enabling role, while specific
aspects of behaviour are related to cultural factors’. Give reasons in support of your
answer.
8. Describe the main agents of socialisation.
9. How can we distinguish between enculturation and socialisation? Explain.
10. What is meant by acculturation? Is acculturation a smooth process? Discuss.
11. Discuss the acculturative strategies adopted by individuals during the course of
acculturation.