31003 - Electric Circuits 2

Arnold Knott

Contents

I Signals 5
1 Signals 5
1.1 Time Domain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.1.1 Characterization of signals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.1.2 Examples of signals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.1.3 Signal Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.1.4 Phasor Notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
1.2 Frequency Domain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
1.2.1 Fourier Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
1.2.2 Spectrum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
1.3 Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
1.4 Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
1.5 Three Phase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

II Components 60
2 Components 60
2.1 Resistors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
2.2 Inductors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
2.2.1 Transformers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
2.3 Capacitors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
2.4 Impedances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
2.5 Power in Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
2.5.1 Resistors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
2.5.2 Inductors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
2.5.3 Capacitors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
2.5.4 Complex Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
2.6 Energy in Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
2.6.1 Energy Resistors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
2.6.2 Energy Inductors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
2.6.3 Energy Capacitors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87

1
III Circuits 90
3 Circuits 90
3.1 Series Parallel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
3.1.1 Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
3.1.2 Parallel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
3.2 Norton Thevenin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
3.3 Impedance Matching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
3.4 LaPlace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
3.4.1 Math LaPlace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
3.4.2 App LaPlace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
3.5 Transfer Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
3.6 Network Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
3.7 Bode Plots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144

IV Applications 144
4 Applications 144
4.1 Passive Filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
4.1.1 First Order Filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
4.1.2 Second Order Filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
4.2 Active Filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
4.2.1 First Order Filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
4.2.2 Second Order Filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
4.3 Motor Drives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
4.4 Amplifiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
4.4.1 Operational Amplifiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
4.4.2 Switch-Mode Amplifiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
4.4.3 Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
4.5 Oscillators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
4.5.1 Barkhausen Criterion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
4.5.2 Sinusoidal Oscillators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
4.5.3 Square Wave Oscillators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
4.5.4 Pulse Width Modulators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
4.5.5 Triangle Generators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
4.5.6 Generic Properties of Oscillators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
4.6 Power Supplies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
4.6.1 Linear power supplies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
4.6.2 Switch-Mode Power Supplies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
4.6.3 Generic Properties of Power Supplies . . . . . . . . . . . . 187

V References 188
5 Course Literature 189

2
References 189

3
Links to Exercises

4
Literature
IMPORTANT Primary course literature
The primary literature for the course is [1].

Further reading
For some selected parts of the course [2] is a good book. A more colorful and
applied approach for some of the topics in this course is [3]. If you feel like
practicing your german [4] is a very good book for the contents of this course.
For assistance with LTSpice, [5] is a good reference. More references, especially
in the section Applications are provided throughout the teaching material.

Part I
Signals
1 Signals
1.1 Signals in Time Domain
1.1.1 Characterization of signals
Characterization of signals
Time independent
• voltages are static
• current are static
• ⇒ circuit behaves the same way at any point in time

Examples
v(t) i(t)

constant voltage
V

constant current
I

5
Characterization of signals
Time dependent
This course, for example v(t), i(t)
• periodic, i.e. v(t) = v(t + T ) with the period T
– sinusoidal:
∗ mathematically well discribed by trigonometric functions
∗ basis for the analysis of other periodic functions
∗ practical impact, e.g. grid, wireless, wireless transmissions and
testsignals
– non-sinusoidal
∗ can mathematically be constructed by superimposing various pe-
riodic functions ((see Fourier Series))
∗ well-suited for describing other electronic signals, like digital sig-
nals
• non-periodic
– important at start-up and shutdown of electrical circuits
– response of circuits to one-time events, like triggers and interrupts
– noise

1.1.2 Examples of signals

Examples of signals
Periodic signals
v(t)
sine
cosine

Application Examples
• Analog electronics
• Audio
• Grid (AC mains)

6
Examples of signals
Periodic signals
v(t)

pulses

Application Example
• Digital electronics

Examples of signals
Periodic signals
v(t)
squares

Application Example
• Power electronics

7
Examples of signals
Periodic signals
v(t)
triangles

Application Example
• Analog electronics

Examples of signals
Periodic signals
v(t)

sawtooth

Application Example
• Power electronics

• Counters

8
Examples of signals
Non periodic signals
v(t)
step: off step: on

Application Example
• Turn on of circuits
• Turn off of circuits

Examples of signals
Non periodic signals
v(t)

falling exponential

Application Example
• Discharge of a capacitor
• Discharge of a battery

9
Examples of signals
Non periodic signals
v(t)

rising exponential

Application Example
• Charge of a capacitor
• Charge of a battery

Examples of signals
Non periodic signals
v(t)
noise

Application Example
• Noise of resistors
• Noise of amplifiers
• Wireless transmissions

10
Examples of signals
Superposition of periodic and non periodic signals
v(t)
sine wave and falling exponential

Application Example
• Dampened sine wave oscillation
(oscillation see Passive Filters and Oscillators)

Examples of signals
Superposition of periodic and non periodic signals
v(t) sine wave
and pulses

Application Example
• starting of a clock signal
A clock signal is providing a digital circuit with synchronization. The circuit ex-
ecutes its operations every time the clock transitions from low to high. Modern
digital electronics operate up to the GHz range.

11
Examples of signals
Superposition of periodic and non periodic signals
v(t) squares and noise

Application Example
• noise in a motor control
• noise in an audio amplifier

Note: mostly what is considered to be noise has its reason and is therefore a
different kind of signal. The real noise level of electronics is typically as low as in
the nV range and therefore well below the measuring capability of oscilloscopes.

Examples of signals
Superposition of periodic and non periodic signals
v(t)

DC and sine wave

VDC

Application Example

12
 • analog signals in battery driven applications
The audio signal coming out of the jackstick output of a mobil phone or tablet
is centered around half of its battery voltage. It cannot swing negative, as there
is no negative voltage in the device.

Examples of signals
Superposition of periodic and non periodic signals
v(t) Sine with other
sine in its argument

Application Example
• Frequency modulation

This is used for radio broadcasting.

1.1.3 Signal Parameters

Signal Parameters
Amplitude

• Maximum value: Vmax ,

• Minimum value: Vmin ,
• Peak value: Vpk = max{|Vmax |, |Vmin |},

• Peak-to-peak value: Vpp = Vmax − Vmin

Examples

13
 v(t)

Vmax t

Vpp
Vpk

Vmin

v(t)
Vmax
Vpp
Vpk
Vmin
t

Signal Parameters
Phase φ
only defined for repetitive signals
• one signal defined as zero phase

• phases of all others are relative to the phase of this signal

Examples

14
 v(t)
v1 (t) = V̂ sin (2πt)

V̂

φ T

v2 (t) = V̂ sin (2πt + φ)

Signal Parameters
Frequency f / period T
only defined for repetitive signals
• f= 1
T

Angular frequency ω
only defined for repetitive signals
• ω = 2πf

Examples
( )
v(t) v1 (t) = V̂ sin 2π
T1 t =
V̂ sin (2πf1 t)
V̂

T1 T2

( )
2π
v2 (t) = V̂ sin T2 t =
V̂ sin (2πf2 t)

Signal Parameters
Average Value
only defined for periodic signals, also called:

15
 • Mean value
• DC (part of a signal)
• Average value
• Offset

• Operating point
• Bias point

IMPORTANT Equation for Average Value

RT
Vavg = T1 0 v(t)dt

Signal Parameters
Root Mean Square (RMS) Value - Meaning
only defined for periodic signals Defines, how much DC voltage VDC needs to
be applies to a defined resistor R to get the exact same amount of power loss
W as would be generated in this exact resistor, when the respective AC signal
vAC (t) would be applied across it.

Signal Parameters
Derivation of Root Mean Square (RMS) Value
vDC (t) vAC (t)
DC signal any repetitive
AC signal
V̂
VRM S VRM S
P
t t

VDC vAC (t)

R

IMPORTANT Equation for Root-Mean-Square

v Z (RMS) Value
u T
u1
VRM S = u v 2 (t) dt
u T 0 | {z }
t S
| {z }
M
| {z }
R

16
Average and RMS calculation
Exercise 1.1 Sine wave v(t) = V̂ sin(ωt)
What is the mean value Vavg , the RMS value VRM S and the frequency f of these
v(t)

Vˆă

T
t

repetitive signals, with v(t) = v(t+T )?

17
Average and RMS calculation
Exercise 1.2 A triangle
v(t)
V̂

T T 3
t
4 2 4T T

−V̂

18
Average and RMS calculation
Exercise 1.3 A square wave
v(t)
V̂

T T 3
t
4 2 4T T

−V̂

19
Average and RMS calculation
Exercise 1.4 Two triangles
v(t)
V̂

T T 3
t
4 2 4T T

20
Average and RMS calculation
Exercise 1.5 Sawtooth
v(t)
V̂

T T 3
t
4 2 4T T

−V̂

21
Average and RMS calculation
Exercise 1.6 Two sawteeth

22
 v(t)
V̂

T T 3
t
4 2 4T T

−V̂

Average and RMS calculation

Exercise 1.7 A full wave rectified sine wave
v(t)

Vˆă

T
t

23
Average and RMS calculation
Exercise 1.8 A half wave rectified sine wave
v(t)

Vˆă

T
t

24
25
1.1.4 Phasor Notation
Phasors
Derivation
only valid for sinusoidal and repetitive signals

vAC (t) = Vp cos (ωt + φ)

Euler ejα = cos α + j sin α
↓
= Vp ℜ(ej(ωt+φ) )
= Vp ℜ(ejωt ejφ ) (1)
Vp = const
↓
= ℜ( Vp ejφ ejωt )
| {z }
PhasorV

IMPORTANT Definition of a Phasor

V = Vp ejφ = Vp cos(φ) +j Vp sin(φ)
| {z } | {z }
ℜ(V ) ℑ(V )

Phasors
Graphical Representation: Phasor Diagram
jℑ

V
Vp sin(φ)

φ ℜ

Vp cos(φ)

Validity
A phasor diagram is only valid for one frequency.

Phasors
Derivation Superposition of Phasors

26
 vsum (t) = v1 (t) + v2 (t) = ℜ((V 1 + V 2 )ejωt )
⇒ V sum = V 1 + V 2
= Vp1 ejφ1 + Vp2 ejφ2 (2)
= Vp1 cos(φ1 ) + Vp2 cos(φ2 ) +j (Vp1 sin(φ1 ) + Vp2 sin(φ2 ))
| {z } | {z }
ℜ(V sum ) ℑ(V sum )

IMPORTANT Superpositionpof Phasors - Definition

|V sum | = ℜ2 (V sum ) + ℑ2 (V sum )
 
ℑ(V sum )
∠V sum = arctan (3)
ℜ(V sum )
V sum = |V sum |ej∠V sum

Phasors
Graphical Superposition of Phasors
jℑ Vsum
ℑ(V sum )

V2
ℑ(V 2 )

ℑ(V 1 )
φsum V1
φ2
φ1 ℜ

ℜ(V 2 ) ℜ(V 1 ) ℜ(V sum )

Validity
Both signals need to have the same frequency.

Phasor calculation
Exercise 1.9 Converting sinusoids into phasors and add them
Add v1 (t) = 100 V cos(ωt) and v2 (t) = 100 V sin(ωt). Draw the phasor diagram
and give the phase relation between the 3 signals.

27
Exercise 1.10 Converting sinusoids into phasors and add them
Calculate the resulting phasor for 5A cos(ωt+75°)−3A cos(ωt−75°)+4A sin(ωt).

Exercise 1.11 Converting sinusoids into phasors and add them

Add v1 (t) = 90 V cos(ωt − 15°) and v2 (t) = 50 V sin(ωt − 60°). Express the result
as a sinusoidal waveform.

28
Phasor calculation
Exercise 1.12 Converting sinusoids into phasors and add them
Calculate the resulting phasor for 5 V sin(ωt) + 15 V cos(ωt − 30°) + 20 V cos(ωt −
120°).

29
Exercise 1.13 Converting sinusoids into phasors and add them
Add v1 (t) = 170 V cos(ωt + 30°) and v2 (t) = 200 V sin(ωt).

30
Exercise 1.14 Converting sinusoids into phasors and add them
What is v3 (t) with v1 (t) + v2 (t) + v3 (t) = 0 and v1 (t) = 50 V cos(ωt + 45°) and
v2 (t) = 25 V sin(ωt).

31
32
1.2 Signals in Frequency Domain
1.2.1 Fourier Series
Fourier Series
only defined for repetitive signals
IMPORTANT Definition of Fourier Series
P
∞
v(t) = a0 + (an cos (2πnf0 t) + bn sin (2πnf0 t))
n=1

IMPORTANT Fourier Coefficients

Z
1 T
a0 = v(t)dt
T 0
Z
2 T
an = v(t) cos (nωt)dt
T 0 (4)
Z
2 T
bn = v(t) sin (nωt)dt
T 0
2π
where ω = 2πf0 = and n ∈ N
T

Fourier Series
Meaning of Fourier Series in words
Any repetitive signal v(t) can be represented by a superposition (sum) of an
offset a0 , a fundamental and harmonics. The fundamental is a sinusoidal signal
with the same frequency f0 (and repetition rate T = f10 ) as the signal v(t).
The harmonics are sinusoidal waveforms with multiples of the frequency of the
fundamental.
• offset a0 : DC, average, mean

• fundamental: a1 cos (2πf0 t) + b1 sin (2πf0 t)

• harmonics: an cos (2πnf0 t) + bn sin (2πnf0 t): n-th harmonic

Fourier Series
Meaning of Fourier Series - Graphical Representation
a0 v(t) v(t) v(t) v(t)
b1
a1
a2
b2
t

+ ···
t t t
T + T + T + T +
t

v(t)

33
Further visualization
A good representation of a square wave signal as an animation is on wikipedia.
Lean back and watch!

Examples of Fourier Series

DC
v(t)

Fourier Coefficients
• a0 = V
• an = 0 ∀ n
• bn = 0 ∀ n

Examples of Fourier Series

Sine wave
v(t)
V̂

−T T

−V̂

Fourier Coefficients

34
 • a0 = 0
• an = 0 ∀ n
• b1 = V̂
• bn = 0 ∀ n , 1

Examples of Fourier Series

Cosine wave
v(t)
V̂

−T T

−V̂

Fourier Coefficients

• a0 = 0
• a1 = V̂
• an = 0 ∀ n , 1
• bn = 0 ∀ n

Examples of Fourier Series

Pulses

35
 v(t)

V̂

−T W T

Fourier Coefficients
• a0 = W
T V̂

• an = 2
nπ V̂ sin (nπ W
T )

• bn = 0 ∀ n

Examples of Fourier Series

Square wave
v(t)
V̂

−T T

−V̂

Fourier Coefficients
• a0 = 0
• an = 0 ∀ n
• bn = 4
nπ V̂ ∀ n = 2m − 1

36
 where m ∈ N
• bn = 0 ∀ n = 2m
where m ∈ N

Examples of Fourier Series

Triangle
v(t)
V̂

−T T

−V̂

Fourier Coefficients
• a0 = 0

• an = 0 ∀ n = 2m
where m ∈ N
• an = − (nπ)
8
2 V̂

∀ n = 2m − 1
where m ∈ N

• bn = 0 ∀ n

Examples of Fourier Series

Sawtooth

37
 v(t)

V̂

−T T

Fourier Coefficients
• a0 = V̂
2

• an = 0 ∀ n
• bn = − nπ
1
V̂ ∀ n

Examples of Fourier Series

Full wave rectified Sine
v(t)

V̂

−T T

Fourier Coefficients
• a0 = 2
π V̂

• an = 4
π(1−n2 ) V̂

∀ n = 2m

38
 where m ∈ N
• an = 0 ∀ n = 2m − 1
where m ∈ N
• bn = 0 ∀ n

Examples of Fourier Series

Half wave rectified Sine
v(t)

V̂

−T T

Fourier Coefficients

• a0 = 1
π V̂

• an = 2
π(1−n2 ) V̂

∀ n = 2m
where m ∈ N
• an = 0 ∀ n = 2m − 1

where m ∈ N
• b1 = 12 V̂
• bn = 0 ∀ n , 1

39
1.2.2 Spectrum
Spectrum
IMPORTANT Definition
P
∞
Using ai cos (nωt)+bi sin (nωt) = Ai cos(nωt+φi ), ⇒ v(t) = A0 + An cos (nωt + φn )
n=1
where
p
• the amplitudes An = a2n + b2n and
 
• the phases φn = arctan − abnn

are called the

• amplitude spectrum and
• phase spectrum
respectively.

Spectrum
Examples of a Spectrum
An

φn

0 f0 2f0 3f0 4f0

0 f0 2f0 3f0 4f0

Spectrum
Useful plotting options
• The frequency axis for both the amplitude and the phase spectrum is
plottet logarithmically.
• The amplitude (y-axis) is plotted in dB.
• The phase (y-axis) is plottet linear.

40
Decibel
Doubling by approximately two  
1V
0 dB V = 20 log
1V
+6 dB V ↓ ↓≈ ·2 (5)
 
2V
6 dB V ≈ 20 log
1V

Ten folding  
1V
0 dB V = 20 log
1V
+20 dB V ↓ ↓ ·10 (6)
 
10 V
20 dB V = 20 log
1V

Decibel
Other metric prefixes  
1 mV
−60 dB V = 20 log =
1V
 
1 mV
0 dB mV = 20 log =
1 mV
  (7)
1 mV
60 dB µV = 20 log =
1 µV
 
1 mV
120 dB nV = 20 log
1 nV

Fourier Series
Exercise 1.15 Plot waveforms
Use your favourite math tool to plot the waveform as a function of time t of the
waveforms in the above (DC, sine, cosine, pulses, square, triangle, sawtooth,
half-wave rectified sine and full-wave rectified sine) as a superposition of sin
and cos waves via Fourier Series. Wherever necessary make assumptions about
values or normalize. Play around with the number of harmonics you take into
account and observe how this affects the results.

41
Exercise 1.16 Plot spectrum
Use your favourite math tool to plot the spectrum (An and ϕn ) as a function
of frequency f from the Fourier coefficients of the above waveforms. Wherever
necessary make assumptions about values or normalize. Play around with linear
and logarithmic scaling of both axes and see what happens.

42
Decibel
Exercise 1.17 How many dB µV is
• 1 V,
• 2 V,

• 10 V,
• 1 mV,
• 2 mV,

43
• 10 mV,
• 1 µV,
• 2 µV &
• 10 µV?

44
Exercise 1.18 How many V is

• 0 dB µV,
• 12 dB µV,
• 40 dB µV,

• 46 dB µV,
• 52 dB µV,
• 60 dB µV,
• 72 dB µV,

• 80 dB µV &
• 160 dB µV?

45
1.3 Sources
Sources
Typical Symbols
generic DC AC pulse square sawtooth triangle line

Sources
Types of Sources in Spice Simulators

• DC
• Pulse
• Sine

• Exponential (EXP)
• Frequency modulation (SFFM)
• Arbitrary (PWL)
• Arbitrary from external file

Sources
Symbols for Voltage Sources

46
 generic voltage battery

Symbols for Current Sources

current current current photovoltaic

Dependent Sources
Some Symbol Examples
generic generic current current current voltage voltage voltage

Dependent Sources

47
Dependent Voltage Sources
• voltage controlled
in Spice: "E"
application: operational amplifier

• current controlled
in Spice "H"
(application: transimpedance amplifier)

Dependent Current Sources

• voltage controlled
in Spice: "G"

application: Metal Oxid Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor (MOS-

FET),
transconductance amplifier
• current controlled

in Spice "F"
application: bipolar transistor (BJT)

1.4 Power
Power
IMPORTANT Definition

• DC: P = V I
• AC: p(t) = v(t)i(t)

for sinusoidal signals

• v(t) = Vp cos (ωt + φ)
• i(t) = Ip cos (ωt)
p(t) = Vp Ip cos (ωt + φ) cos (ωt)

48
Power
Derivation for sinusoidal signals
p(t) = Vp Ip cos (ωt + φ) cos (ωt)
= . . . see [1] - uses trigonometric equations
Vp Ip
= cos (φ)
| 2 {z }
DC-part of p(t)
Vp Ip
+ [cos (φ) cos (2ωt) − sin (φ) sin (2ωt)] (8)
|2 {z }
AC-part of p(t)

= P (1 + cos (2ωt)) −Q sin (2ωt)

| {z }| {z }
A B
Vp Ip Vp Ip
with P = cos (φ) and Q = sin (φ)
2 2

Power
p(t) split into parts A and B
A B
2P

P Q

t t

T T

Power
Power transfer from source (generator) to sink (application/user)

49
 i(t)

v(t)

grid application

Power
IMPORTANT Definitions
• P is the part of the power, that is transfered from source to sink and is
called
active power or real power.
• Q is the part of the power, that is bouncing back and forth between source
and sink and is called
reactive power or imaginary power.
• p(t) is called the instantaneous power or complex power.

Units for Power

[p(t)] = V A, [P ] = W, [Q] = Var

Power
Derivation of Power expressed through Phasors
V = VRM S ejφV
I = IRM S ejφI
S = V I ∗ = VRM S IRM S ej(φV −φI ) (9)
with φI =0 ⇒ φV =φ
↓
= VRM S IRM S ejφ
= VRM S IRM S cos (φ) + jVRM S IRM S sin (φ)
V I
for sinusoidal signals VRM S = √p and IRM S = √p .
2 2

IMPORTANT Definition of Complex Power

S = P + jQ (10)

50
Power
IMPORTANT Power Factor
P
λ= = cos (φ) (11)
|S|

Meaning of Power Factor

The Power Factor is a measure for the amount of power, that is delivered to the
load, with respect to the total amount of power, that the source is delivering.

Optimization of Power Factor

Ideally the Power Factor is as close to 1 as possible, i.e. P is maximized and Q
is minimized, as Q is also loading the grid (e.g. cables) and generates losses in
the resistances without contributing to the power transfer.

Power
Power Factor - graphically
jℑ

S1
Q1

φV1 ℜ
φV2
P
Q2
S2

Two scenarios

• S 1 : φV1 > 0
Current / Power Factor is lagging
• S 2 : φV2 < 0
Current / Power Factor is leading

Power
Exercise 1.19 Power in Time Domain
What is the average power, the reactive power and the instantaneous power
delivered to the load for

51
 1. v(t) = 1500 V cos (ωt − 45°), i(t) = 2 A cos (ωt + 50°)
2. v(t) = 90 V cos (ωt + 60°), i(t) = 10.5 A cos (ωt − 20°)
3. v(t) = 135 V cos (ωt), i(t) = 2 A cos (ωt + 30°)
4. v(t) = 370 V sin (ωt), i(t) = 10 A cos (ωt + 20°)

i(t)

v(t)

source load [1]

52
Power
Exercise 1.20 Power in Frequency Domain
What is the average power and the reactive power for the following sets of
voltage and current phasors? What is the power factor and is it lagging or
leading?

53
 1. V = 250 VRMS , I = 0.25 ARMS ∠−15°
2. V = 120 VRMS ej135° , I = 12.5 ARMS ej165°
3. V = 120 VRMS ej30° , I = 3.3 ARMS ej−15°
4. V = 480 VRMS ∠45°, I = 8.5 ARMS ∠90°

[1]

54
1.5 Three Phase Circuits
Three Phase Circuits
IMPORTANT Signals in Three Phase Systems
vL1 = Vp cos (ωt) V L1 = Vp
vL1 = Vp cos (ωt−120°) V L1 = Vp e−j120° (12)
vL1 = Vp cos (ωt + 120°) V L1 = Vp ej120°

Typical Nomenclature

• L1 , L2 and L3 : line 1, 2 and 3 (in electrical installations typically brown,

black and grey)
• N : neutral (in electrical installations typically blue)
• P E: protection earth, ground (in electrical installations typically yellow-
green)

Three Phase Circuits

Three Phase Signals in Time Domain
vL (t)
L1 L2 L3
Vp

Three Phase Signals as Phasors

55
 L3 jℑ

ℜ
L1

L2

Three Phase Circuits

Star Connection of Sources
a

VL1

n
VL2

c VL3 b

Star Connection of Loads

A

C B

Connections
a → A, b → B, c → C and n → N

Three Phase Circuits

Triangle Connection of Sources

56
 a

Vca Vab

c b

Vbc

Triangle Connection of Loads

A

C B

Connections
a → A, b → B and c → C

Three Phase Circuits

Conversion between Star and Triangle
for balanced loads:
A A

R R△ R△

R R

C B C B
R△

R△ = 3R (13)

Three Phase Circuits

Exercise 1.21 Phasors in Three Phase Systems
In a symmetrical star connected three phase circuit, the first line voltage is
vL1 (t) = 200 V cos (ωt + 120°).

57
1. What are the expressions for vL2 (t), vL3 (t), vab (t), vbc (t) and vca (t)?
2. Sketch all 6 voltages in a phasor diagram.

58
Exercise 1.22 Phasors in Three Phase Systems
In a symmetrical triangle connected three phase system, one voltage is van (t) =
150 V cos (400πt).
1. What is the frequency in Hz?
2. What are the expressions for vbn (t) and vcn (t)

59
Part II
Components
2 Components
2.1 Resistors
Resistors
Physical background
l
R=ρ (14)
A

Ohms law
V = RI (15)

Symbol
R iR (t)

vR (t)

Resistors dependency on material and geometry

• The resistance R depends on the resistors
• material, where

ρ is the resistivity of the material and

• its geometry, with
l being the length of the conductor and
A is the diameter of the conductor.

Resistors
Analogy

60
 hydraulic ⇔ electric
water pressure ⇔ voltage sand in the water hose ⇔ resistivity (flow) current
⇔ (electrical) current

Resistors
Voltage across and Current through a Resistor in Time Domain -
analytically
!
iR (t) = IR cos (ωt + φ)
(16)
vR (t) = RiR (t) = RIR cos (ωt + φ)

Voltage across and Current through a Resistor as Phasors - analyti-

cally
I R = IR ejφ
(17)
V R = RI R = RIR ejφ

IMPORTANT Impedance of a Resistor

ZR = R (18)

IMPORTANT Ohms Law applied to a Resistor

V R = RI R (19)

Resistors
Voltage across and Current through a Resistor in Time Domain -
graphically

61
 vR (t) iR (t)
VR
IR

Voltage across and Current through a Resistor as Phasors - graphi-

cally
jℑ

VR

IR
φ ℜ

2.2 Inductors
Inductors
Analogy

62
 • like the current in a watermill the current in an inductor can not abruptly
change
• changing the pressure (voltage) changes the current flow gradually

Inductors
Faradays induction law
Z
N ϕ = V dt (20)
R
ϕ V dt ⃗
dB
⃗ =
B = ⇒ V = N Aef f (21)
Aef f N Aef f dt

Amperes law
Z R
lef f ⃗
Hdl
NI = ⃗ ⇒I=
Hdl (22)
0 N

Symbol
L iL (t)

vL (t)

Nomenclature

• N number of turns
• ϕ magnetic flux
• B
⃗ flux density

• Aef f effective cross section

• lef f effective length

• H
⃗ magnetic field

Inductors
Ohms law applied to inductors
R R ⃗
V dt N Aef f ddtB dt ⃗
B
L= = R lef f = N 2 Aef f R lef f (23)
I 0
⃗
Hdl ⃗
Hdl
0
N

63
 ⃗ Aef f
B
L= N 2 (for homogeneous and linear materials) (24)
⃗ lef f
H
|{z}
µ
| {z }
AL value

IMPORTANT Inductance dependency on material and geometry - or

the engineering AL value
Aef f 2
L=µ N = AL N 2 (25)
lef f

where AL = 1
R with R = reluctance

Inductors
Voltage across and Current through an Inductor in Time Domain -
analytically
!
iL (t) = IL cos (ωt + φ)
diL (t) (26)
vL (t) = L = −ωLIL sin (ωt + φ) = ωLIL cos (ωt + φ + 90°)
dt

Voltage across and Current through an Inductor as Phasors - analyt-

ically  
 
iL (t) = ℜ IL ejφ ejωt 
| {z }
IL
   
 
d    
vL (t) = ℜ L IL ejφ ejωt = ℜ jωLIL ejφ ejωt  = ℜ ωLIL ej(φ+90°) ejωt 
dt | {z } | {z }
VL VL
(27)

Inductors
IMPORTANT Impedance of an Inductor
Z L = jωL (28)

IMPORTANT Ohms Law applied to an Inductor

V L = jωLI L (29)

64
Inductors
Voltage across and Current through an Inductor in Time Domain -
graphically
vL (t) iL (t)
VL
IL

Voltage across and Current through an Inductor as Phasors - graph-

ically
jℑ

VL

. ℜ
φ

IL

2.2.1 Coupled Inductors & Transformers

Coupled Inductors
Fields of two distant inductors
i1 (t) i2 (t)

v1 (t) ⃗1
H ⃗2
H v2 (t)

The currents

65
i1 (t) and i2 (t) through each inductor generate their own magnetic field H1 and
H2 .

Coupled Inductors
Fields of two proximate inductors
i1 (t) i2 (t)

v1 (t) ⃗1
H ⃗2
H v2 (t)

The magnetic field H1

of the left inductor, alters the magnetic field H2 of the right inductor and
therefore influences its corresponding current i2 (t) and vice versa.

Coupled Inductors
Faradays law
ϕ

δϕ V1 δϕ V2
δt = N1 δt = N2

IMPORTANT Constant turns voltage

V1 V2 Vn δϕ
= = ... = =
N1 N2 Nn δt

Coupled Inductors
Amperes law

I1 I2

N1 N2
⃗
H
N3

I3

66
IMPORTANT Sum of all turns-current products is equal to externally
provided magnetic flux (or zero if there is no external ϕ)
∞
X
⃗ = ϕ
Nn In = Hδl
n=1
AL

Coupled Inductors
Mutual Inductance
M
i1 (t) i2 (t)

v1 (t) L1 L2 v2 (t)

Note, the dot

convention is defining the direction each winding is put across the core.
Typically the dot indicates the start of a winding.

Coupled Inductors
Transformer Equations in the
Time Domain
di1 (t) di2 (t)
v1 (t) = L1 +/−M
dt dt (30)
di2 (t) di1 (t)
v2 (t) = L2 +/−M
dt dt

Transformer Equations in the Frequency Domain

V 1 = jωL1 I 1 +/−jωM I 2
(31)
V 2 = jωL2 I 2 +/−jωM I 1

T-Network Model of a Transformer

L1 − M L2 − M

i1 (t) i2 (t)
v1 (t) M v2 (t)

Coupled Inductors
Exercise 2.1 Transformer Equations

67
 M
i1 (t) i2 (t)

vs (t) L1 L2 v2 (t)

In the above
circuit L1 = 10 mH, L2 = 5 mH, M = 7 mH and vs (t) = 200 V sin (100t).
a What are the i − v relationships for the coupled inductors?
b What is v2 (t), when the terminal on the secondary side is open?

68
Coupled Inductors
Exercise 2.2 Connecting Primary and Secondary
M
i1 (t) i2 (t)

v1 (t) L1 L2 v2 (t)

vin (t)

In
the above circuit L1 = L2 = 6 mH, M = 4 mH and i1 (t) = 5 A sin (1000t).
What is vin (t)?

69
2.3 Capacitors
Capacitors

70
Analogy

• like a dam withstands the pressure from the water, a capacitor sustains
voltage
• a current flow changes the water level (voltage)

Capacitors
Gaus law
I
q= ⃗
Ddσ (32)
A

Faradays law
I
V = ⃗
Eds (33)
l

Symbol
C i (t)
C

vC (t)

Nomenclature
• q charge
• D
⃗ displacement field

• A surface
• σ 2D path along surface
• E
⃗ electric field

• l length of a loop
• s path along loop

71
Capacitors
Ohms law applied to capacitors
R R dq H
⃗
Ddσ
Idt dt dt q
C= = = = HA (34)
V V V ⃗
Eds
l

which gives for homogeneous and linear materials:

⃗ A
D
C= (35)
⃗ d
E
|{z}
ϵ

IMPORTANT Capacitance dependency on material and geometry

q A
C= =ϵ (36)
V d
where A is the area of each plate and d is the distance between the plates.

Capacitors
Voltage across and Current through a Capacitor in Time Domain -
analytically
!
vC (t) = VC cos (ωt + φ)
dvC (t) (37)
iC (t) = C = −ωCVC sin (ωt + φ) = ωCVC cos (ωt + φ + 90°)
dt

Voltage across and Current through a Capacitor as Phasors - analyt-

ically  
 
vC (t) = ℜ VC ejφ ejωt 
| {z }
VC
   
 
d    
iC (t) = ℜ C VC ejφ ejωt = ℜ jωCVC ejφ ejωt  = ℜ ωCVC ej(φ+90°) ejωt 
dt | {z } | {z }
IC IC
(38)

Capacitors
IMPORTANT Impedance of a Capacitor
1
ZC = (39)
jωC

IMPORTANT Ohms Law applied to a Capacitor

1
VC = I (40)
jωC C

72
Capacitors
Voltage across and Current through a Capacitor in Time Domain -
graphically
vC (t) iC (t)
VC
IC

Voltage across and Current through a Capacitor as Phasors - graph-

ically
jℑ

IC
VC

. φ ℜ

Components
Exercise 2.3 Voltage across and Current through a Component

73
 v(t)/[V] i(t)/[mA]
5
4
3
2
1 t/[ms]

−1 2 4 6 8
−2
−3
−4
−5

What is the value of the component?

74
Exercise 2.4 Voltage across and Current through a Component
v(t)/[V] i(t)/[mA]
10
8
6
4
2 t/[ms]

−2 4 8 12 16
−4
−6
−8
−10

What is the value of the component?

75
Capacitors
Exercise 2.5 Capacitance
For t ≥ 0 the current through a capacitor is iC (t) = 10 mAr(t), where r(t) is a
unity ramp. At t0 = 0, the capacitor voltage vC (t0 ) = 3 V and at t1 = 1 ms, it
is vC (t1 ) = 8 V. What is the capacitance of the component?

76
Capacitors
Exercise 2.6 Capacitor Voltage
The waveform below shows the current through a C = 10 nF capacitor. At

77
time t0 , the voltage across the capacitor is vC (t) = −5 V. What is the voltage
across the capacitor vC at t = 5 µs, t = 10 µs and t = 20 µs?
iC (t)/[mA]
20

10

t/[µs]

5 10

2.4 Complex Impedances and Admittances

Complex Impedances and Admittances
Symbol
Z
R X
[0.5em]

IMPORTANT Impedance
Z = R + jX = |Z|ej∠Z (41)

Nomenclature
• Z Impedance
• R Resistance
• X Reactance
• |Z| Amplitude of Impedance
• ∠Z Phase of Impedance

Complex Impedances and Admittances

IMPORTANT Admittance
Y = G + jB = |Y |ej∠Y (42)

78
IMPORTANT Impedance and Admittance
1
Z= (43)
Y

Nomenclature
• Y Admittance
• G Conductance

• B Susceptance
• |Y | Amplitude of Admittance
• ∠Y Phase of Admittance

Complex Impedances and Admittances

Components, Signals, Impedances and Admittances
Component Ohms law Impedance Admittance

R iR (t)
1
VR = RIR ZR = R YR = R =G
vR (t)

L iL (t)
1
YL = jωL = jBL
VL = jωLIL ZL = jωL = jXL
with BL = − ωL
1
vL (t)
C i (t)
C 1
ZC = jωC = jXC
1
VC = jωC IC YC = jωC = jBC
with XC = − ωC
1
vC (t)

Complex Impedances and Admittances

Exercise 2.7 Impedance of an Inductor / 15 min
The voltage vL (t) = 10 V cos (2000πt) is applied across an L = 100 mH induc-
tance.
a What is the complex impedance of the inductor?

b What are the voltage and current phasors? How does the phasor diagram
look like?
c Which analytical function describes the current? How do the voltage and
current waveforms look like?

d What is the phase relationship between current and voltage?

79
Complex Impedances and Admittances
Exercise 2.8 Impedance of a Capacitor / 15 min
The voltage vC (t) = 10 V cos (2000πt) is applied across a C = 10 µF capacitance.
a What is the complex impedance of the capacitor?

b What are the voltage and current phasors? How does the phasor diagram
look like?
c Which analytical function describes the current? How do the voltage and
current waveforms look like?

d What is the phase relationship between current and voltage?

80
2.5 Power in Components
2.5.1 Power in Resistors
Power in Resistors
Derivation
iR (t) = IR cos (ωt)
2
vR (t)
pR (t) = vR (t)iR (t) = = Ri2R (t)
R
cos α2 = 1 (1+cos (2α))
2
↓
2
IR (44)
2 2
= RIR cos (ωt) = R (1 + cos (2ωt))
2
|{z}
2
IRM
V2 S
= RM S (1 + cos (2ωt))
R
IMPORTANT Average Power in Resistors
Z
1 T 2
2
VRM S
PRavg = pR (t)dt = RIRM S = QR = 0 (45)
T 0 R

Power in Resistors
Voltage and Current
vR (t) iR (t)
VR
IR

IR
VR

Instantaneous Power
pR (t)
V R IR

P Ravg

81
2.5.2 Power in Inductors
Power in Inductors
Derivation
vL (t) = VL cos (ωt) ⇒ iL (t) = IL sin (ωt) (46)
[0.5em]
pL (t) = vL (t)iL (t) = VL IL cos (ωt) sin (ωt)
cos (α) sin (α)= 1 sin (2α) (47)
2
↓ VL IL
= sin (2ωt)
2

IMPORTANT Average Power in Inductors

Z
1 T
PLavg = pL (t)dt = 0 (48)
T 0

Power in Inductors
Voltage and Current
vL (t) iL (t)
VL
IL

−IL
−VL

Instantaneous Power
pL (t)
V L IL
2

− VL2IL

82
2.5.3 Power in Capacitors
Power in Capacitors
Derivation
vC (t) = VC cos (ωt) ⇒ iC (t) = −IC sin (ωt) (49)
[0.5em]
pC (t) = vC (t)iC (t) = −VC IC cos (ωt) sin (ωt)
cos (α) sin (α)= 1 sin (2α) (50)
2
↓ VC IC
= − sin (2ωt)
2

IMPORTANT Average Power in Capacitors

Z
1 T
PCavg = pC (t)dt = 0 (51)
T 0

Power in Capacitors
Voltage and Current
vC (t) iC (t)
VC
IC

−IC
−VC

Instantaneous Power
pC (t)
VC IC
2

− VC2IC

83
2.5.4 Complex Power in Components
Complex Power in Components
Complex Power in Impedances
VV∗
S = V I∗ = = ZII ∗ with V = V̂ ejφV and I = Ie
ˆ jφI (52)
Z

IMPORTANT Complex Power in Resistors Z R = R

Phasors are always sinusoidal φV =φR
∗ ↓ V̂ Iˆ j(φV −φI ) ↓ V̂ Iˆ
SR = V RI R = e R R =
2 2
V̂ Iˆ
= PR + jQR = + j0 (53)
2
V̂ Iˆ
⇒ PR = and QR = 0
2

Complex Power in Components

IMPORTANT Complex Power in Inductors Z L = jωL
V L =jωLI L
↓
S L = V L I ∗L = jωLI L I ∗L = jωLIL2 ej(φIL −φIL ) = jωLIL2
(54)
= PL + jQL = 0 + jωLIL2
⇒ PL = 0 and QL = ωLIL2

IMPORTANT Complex Power in capacitors Y C = jωC ⇒ Z C = 1

jωC
S C = V C I ∗C = V C jωCV ∗C = jωCVC2
= PC + jQC = 0 + jωCVC2 (55)
⇒ PC = 0 and QC = ωCVC2

2.6 Energy in Components

Energy in Components
IMPORTANT Definition Z
E= p(t)dt (56)

Unit of Energy
1
[E] = J = W s = kW h (57)
1000 · 3600

84
2.6.1 Energy in Resistors
Energy in Resistors
Derivation of Energy in a Resistor
I2
iR (t) = IR cos (ωt) ⇒ pR (t) = R R (1 + cos (2ωt))
2
Z T 2 2 (58)
RIR RIR
eR (t) = pR (t)dt = t+ sin (2ωt)
0 2 4ω

Meaning of Energy in a Resistor

Energy in a resistor R accumulates linearly with sinusoidal ripple, when excited
with a sinusoidal current iR (t). The energy in a resistor can only rise, that is
all energy is converted into heat (thermal energy). Electrically, this is called
”losses”.

Energy in Resistors
Power in a Resistor
pR (t)
V R IR

P Ravg

Energy in a Resistor
eR (t)

2.6.2 Energy in Inductors

Energy in Inductors

85
Derivation of Energy in an Inductor
Z Z
diL
EL = vL (t)iL (t)dt = L iL (t) dt (59)
dt

Derivation using the Rule for Partial Integration ...

Z Z Z
dx dx dx x2
x dt = x2 − x dt ⇒ x dt = (60)
dt dt dt 2

IMPORTANT ...gives the Energy stored in an Inductor at a given

Time
1 2
eL (t) = Li (t) (61)
2 L

Energy in Inductors
Derivation of Energy in Inductors for sinusoidal Signals
iL (t) = IL cos (ωt)
1 1 (62)
⇒ eL (t) = LIL2 cos2 (ωt) = LIL2 (1 + cos (2ωt))
2 4
Meaning of Energy in an Inductor
The energy in an inductor L is sinusoidally cycling between 0 and its peak
energy. The inductor is ”magnetized”. At the peak all energy is stored in
the magnetic field H ⃗ and afterwards, the inductor gets ”demagnetized”, i.e. the
energy is collected and is used in other parts of the circuit. An inductor ”stores”
energy in a magnetic field H. ⃗

Energy in Inductors
Power in an Inductor
pL (t)
V L IL
2

− VL2IL

Energy in an Inductor

86
 eL (t)
2
LIL
2

2.6.3 Energy in Capacitors

Energy in Capacitors
Derivation of Energy in a Capacitor
Z Z
dvC
EC = vC (t)iC (t)dt = C vc (t) dt (63)
dt

Derivation using the Rule for Partial Integration ...

Z Z Z
dx dx dx x2
x dt = x2 − x dt ⇒ x dt = (64)
dt dt dt 2

IMPORTANT ...gives the Energy stored in a Capacitor at a given

Time
1 2
eC (t) = Cv (t) (65)
2 C

Energy in Capacitors
Derivation of Energy in Capacitors for sinusoidal Signals
vC (t) = VC cos (ωt)
1 1 (66)
⇒ eC (t) = CVC2 cos2 (ωt) = CVC2 (1 + cos (2ωt))
2 4
Meaning of Energy in a Capacitor
The energy in a capacitor C is sinusoidally cycling between 0 and its peak energy.
The capacitor is ”charged”. At the peak, all energy is stored in the electric field
⃗ and afterwards, the capacitor gets ”discharged”, i.e. the energy is collected
E
and is used in other parts of the circuit. A capacitor ”stores” energy in a electric
⃗ A prominent example of a capacitor is a battery. The maximum energy,
field E.
that can be stored in a battery is typically given in A h, which is the charge at
a given voltage (the rated
R voltage of a battery). Note that eC (t) = q(t)VC (t),
where the charge q(t) = iC (t)dt.

87
Energy in Capacitors
Power in a Capacitor
pC (t)
VC IC
2

− VC2IC

Energy in a Capacitor
eC (t)
CVC2
2

Power and Energy in Components

Exercise 2.9 Capacitor: Waveforms, Power and Energy /
20 min
The voltage in the following figure is applied across a capacitor C = 0.01 µF.
How do the current iC (t), power pC (t) and energy eC (t) waveforms look like?
Is the capacitor absorbing power, delivering power or both?
vC (t)/V
20

t/µs

50 75 100

88
Power and Energy in Components
Exercise 2.10 Inductor: Power and Energy / 10 min
For t ≥ 0 the current iL (t) = 30 At + 60 A (consider t without unit here) is
flowing through an inductor L = 100 mH. How do the power pL (t) and energy
eL (t) waveforms look like? Is the inductor absorbing power, delivering power or
both?

89
Part III
Circuits
3 Circuits
Circuits

90
Recap
So far:
• Section Signals provided through Sources as voltages and currents, which
together result in Power

• Section Components provided the building blocks Resistors, Inductors and

Capacitors, with their respective Power in Components and Energy in
Components.

This section
Combining those building blocks creates Circuits.

3.1 Series and Parallel Connections

3.1.1 Series Connections
Series Connections
Series Circuit
I
Z1 V1

Z2 V2
V

Zn Vn

IMPORTANT Kirchhoffs voltage law

V = V 1 + V 2 + ... + V n (67)

IMPORTANT Impedances in series

V
Z= = Z1 + Z2 + . . . + Zn (68)
I

3.1.2 Parallel Connections

Parallel Conections
Parallel Circuit

91
 I

I1 I2 In
V Z1 Z2 Zn

IMPORTANT Kirchhoffs current law

I = I1 + I2 + . . . + In (69)

IMPORTANT Admittances in parallel

I
Y = = Y 1 + Y 2 + ... + Y n (70)
V
1
with Y x = Zx

Series & Parallel Connections

Exercise 3.1 Phasors in an RL series connection / 15 min
What are the phasors for all voltages and currents in the following circuit?
How does the phasor diagram look like? What is the phase relationship
between the source voltage vs (t) = 10 V cos (500t) and i(t)?
vR (t)

i(t)

100 Ω
vs (t) 200 mH vL (t)

92
Series & Parallel Connections
Exercise 3.2 Phasors in an RC series connection / 15 min
What are the phasors for all voltages and currents in the following circuit?
How does the phasor diagram look like? What is the phase relationship
between the source voltage vs (t) = 10 V cos (500t) and i(t)?
vR (t)

i(t)

1000 Ω
vs (t) 1 µF vC (t)

93
Series & Parallel Connections
Exercise 3.3 Resulting impedance of a series connection /
10 min
What is the complex impedance in phasors for the shown circuit at
ω1 = 500 rad s−1 , ω2 = 1000 rad s−1 and ω3 = 2000 rad s−1 ?
100 mH

Z 50 Ω

10 µF

94
Series & Parallel Connections
Exercise 3.4 Phasors in a Parallel connection / 15 min
What are the phasors I S , V , I R , I L and I C for is (t) = 10 mA cos (104 t)? What
is the relationship between the peak values of iL (t) and is (t)? What does this
is iR iL
iC
v(t) 1 kΩ 20 mH 500 nF

mean?

95
Series & Parallel Connections
Exercise 3.5 Superposition of a voltage and a current source /
10 min
V1 j5 Ω
5Ω

+
20 V∠90° −
3 A∠0° 5Ω

What is V 1 ?

96
Series & Parallel Connections
Exercise 3.6 Superposition of two voltage sources / 10 min
V 1 −j5 Ω
10 Ω

+ +
20 V∠90° −
j10 Ω −
20 V∠30°

What is V 1 ?

97
Series & Parallel Connections
Exercise 3.7 Power in a parallel connection / 15 min
What is the phasor I? What is the power, reactive power and apparent power
delivered by the source? What its the power factor and is it lagging or
I
√ +
2 1000 V∠0° −
100 Ω 10 µF

ω = 377 rad s−1

leading?

98
Series & Parallel Connections
Exercise 3.8 Power in a series connection / 15 min
A 60 Hz, 240 VRM S source supplies energy to a load consisting of a resistor in
series with an inductance. The real power is 1500 W and the apparent power is
2500 V A. What is the resistance of the resistor, the inductance of the inductor
and the resulating power factor?

99
3.2 Norton & Thevenin Equivalent Circuits
Norton & Thevenin Equivalent Circuits
Thevenin Circuit
ZT I

+
VT −
V ZL

Norton Circuit
I
IN

ZT V ZL

Meaning
The electrical conditions V and I for the load impedance Z L are the same in
both cases.

100
IMPORTANT Norton & Thevenin Transformations
V T = V open−load = I N Z T
V
I N = I short−circuit = T
ZT (71)
1 V open−load
with Z T = =
YN I short−circuit

3.3 Impedance Matching

Impedance Matching
Circuit
Rsrc Xsrc I
Z src I

RL
V src V
V src V ZL ⇒
XL

Parameters
V ol = V src
V (72)
I sc = src
Z src

Impedance Matching
Meaning of Matching
Matching means to adjust a load impedance Z L = RL + jXL to a given source -
here voltage source V src - and a given output impedance (Thevenin impedance)
Z src = Rsrc + jXsrc to maximize another signal.

Maximum Voltage Matching

ZL
V ZL Z src
= = Z
(73)
V ol Z src + Z L 1+ Z L
src

achieves maximum voltage V for

ZL
→ ∞ ⇒ ZL → ∞ (74)
Z src

Maximum Current Matching

101
 V src
I Z src +Z L Z src 1
= V src
= = Z
(75)
I sc Z src + Z L 1+ Z L
Z src src

achieves maximum current I for

ZL
→ 0 ⇒ ZL → 0 (76)
Z src

Impedance Matching
Derivation Sum of Source and Load Impedance
Z sum = Rsrc + RL + j (Xsrc + XL ) = |Z sum | ej∠Z sum (77)

Derivation Loop Current

j (∠V src − ∠Z sum )
| {z }
V |V src |
I = src = e ∠I
(78)
Z sum |Z sum |
| {z }
I

Derivation Complex Power across Load Impedance

j (∠I − ∠I)
| {z }
∗ ∗
S L = V I = Z L II = Z L |I| e
2 =0 = RL |I|2 +j XL |I|2 (79)
| {z } | {z }
PL QL

Impedance Matching
Matching for maximum Power Transfer
RL |V src |2
PL = (80)
(Rsrc + RL )2 + (Xsrc + XL )2
achieves maximum power for XL = −Xsrc and at dPL
dRL =0

Derivation Extrema of Power, where its Derivative is Zero

dPL (Rsrc + RL )2 − 2RL (Rsrc + RL ) Rsrc − RL !
= |V src |2 = =0 (81)
dRL (Rsrc + RL )4 (Rsrc + RL )3
dPL
dRL = 0 at RL = Rsrc

Maximum Power
2
RL 2 Vsrc
PLmax = V = (82)
(2RL )2 src 4RL

102
Impedance Matching
Voltage, Current and Power as a Function of Load Variation
V I P
V ol I sc Pmax

0.5

ZL
Z src

10−2 10−1 100 101 102

Impedance Matching
Reactive Power due to Inductor L

L
Vs

Compensation with a Capacitor C

L
Vs C

Impedance Matching
Matching for optimum Power Factor = Power Factor Correction

103
 1
jωC (R + jωL) R + jωL
Z= =
R + jωL + 11 − ω 2 LC + jωRC
jωC


(R + jωL) 1 − ω 2 LC − jωRC
= 2
(1 − ω 2 LC) + ω 2 R2 C 2
⇒ℑ{Z} = jωL − jω 3 L2 C − jωR2 C = 0
! (83)

⇒L − ω 2 L2 C − R2 C = 0


⇒C ω 2 L2 + R2 = L
L
⇒C = 2
R + ω 2 L2

Impedance Matching
Example
L = 100 µH
R = 20 Ω (84)
f = 60 Hz

Size of compensation Capacitor C

100 µH
C= ≈ 250 nF (85)
(20 Ω)2 + (2π60 Hz100 µH)2
Choosing from E12-series: C → 270 nF.

Checking Units of C
Vs
A As
[C] = V2 2 s2 = =F (86)
A2
+Vs2 A2
V

Norton & Thevenin Equivalents and Matching

Exercise 3.9 Current Source Equivalent and Matching / 10 min
a What is the Thevenin and Norton equivalent of the following circuit?
b What is the maxium power, this circuit can deliver for any complex load
impedance?
c What is the maxium power, this circuit can deliver for a resistive load?

j50 Ω

100 Ω 2 A 0°

104
Norton & Thevenin Equivalents and Matching
Exercise 3.10 Matching of Voltage Source with series Impedance /
10 min
What parallel connection of a resistor R and a capacitor C to the terminals a
and b of the Thevenin equivalent source in the diagram allows maximum
power delivery to this load resistance R at 60 Hz?
10 Ω + j5 Ω
a

100 V 0°

105
3.4 LaPlace Transformations
3.4.1 Mathematical Background
LaPlace Transformation - Math Background
Definition of the LaPlaceZ Transformation
∞
F (s) = f (t)e−st dt ⇒ f (t)  F (s)
0 (87)
with the complex frequency s = σ + jω
Note that the real part of the complex frequency σ i usually zero. Suggested
extra reading material: [6].

Definition of the inverse LaPlace Transformation

106
 Z α+j∞
1
f (t) = F (s)est ds (88)
2πj α−j∞

Initial and final Values

lim f (t) = lim sF (s)
t→0+ s→∞
(89)
lim f (t) = lim sF (s)
t→∞ s→0

LaPlace Transformation - Math Background

IMPORTANT Properties
Properties Time (t) Domain Frequency (s) Domain

independent variable t s
signal representation f (t) F (s)
linearity Af1 (t) + Bf2 (t) AF1 (s) + BF2 (s)
Rt F (s)
integration 0
f (τ )dτ s
df (t)
differentiation dt sF (s) − f (0s)δ(t)
d2 f (t)
dt2 s F (s) − sf (0s)δ(t) − dfdt
2 (0s)
δ(t)
−αt
offset in frequency e f (t) F (s + α)
offset in time f (t − β)u(t − β) e−βs F (s)
with the unity step function u(t), which is 1 for t ≥ 0s and 0 for t < 0s and the
Dirac impulse δ(t), which is 1Hz at t = 0s and 0 ∀ t , 0s.

3.4.2 Application of the LaPlace Transformation in Circuits

LaPlace Transformation - Application in Circuits
General Application of LaPlace Transformations in Circuit Analysis
1. Describe circuit analytically by Kirchhoffs Rules and Ohms Law (perhaps
also Thevnin and/or Norton equivalents) in the s-domain.
2. Apply the relevant signals - coming from the present sources - to the circuit
description
3. Either use the results in the frequency domain (such as Transfer Functions)
or
4. Apply an inverse LaPlace Transformation and interpret the system re-
sponse to a specific stimulation.

LaPlace Transformation - Application in Circuits

Specific Application of LaPlace Transformations to Sources
Uncontrolled (independent) sources:

v(t)  V (s) (90)

107
for voltage sources and
i(t)  I(s) (91)
for current sources. Controlled (dependent) sources:

v2 (t) = µv1 (t)  V 2 (s) = µV 1 (s) (92)

e.g.: operational amplifier,

i2 (t) = βi1 (t)  I 2 (s) = βI 1 (s) (93)

e.g.: bipolar transistor,

v2 (t) = ri1 (t)  V 2 (s) = rI 1 (s) (94)

e.g.: transimpedance amplifier,

i2 (t) = gv1 (t)  I 2 (s) = gV 1 (s) (95)

e.g.: transconductance amplifier, MOSFET.

LaPlace Transformation - Application in Circuits

Signals
Signal Time Domain Frequency Domain

dirac impulse δ(t) 1Hz

1
unity step u(t) s
1
unity ramp r(t) = tu(t) s2
exponential e−αt u(t) 1
s+α
with the unity
damped unity ramp te−αt u(t) 1
(s+α)2
β
sine wave sin (βt)u(t) s2 +β 2
s
cosine wave cos (βt)u(t) s2 +β 2
damped sine e−αt sin (βt)u(t) β
(s+α)2 +β 2
e−αt cos (βt)u(t)
s+α
damped cosine (s+α)2 +β 2
step function u(t), which is 1 for t ≥ 0 and 0 for t < 0 and the Dirac impulse
δ(t), which is 1Hz at t = 0s and 0 ∀ t , 0s.

LaPlace Transformation - Application in Circuits

Specific Application of LaPlace Transformations to Resistors
vR (t) = RiR (t)  V R (s) = RI R (s) (96)

Modelling of a Resistor in Time and Frequency Domain

108
 iR (t) I R (s)

vR (t) R  R V R (s)

LaPlace Transformation - Application in Circuits

Specific Application of LaPlace Transformations to Inductors
diL (t) V (s) iL (0)δ(t)
vL (t) = L  V L (s) = L (sI L (s)−iL (0)δ(t))⇒ I L (s) = L +
dt sL s
(97)

Modelling of an Inductor in Time and Frequency Domain

I L (s)
iL (t) sL

vL (t) L  V L (s) ⇒ sL iL (0)δ(t)

s V L (s)
I L (s)
−
LiL (0)δ(t) +

LaPlace Transformation - Application in Circuits

Specific Application of LaPlace Transformations to Capacitors
dvC (t) I (s) vC (0)δ(t)
iC (t) = C  I C (s) = C (sV C (s)−vC (0)δ(t))⇒ V C (s) = C +
dt sC s
(98)

Modelling of a Capacitor in Time and Frequency Domain

I C (s)
iC (t) C
vC (t) C  C CvC (0)δ(t) V C (s) ⇒ V C (s)
I C (s)
vC (0)δ(t) +
s −

LaPlace Transformation - Application in Circuits

Example of an RC circuit with a ramp that turns into a constant

109
 vSRC (t)

V̂ = 5 V

i(t) R

vSRC (t) C = 22 nF vC (t) t

t1 = 30 µs

What is vC (t) for R = 1 kΩ, R = 100 Ω and R = 10 kΩ with vC (0) = 2 V, when

the switch is closed at t = 0?

LaPlace Transformation - Application in Circuits

Describing the source voltage as two superimposed functions,...
v1 (t), v2 (t)

5V

30 µs 60 µs
−5 V

vsrc (t) = v1 (t) + v2 (t)

V̂
v1 (t) = t (99)
t1
V̂
v2 (t) = −v1 (t − t1 ) = − (t − t1 )
t1

LaPlace Transformation - Application in Circuits

... analyzing the circuit for t ≥ 0, ...

110
 i(t) R

vSRC (t) C vC (t)

vsrc (t) = Ri(t) + vC (t) with

dvC (t)
i(t) = C (100)
dt
dvC (t)
⇒ vSRC (t) = RC + vC (t)
dt

Inserting the superimposed functions into the equations from the

circuits analysis ...
dvC (t) V̂ V̂ dvC (t)
v1 (t) − v1 (t − t1 ) = RC + vC (t) ⇒ t − (t − t1 ) = RC + vC (t)
dt t1 t1 dt
(101)

LaPlace Transformation - Application in Circuits

... and transfering the results in the s-domain.
V̂ 1 V̂ 1 −t1 s
 − e = RC (sV C (s) − vC (t = 0)) + V C (s) (102)
t1 s2 t1 s2

Then solving the equation in the s-domain for V! C , ...

1 V̂ 1 V̂ 1 −t1 s
V C (s) = − e + RCvC (0)
1 + sRC t1 s2 t1 s2
V̂ 1 V̂ e−t1 s 1 (103)
= − + vC (0)
t RC s (s + RC ) t1 RC s (s + RC ) | {z } s + RC
2 1 2 1 1
| 1{z } | {z } | {z } | {z } const | {z }
const F (s) const F (s) −t s F (s)
s2 s2
e 1

LaPlace Transformation - Application in Circuits

... and transfering each part back into the time domain: the first two
here, ...

111
 ! 1 − RC
t
F (s) = 1 e = f (t)
s + RC
Z tZ ϑ Z tZ ϑ Z t
F (s) − RC
[−RCe− RC ]ϑ0 dϑ =
τ τ
 f (τ )dτ dϑ = e dτ dϑ =
s2 0 0 0 0 0
Z t Z t
(−RC)e− RC dϑ +
ϑ
= RCdϑ =
0 0

−RC[−RCe− RC ]t0 + RCt = R2 C 2 e− RC − R2 C 2 + RCt

ϑ t
=
(104)

LaPlace Transformation - Application in Circuits

... and the last oneZ here:
t−t1 Z ϑ
F (s) −t1 s
e  f (τ )dτ dϑu(t − t1 ) =
s2
(0 0
(105)
0 ∀ t < t1
= (t−t1 )
R2 C 2 e− RC − R2 C 2 + RC(t − t1 ) ∀ t ≥ t1

LaPlace Transformation - Application in Circuits

Finally putting all the pieces together gives the resulting vC (t):
V̂  
t + RCe− RC − RC
t
⇒ vC (t) =
t1
+ vC (0)e− RC
t

(
0 ∀ t < t1
− V̂  t−t
− RC1
 (106)
t1 t − t 1 + RCe − RC ∀ t ≥ t1
  
 V̂
t − V̂
RC 1 − e − RC
t
∀ t < t1
= vC (0)e− RC +
t t1 t1  t−t 
V̂ − V̂ RC e− RC − e− RC
1 t
∀ t ≥ t1
t1

LaPlace Transformation - Application in Circuits

Result - visualization of vC (t)
for R = 1 kΩ, R = 100 Ω and R = 10 kΩ:

112
 vC (t), vC (t), vC (t)

V̂ = 5 V

vC (0) = 2 V

t1 = 30 µs

LaPlace Transformation - Exercises

Exercise 3.11 Offset and Exponential Function /
10 min
What is the LaPlace transformation of v1 (t) = 500 V 1 − e−100 Hzt u(t) and
where are its poles and zeros?

113
Exercise 3.12 Sine Wave / 5 min
What is the LaPlace transformation of v2 (t) = 20 V sin (377 Hzt)u(t) and where
are its poles and zeros?

114
Exercise 3.13 Impulse and Step / 15 min
How does v3 (t) = −10 Vδ(t) + 10 Vu(t) look like in the time domain? What is

115
its the LaPlace transformation of and where are its poles and zeros?

LaPlace Transformation - Exercises

Exercise 3.14 Offset and Exponential Function / 10
min
What is the LaPlace transformation of v4 (t) = 20 V e−200 Hzt − 2e−100 Hzt u(t)
and where are its poles and zeros?

116
Exercise 3.15 Step and Sine Wave / 10 min
How does i5 (t) = 0.005 A (10 − 10 sin (1000 Hzt)) u(t) look like in the time do-
main? What is its the LaPlace transformation of and where are its poles and
zeros?

117
3.5 Transfer Functions
Transfer Functions
Circuit analysis tools
In the s domain, the same circuit analysis principles are valid as in the time
and phasor domain:
• Ohms law,
• Kirchhofs laws,
• Thevenin & Norton,
• series and parallel connections, and
• superposition of sources.

However the math is simpler: Multiplication and division (linear math) instead
of differentiation and integration (differential equations).

Transfer Functions
Two-Port Representation of a linear, time-invariant Circuit (Net-
work)
I in (s) I out (s)

V in (s) port1 two-port port2 V out (s)

Transfer Functions
Voltage Transfer Function

V in (s) H V (s) V out (s)

V out (s)
H V (s) = (107)
V in (s)

118
Current Transfer Function
I in (s) I out (s)

H I (s)

I out (s)
H I (s) = (108)
I in (s)

Transfer Functions
Transconductance Transfer Function
I out (s)

V in (s) H V (s)

I out (s)
H Y (s) = (109)
V in (s)

Transimpedance Transfer Function

I in (s)

H V (s) V out (s)

V out (s)
H Z (s) = (110)
I in (s)

Transfer Functions
Poles and Zeros
b0 + b1 s + b2 s2 + . . . + bn sn
H(s) = (111)
a0 + a1 s + a2 s2 + . . . + am sm
can be rewritten as
1st zero 2nd zero n-th zero
z }| { z }| { z }| {
(s − z1 ) (s − z2 ) . . . (s − zn )
H(s) = |{z}
K (112)
(s − p1 ) (s − p2 ) . . . (s − pm )
DC-gain | {z } | {z } | {z }
1st pole 2nd pole m-th pole

Visualization of Poles and Zeros

as Pole-Zero-Diagrams → chapter 9.3 in [1] and Bode Plots

119
Transfer Functions
Example of Transfer Functions on an LCR-network:
L

V in (s) Z in C R Z out V out (s)

What are the input and output impedances Z in (s) and Z out (s) and the
V (s)
voltage transfer function H V (s) = Vout(s) ?
in

Transfer Functions
Calculating the input impedance Z in (s)...
  1
R sC
1
Z in (s) = sL + R|| = sL + 1 =
sC R + sC
(113)
R R + sL + s2 RLC
= sL + =
1 + sRC 1 + sRC

... checking the units ...

Numerator:
• [R] = Ω

• [sL] = 1s Ω s = Ω
• [s2 RLC] = 1 s
s2 ΩΩ s Ω =Ω
Denominator:
• [1] = 1

• [sRC] = 1s Ω Ωs = 1

⇒ [Z in ] = Ω+Ω+Ω
1+1 =Ω✓

Transfer Functions
... shorting the voltage source to calculate the output impedance
Z out (s) ...

L C R Z out

120
... calculating the output impedance...
R
1 sL 1+sRC
Z out (s) = sL||R|| = R
=
sC sL + 1+sRC
(114)
sRL
=
R + sL + s2 RLC

... and checking the units:

2
[Z out (s)] = ΩΩ = Ω ✓

Transfer Functions
Finally calculating the voltage transfer function H V (s)...
1
R|| sC
H V (s) = 1 =
sL + R|| sC
R
=
1+sRC
= (115)
R
sL + 1+sRC
R
=
R + sL + s2 RLC

... and checking it’s units:

[H V (s)] = Ω
Ω =1✓

Transfer Functions
Example of Transfer Functions in an Oscilloscope Probe
Rprobe

V meas (s) Cprobe Rscope Cscope V display (s)

Requirements & contraints for oscilloscope measurements:

• The displayed voltage V display (s) is supposed to be a linear representation of
the actual measured voltage V meas (s) in the device under test (DUT) for any
given frequency.
• Widely used values for oscilloscopes: Rscope = 1 MΩ and Cscope = 5 pF.
• The data processing in digital storage oscilloscopes (DSO) typically expects a
voltage division from V meas (s) to V display (s) by a factor of 10.

Transfer Functions
Transfering the contraints into equations

121
 V display !
• "linear representation" → H V (s) = V meas must be real ⇒ ℑ(H V (s)) =
0.
!
• "voltage division by a factor of 10" → H V (s) = 1
10 .

Setting up the voltage transfer function from measured voltage to

displayed voltage
Rscope
1+sRscope Cscope
H V (s) = Rscope Rprobe
1+sRscope Cscope + 1+sRprobe Cprobe (116)
Rscope + sRscope Rprobe Cprobe
=
Rscope + Rprobe + sRscope Rprobe (Cscope + Cprobe )

Transfer Functions
Satisfying the requirement for voltage division by 10:
Rscope ! 1
⇒ H V (0) = =
Rscope + Rprobe 10
with Rscope = 1 MΩ (117)
1
⇒ Rprobe = 10Rscope (1 − ) = 9Rscope = 9 MΩ
10

Transfer Functions
Satisfying the requirement for linear scaling from measured to dis-
played voltage:
(R +sR Rprobe Cprobe )(Rscope +Rprobe −sRscope Rprobe (Cscope +Cprobe ))
H V (s) = scope scope
(Rscope +R )2 −s2 (Rscope R (Cscope +C ))2
probe probe probe

ℜ
z }| {
Rscope (Rscope +Rprobe )+s2 Rscope
2 2
Rprobe Cprobe (Cscope +Cprobe )
=
(Rscope +Rprobe )2 −s2 (Rscope Rprobe (Cscope +Cprobe ))2
ℑ
z }| {
s (Rscope Rprobe (Rscope +Rprobe )Cprobe −Rscope
2
Rprobe (Cscope +Cprobe ))
+
(Rscope +Rprobe )2 −s2 (Rscope Rprobe (Cscope +Cprobe ))2
(118)
!
⇒ℑ(H V (s)) = 0 ⇒ (Rscope + Rprobe )Cprobe = Rscope (Cscope + Cprobe )
Rscope 1
⇒Rprobe Cprobe = Rscope Cscope ⇒ Cprobe = Cscope = 5 pF ≈ 556 fF
Rprobe 9
(119)

122
LaPlace and Transfer Functions
Exercise 3.16 Equivalent Impedance of series RC / 15 min
What is the equivalent impedance of a series RC connection? Select a resistor
value R. What capacitance C gives a pole at 0 rad s−1 and a zero at −1 krad s?

Exercise 3.17 Equivalent Impedance of parallel RC / 10 min

What is the equivalent impedance of a parellel RC connection? Select a resistor
value R. What capacitance C gives a pole at −10 krad s−1 ?

123
LaPlace and Transfer Functions
Exercise 3.18 Equivalent impedance of LCR circuit / 10 min

Z R

a What is the equivalent input impedance Z (as a rational function) of the

circuit?
b What is the equivalent input admittance Y of the circuit?
c For R = 2 kΩ and C = 100 nF: what inductance L puts the zeros of Z at
±j5000 rad s−1 ?
d Where are the poles for those component values?

124
LaPlace and Transfer Functions
Exercise 3.19 Equivalent impedance of RLC circuit / 10 min

L C

a What is the equivalent input impedance Z (as a rational function) of the

circuit?
b What is the equivalent input admittance Y (as a rational function) of the
circuit?
c For R = 10 kΩ: How can the inductance L and capacitance C be selected to
locate the poles of Z at ±j200 krad s−1 ?
d Where are the zeros of Z for those component values?

125
LaPlace and Transfer Functions
Exercise 3.20 Equivalent impedance of CRRC circuit / 10 min

2C

Z 2R

2R

a What is the equivalent input impedance Z (as a rational function) of the

circuit?
b Where are it’s poles and zeros?

c What is the equivalent input admittance Y (as a rational function) of the

circuit?
d Assuming that the components were dimensioned in a way, so that the poles
of Z were originally located at −20 krad s−1 and afterwards the resistance R
is reduced to 25 % of its original value, where would the poles move to after
the change?

126
LaPlace and Transfer Functions
Exercise 3.21 Equivalent input impedance and voltage transfer func-
tion /
10 min
2R

2R

V 1 (s) V 2 (s)

a What is the impedance, the source V 1 (s) is loaded with?

V 2 (s)
b What is the voltage transfer function H V (s) = V 1 (s) ?

127
LaPlace and Transfer Functions
Exercise 3.22 Equivalent input impedance and voltage transfer func-
tion /
10 min
R

V 1 (s) C L V 2 (s)

a What is the impedance, the source V 1 (s) is loaded with?

V 2 (s)
b What is the voltage transfer function H V (s) = V 1 (s) ?

128
LaPlace and Transfer Functions
Exercise 3.23 Equivalent input impedance and voltage transfer func-
tion /
15 min
C

R 10R

−
V 1 (s) V 2 (s)
+

a What is the impedance, the source V 1 (s) is loaded with?

V 2 (s)
b What is the voltage transfer function H V (s) = V 1 (s) ?

LaPlace and Transfer Functions

129
Exercise 3.24 Equivalent input impedance and voltage transfer func-
tion /
10 min
+

V 1 (s) 2R V 2 (s)
C 2R

a What is the impedance, the source V 1 (s) is loaded with?

V 2 (s)
b What is the voltage transfer function H V (s) = V 1 (s) ?

130
LaPlace and Transfer Functions
Exercise 3.25 Voltage transfer function / 10 min
V 2 (s)
What is the voltage transfer function H V (s) = V 1 (s) ?
L R

V 1 (s) R C V 2 (s)

131
LaPlace and Transfer Functions
Exercise 3.26 Voltage transfer function and pole placement /
10 min

132
 C

R1 R2

−
V 1 (s) V 2 (s)
+

What values for

V 2 (s)
R1 , R2 and C place a pole of the voltage transfer function H V (s) = V 1 (s) at
−1
s = −250 krad s and its DC gain R2
R1 = 100?

LaPlace and Transfer Functions

Exercise 3.27 Current transfer function and pole placement /
10 min
2R

I2 (s)

R L
I1 (s)

I 2 (s)
a What is the current transfer function H I (s) = I 1 (s) ?

b What values of R and L place a pole H I (s) at s = −377 rad s−1 ?

133
LaPlace and Transfer Functions
Exercise 3.28 Voltage transfer function and cascaded networks /
15 min
V 2 (s)
a What is the voltage transfer function H V (s) = V 1 (s) ?
b Where are it’s poles and zeros located?

47 nF
+

100 nF 10 kΩ
V 1 (s) 22 kΩ V 2 (s)

1 kΩ

134
Transfer Functions
System Responses
V (s)
with Hs = Vout(s) , i.e. H is a voltage transfer function
in

• impulse response: vin (t) = δ(t)  V in (s) = 1

⇒ V out = H(s)
• step response: vin (t) = 0 ∀ t < 0, 1 ∀ t ≥ 0  V in (s) = 1
s

H(s)
⇒ V out = s

• sinusoidal response: vin (t) = 0 ∀ t < 0, sin (ωt) ∀ t ≥ 0  V in (s) =

ω
s2 +ω 2

⇒ V out = H(s) s2 +ω
ω
2

Transfer Functions
For a given transfer function H(s):
(s − z1 ) (s − z2 ) . . . (s − zn )
H(s) = k (120)
(s − p1 ) (s − p2 ) . . . (s − pm )

Partial Fraction Decomposition for n < m

k1 k2 km
H(s) = + + ... +
s − p1 s − p2 s − pm (121)
where ki = (s − pi ) H(s)|s=pi

Transfer Functions
Example of Partial Fraction Decomposition for n < m:
(s + 3)
H(s) = 2
s (s + 1) (s + 2)

(s + 3) 
k1 = s H|s=0 = 2  =3
(s + 1) (s + 2) s=0

(s + 3) 
k2 = (s + 1) H|s=−1 = 2 = −4
s (s + 2) s=−1 (122)

(s + 3) 
k3 = (s + 2) H|s=−2 = 2 =1
s (s + 1) s=−2
3 4 1
⇒H(s) = − +
s s+1 s+2


h(t) = 3u(t) + e−2t − 4e−t u(t)

135
Transfer Functions
Example of Partial Fraction Decomposition for n ≥ m:
s2 − 4
H(s) = 2 =
s +4
s2 + 4 − 8
= =
s2 + 4
s2 + 4 1
= 2 −8 2 =
s +4 s +4 (123)
1
=1−8 2 =
s +4
2
=1−4 2
s +4
h(t) = δ(t) − 4 sin (2t)u(t)

Transfer Functions & System Responses

Exercise 3.29 Impulse & Step Response of RLR circuit / 15 min
100 Ω 100 mH

V 1 (s) 25 Ω V 2 (s)

a What is v2 (t) for v1 (t) = δ(t)?

b What is v2 (t) for v1 (t) = u(t)?

136
Transfer Functions & System Responses
Exercise 3.30 Impulse & Step Response of a passive RCR circuit
/ 10 min
0.1 µF

10 kΩ

V 1 (s) 5 kΩ V 2 (s)

a What is v2 (t) for v1 (t) = δ(t)?

b What is v2 (t) for v1 (t) = u(t)?

Transfer Functions & System Responses

137
Exercise 3.31 Impulse & Step Response of an active RCR circuit
/ 10 min
0.02 µF

5 kΩ 100 kΩ

−
V 1 (s) V 2 (s)
+

a What is the impulse response of the circuit?

b What is the step response of the circuit?

138
3.6 Network Analysis
Network Analysis
Node-Voltage-Analysis
1. convert all sources into current sources (Norton)
2. define reference node (ground) P
3. apply Kirchhoffs current law to all other nodes and write down as YV = Isrc .
4. write down in matrix form
5. apply Cramer’s rule
⇒ all voltages are known
→ circuit is calculated!

Mesh-Current-Analysis
1. convert all sources into voltage sources (Thevenin)
2. choose a connection of all but one nodes and define all loopsP
3. apply Kirchhoffs voltage law to all loops and write down as ZI = Vsrc .
4. write down in matrix form
5. apply Cramer’s rule
⇒ all currents are known
→ circuit is calculated!

Applying Ohms law to each component gives the remaining signals.

Network Analysis
Derivation Mathematical Background: Cramers Rule
Any set of linear equations

a11 x1 + a12 x2 + . . . + a1n xn = y1

a21 x1 + a22 x2 + . . . + a2n xn = y2
.. . . .. (124)
. . .
am1 x1 + am2 x2 + . . . + amn xn = ym

can be rewritten in matrix form

    
a11 a12 ... a1n x1 y1
 a21 a22 ... a2n  x2   y2 
    
 .. .. ..  .. = ..  (125)
 . . .  .   . 
am1 am2 ... amn xm ym

139
Network Analysis
Derivation Solving for x through
det(Ai )
xi = (126)
det(A)
where
det(A) is the determinant of A and

det(Ai ) is the determinant of A with the i-th column replaced by vector

y

Circuit Simulators
Circuit simulators like Spice (and its derivatives) use these procedures (node
voltage analysis and/or mesh current analysis) and solve the matrices with the
selected math solvers to calculate the circuit, that the user entered under the
given contraints from simulation parameters.

Network Analysis
Example of Node Voltage Analysis - Circuit
Z1 Z3 Z5

V a (s) Z2 Z4 V b (s)

Applying step 1 (converting all sources into current sources (Norton)) and step
2 defining a reference (ground) node:
Z3
A B

Va Vb
Ia = Z1
Z1 Z2 V A (s) V B (s) Z4 Z5 Ib = Z5

Network Analysis
Example of Node Voltage Analysis - Equations
Step 3: applying Kirchhoffs current law and analytically describe the circuit:

A: (Y 1 + Y 2 )V A + Y 3 (V A − V B ) = I a
(127)
B: (Y 4 + Y 5 )V B + Y 3 (V B − V A ) = I b

140
 1
with Y i = Zi

Example of Node Voltage Analysis - Matrices

Step 4: write the equations in matrix form:
    
Y1+Y2+Y3 −Y 3 VA Ia
= (128)
−Y 3 Y3+Y4+Y5 VB Ib

Network Analysis
Example of Node Voltage Analysis - Solving for node voltages V A &
VB  
 Ia −Y 3 
 
 Ib Y 3 + Y 4 + Y 5 
V A =  

 Y1+Y2+Y3 −Y 3 
 −Y 3 Y3+Y4+Y5 
(Y 3 + Y 4 + Y 5 )I a + Y 3 I b
=
(Y 1 + Y 2 + Y 3 )(Y 3 + Y 4 + Y 5 ) − Y 3 Y 3 (129)
 
 Y 1 + Y 2 + Y 3 Ia 
 
 −Y 3 Ib 
VB =
Y 13 + Y 14 + Y 15 + Y 23 + Y 24 + Y 25 + Y 34 + Y 35
(Y 1 + Y 2 + Y 3 )I b + Y 3 I a
=
Y 13 + Y 14 + Y 15 + Y 23 + Y 24 + Y 25 + Y 34 + Y 35
with Y αβ = Y α Y β

Network Analysis
Example of Mesh Current Analysis - Circuit
L

V src (s) R C

iL (0) , 0 & vC (0) , 0 Applying step 1

(drawing the circuit with voltage sources only) & step 2 (choosing R as connec-
LiL (0)
L
−+
C
V src IA R IB
+ vC (0)
− s

tion of 2 / 3 nodes & define the loop currents I A & I B ):

141
Network Analysis
Example of Mesh Current Analysis - Equations
Step 3: applying Kirchhoffs voltage law and analytically describe the circuit:

A: sLI A + R(I A − I B ) = V src + LiL (0)

1 vC (0) (130)
B: R(I B − I A ) + I =−
sC B s

Example of Mesh Current Analysis - Matrices

Step 4: write the equations in matrix form:
   !
R + sL −R IA V src + LiL (0)
= (131)
−R 1
R + sC IB − vCs(0)

Network Analysis
Example of Node Voltage Analysis - Solving for node voltages V A &
VB
Step 5: calculating the relevant determinants and dividing them:

(R + 1
sC )(V src + LiL (0)) − R vCs(0)
⇒ IA = L R
C + sC + sRL
(132)
R(V src + LiL (0)) − (R + sL) vCs(0)
⇒ IB = L R
C + sC + sRL

Network Analysis
Exercise 3.32 Node Voltage Analysis / 20 min
C1 C2
A

v1 (t) R1 R2 v2 (t)

All initial conditions are

zero.
a What are the node voltage equations in the s-domain?
b Solve the equations for V 2 (s)?
c Insert an operational amplifier buffer at point A. How did this change the
denominator and where are the poles now?

142
d What values for R1 , R2 , C1 and C2 place one pole at −10 krad s−1 and another
one at −100 krad s−1 for one of the circuits?

Network Analysis
Exercise 3.33 Mesh Current Analysis / 15 min
R2

C1 C2

v1 (t) R1 v2 (t)

All initial conditions are zero.

a What are the mesh current equations in the s-domain?

b With the help of the mesh current equations, what is the relationship between
input voltage V 1 (s) and output voltage V 2 (s)?

143
3.7 Bode Plots
Bode Plots
Visualization of Transfer Functions
0
−10
|H| /dB

−20
−30
−40
100 101 102 103 104
f /Hz

90
45
∠H/°

0
−45
−90
100 101 102 103 104
f /Hz

Bode Plots
Impact of poles and zeros on Bode plot
zero at s = z pole at s = p
rises by +20 dB falls with −20 dB
amplitude
per decade per decade
rises by +90° falls with −90°
for s → ∞ for s → ∞
phase
and gives and gives
+45° at s = z −45° at s = p

Part IV
Applications
4 Applications
4.1 Passive Filters
4.1.1 First Order Filters
Passive Filters - First Order
IMPORTANT Terminology

144
 • τ is the "(characteristic) time constant” of the filter,
• fc is the "corner frequency”, where fc = 2πτ 1
and the "angular corner
frequency” ωc = 2πfc ,
• H−3dB is defined at the frequency,
√ where the output signal (e.g. voltage) is
−3 dB, i.e. a factor of about 2 less, than the input signal (voltage). This
means only 1/2 the power left (at a given resistance - in communications
technology typically 50 Ω).
• "passband” is the frequency range, where the filter lets the input signal
pass to the output, e.g. in case of the lowpass filter all frequencies f < fc ,
• "stopband” is the frequency range, where the filter suppresses the input
signal, e.g. in case of the lowpass filter all frequencies f ≥ fc .
• "asymptotes" are a simplified representation of the filter characterisitcs.

Passive Filters - First Order

Lowpass - RC implementation
R

V in C V out

Lowpass - LR implementation
L

V in R V out

Lowpass - Transfer Function

V (s) 1 L
H LP (s) = out = with τRC = RC and τLR = (133)
V in (s) 1 + sτ R

Passive Filters - First Order

Lowpass - Bode Plot

145
 −3 0
|H LP | /dB asymptotes
−20

−40
10−2 10−1 100 101 102
f /fc

0
∠H LP /°

asymptotes
−45

−90
10−2 10−1 100 101 102
f /fc

Passive Filters - First Order

IMPORTANT Meaning - Lowpass
• At low frequencies f << fc , the impedance of the capacitor is approaching
∞ and therefore can be neglected. The resistors behaviours is dominating
the voltage divider. (Equivalent for the LR implementation)
– The amplitude is frequency independent and
– the filter has no influence on the phase.
• Above the corner frequency fc , the impedance of the capacitance domi-
nates.
– The amplitude is falling with −20 dB per decade caused by the single
pole fc and
– the phase is following an arctan shaped curve towards −90°.
– At fc , the frequency is half way at −45°.

Passive Filters - First Order

Highpass - CR implementation
C

V in R V out

146
Highpass - RL implementation
R

V in L V out

Highpass - Transfer Function

V (s) sτ L
H HP (s) = out = with τRC = RC and τLR = (134)
V in (s) 1 + sτ R

Passive Filters - First Order

Highpass - Bode Plot
−3 0
|H HP | /dB

asymptotes
−20

−40
10−2 10−1 100 101 102
f /fc

90
∠H HP /°

45
asymptotes
0

10−2 10−1 100 101 102

f /fc

Passive Filters - First Order

IMPORTANT Meaning - Highpass
• At low frequencies f << fc , the impedance of the inductor is approaching
0 and therefore shorts the output. This short is dominating the voltage
divider. (Equivalent for the CR implementation.)
– The amplitude is raising with the impedance of the inductor by 20 dB
per decade which is casued by the single zero at f = 0 in the transfer
function and
– the phase is following an arctan shaped curve falling from 90°.
– At fc , the frequency is half way at 45°.

147
 • Above the corner frequency fc , the impedance of the inductor approaches
∞ and the resistor dominates (limits the current delivered towards the
output).
– The amplitude is frequency independent and
– the filter has no influence on the phase.

4.1.2 Second Order Filters

Passive Filters - Second Order
IMPORTANT General Form of Denominator in Transfer Function
1 + s2dT0 + s2 T02
1 1
with T0 = =
2πfc ωc
1 (135)
and d =
2Q
ωc
defines B =
Q

IMPORTANT Variables
• To : characterizing time constant
• ωc : angular cut-off frequency or "angular resonance frequency”
• fc : cut-off frequency or "resonance frequency”

• d: damping factor
• Q: quality
• B: bandwidth

Passive Filters - Second Order

Lowpass - Circuit Diagram
L

V in (s) C R V out (s)

Lowpass - Transfer Function

148
 R
1+sRC
H V (s) = R
=
sL + 1+sRC
(136)
1
= L
1 + s R + s2 LC

Passive Filters - Second Order

IMPORTANT Lowpass - Meaning
• At low frequencies, an inductor is a short and a capacitor is an open.
• At high frequencies, a capacitor is a short and an inductor is an open.
• The resistor is frequency neutral.
• Therefore in the lowpass, the low frequencies f << fc
– get shorted through to the output by the inductor and
– the capacitor is high impedance, therefor has no influence.
• The high frequencies f >> fc
– get blocked by the series inductor and
– shorted across the load by the capacitor.
• At the resonance frequency f = fc

– the resistor adjusts the damping d.

Passive Filters - Second Order

Lowpass - Bode Plot
−3 0
|H LP | /dB

−20
−40
−60
−80
10−2 10−1 100 101 102
f /fc

0 asymptotes
−45
∠H LP /°

1st order low pass

2nd order low pass Q = 0.5
−90 2nd order low pass Q=1
−135 2nd order low pass Q=2
2nd order low pass Q=5
−180
10−2 10−1 100 101 102
f /fc

149
Passive Filters - Second Order
Highpass - Circuit Diagram
C

V in (s) L R V out (s)

Highpass - Transfer Function

sRL
R+sL
H V (s) = 1 sRL
=
sC + R+sL (137)
s2 LC
= L
1 + sR + s2 LC

Passive Filters - Second Order

IMPORTANT Highpass - Meaning
• At low frequencies, an inductor is a short and a capacitor is an open.
• At high frequencies, a capacitor is a short and an inductor is an open.
• The resistor is frequency neutral.
• Therefore in the highpass, the low frequencies f << fc
– get blocked by series capacitor and
– the inductor shorts them across the output.
• The high frequencies f >> fc

– pass through the series capacitor and

– the inductor is high impedance and has therefore no influence.
• At the resonance frequency f = fc
– the resistor adjusts the damping d.

Passive Filters - Second Order

Highpass - Bode Plot

150
 −3 0
|H LP | /dB −20
−40
−60
−80
10−2 10−1 100 101 102
f /fc

180
asymptotes
135
∠H LP /°

1st order high pass

90 2nd order high pass Q = 0.5
2nd order high pass Q=1
45 2nd order high pass Q=2
2nd order high pass Q=5
0
10−2 10−1 100 101 102
f /fc

Passive Filters - Second Order

Bandpass - Cascade implementation - Block Diagrams
Cascading a first order lowpass filter and a first order high pass filter, like

V in (s) H HP (s) H LP (s) V out (s)

or

V in (s) H LP (s) H HP (s) V out (s)

Bandpass - Cascade implementation - Transfer Function

sτHP
H BP (s) = H HP (s)H LP (s) = (138)
(1 + sτHP )(1 + sτLP )

Passive Filters - Cascade implementation - Second Order

Bandpass - Bode Plot

151
 −3 0
|H BP | /dB
−20
asymptotes
−40
10−2 10−1 100 101 102
f /fc

90
45
∠H BP /°

asymptotes
0
−45
−90
10−2 10−1 100 101 102
f /fc

Passive Filters - Second Order

Bandpass - LCR implementation - Circuit Diagram
L C

V in (s) R V out (s)

Bandpass - LCR implementation - Transfer Function

R
H V (s) = 1 =
R + sL + sC
(139)
sRC
=
1 + sRC + s2 LC

Passive Filters - Second Order

IMPORTANT Bandpass - Meaning
• At low frequencies, an inductor is a short and a capacitor is an open.
• At high frequencies, a capacitor is a short and an inductor is an open.
• The resistor is frequency neutral.
• Therefore in the bandpass, the low frequencies f << fc
– get blocked by series capacitor.
• The high frequencies f >> fc

152
 – get blocked by series inductor.
• Only at the resonance frequency f = fc
– the series impedance of the inductor and the capacitor are in the
vicinity of the resistor and form a voltage divider while
– the resistor adjusts the damping d.

Passive Filters - Second Order

Bandpass - Bode Plot
−3 0
|H LP | /dB

−20
−40
−60
10−2 10−1 100 101 102
f /fc

90
asymptotes
45
∠H LP /°

cascaded RC band pass

LCR band pass Q = 0.5
0 LCR band pass Q = 1
−45 LCR band pass Q = 2
LCR band pass Q = 5
−90
10−2 10−1 100 101 102
f /fc

Passive Filters - Second Order

Bandstop - Stacking / Parallel implementation - Setup
Adding a lowpass and a highpass filter. For voltages, adding means series con-
nection (summing up in a loop), for currents adding means parallel connection
(summing up in a node).

Bandstop - Stacking/ Parallel implmentation - Transfer Function

H BS (s) = H HP (s) + H LP (s)
sτHP 1
= +
1 + sτHP 1 + sτLP (140)
sτHP (1 + sτLP ) + (1 + sτHP )
=
(1 + sτHP )(1 + sτLP )

Passive Filters - Second Order

Bandstop - Stacking / Parallel implementation - Bode Plot

153
 −3 0
|H BS | /dB
−20
asymptotes
−40
10−2 10−1 100 101 102
f /fc

90
45
∠H BS /°

0
−45 asymptotes

−90
10−2 10−1 100 101 102
f /fc

Passive Filters - Second Order

Bandstop - LCR implementation - Circuit Diagram
R

L
V in (s) V out (s)
C

Bandstop - LCR implementation - Transfer Function

1
sL + sC
H V (s) = 1 =
R + sL + sC
(141)
1 + s2 LC
=
1 + sRC + s2 LC

Passive Filters - Second Order

IMPORTANT Bandstop - Meaning
• At low frequencies, an inductor is a short and a capacitor is an open.
• At high frequencies, a capacitor is a short and an inductor is an open.
• The resistor is frequency neutral.
• Therefore in the bandstop, the low frequencies f << fc
– are kept at the output due to the high impedance of the capacitor.
• The high frequencies f >> fc

154
 – are kept at the output due to the high impedance of the inductor.
• Only at the resonance frequency f = fc
– the series impedance of the inductor and the capacitor are in the
vicinity of the resistor and form a voltage divider with the resistor
with a significant voltage drop across the resistor.
– The resistor adjusts the damping d.

Passive Filters - Second Order

Bandstop - LCR implementation - Bode Plot
−3 0
|H LP | /dB

−20
−40
−60
10−2 10−1 100 101 102
f /fc

90
asymptotes
45
∠H LP /°

stacked / parallel band stop

LCR band stop Q = 0.5
0 LCR band stop Q = 1
−45 LCR band stop Q = 2
LCR band stop Q = 5
−90
10−2 10−1 100 101 102
f /fc

4.2 Active Filters

4.2.1 First Order Filters
Active Filters - First Order
Inverting Amplifier - Circuit Diagram
Z1 Z2

IN
−
V in Vd Z in V out
+
IP

Inverting Amplifier - Conditions for Ideal Amplifier

155
 Z in = ∞Ω IN = IP = 0 A
Z out = 0 Ω V d = V N − V P = 0V (142)
G=∞

IMPORTANT Inverting Amplifier - Transfer Function

V in = IZ 1 V out = −IZ 2
V Z (143)
⇒ H V = out = − 2
V in Z1

Active Filters - First Order

Noninverting Amplifier - Circuit Diagram
IP
+
Z in
Vd −
IP Z1
V in V out
Z2

Noninverting Amplifier - Conditions for Ideal Amplifier

Z in = ∞Ω IN = IP = 0 A
Z out = 0 Ω V d = V N − V P = 0V (144)
G=∞

IMPORTANT Noninverting Amplifier - Transfer Function

V in = IZ 2 V out = I(Z 1 + Z 2 )
V Z (145)
⇒ H V = out = 1 + 2
V in Z1

Active Filters - First Order

Inverting Lowpass - Circuit Diagram
C

R1 R2

−
V in (s) +
V out (s)

156
Active Filters - First Order
Inverting Lowpass - Transfer Function
R2
1+sR2 C2 R2 1
H LP = − = −
R1 R1 1 + sR2 C2 (146)
| {z } | {z }
DCgain lowpass

Further literature on active lowpass filters:

Noninverting lowpass: https://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/filter/filter_
5.html [7]

Active Filters - First Order

Inverting Highpass - Circuit Diagram
R1 C1 R2

−
V in (s) +
V out (s)

Active Filters - First Order

Inverting Highpass - Transfer Function
R2 sR2 C1
H HP = − 1 = − 1 + sR C (147)
R1 + sC1 1 1

Further literature on active highpass filters:

Noninverting highpass: https://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/filter/filter_
6.html [8]

4.2.2 Second Order Filters

Active Filters - Second Order
Further literature on second order filters:
Sallen-Key generic & specific implememntations: https://en.wikipedia.org/
wiki/SallenKey_topology [9]
Further second order filters: https://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/filter/
second-order-filters.html [10]
Further Sallen-Key literature:
https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/engineering/sallen-key [11]

4.3 Motor Drives

Motor Drives
Guest Lecture
see slides from Nenad.

157
4.4 Amplifiers
4.4.1 Operational Amplifiers
Operational Amplifiers
Three Stage Implementation: Differential Input StageVoltage Am-
plification StageCurrent Amplification StageDominating Pole
Vdd

Rd Rd

Vd
Vp V out
Vn

Vss
further reading: [12]

Operational Amplifiers
Crossection of a MOSFET with Dominating Pole
S G D

gate oxide

substrate

Operational Amplifiers

158
IMPORTANT AC Model of an Operational Amplifier
Vp

Vd + A
s V out
− 1+ ωc
Vn
⇒ Lowpass behaviour

Nomenclature

• A DC gain of the operational amplifier

• ωc angular corner frequency

Operational Amplifiers
Open Loop Circuit
−

Gain Bandwidth Product

GBW = Aωc (148)
with ωc = 2πfc where fc is the corner frequency and ft is the transit frequency.

Bode Plot
A
Gain/dB

0
fc ft

0
P hase/°

−45

−90
fc ft

159
Operational Amplifiers
Buffer
+

V in
V out

Derivation Buffer Transfer Function

A
V out = s (V in − V out )
1 + ωc
!
A A
⇒ V out 1 + s = s V (149)
1 + ωc 1 + ωc in
 
s
⇒ V out A + 1 + = AV in
ωc

AC Transfer Function of Buffer

V out A A 1
= s = s with (A + 1)ωc : bandwidth of the buffer
V in A + 1 + ωc A + 1 1 + (A+1)ω
| {z } c
DC-gain
(150)

Operational Amplifiers
IMPORTANT Buffer Gain Bandwidth
GBW =
A
(A + 1)ωc (151)
A+1
Aωc

Legend

open loop opamp

buffer opamp

Buffer Bode Plot

160
 A
Gain/dB
A
A+1

0
ωc
fc (A + 1) 2π ft

0
P hase/°

−45

−90
ωc
fc (A + 1) 2π ft

Operational Amplifiers
Example of measured gain-phase (transfer function) of MC33078 op-
erational amplifier

from http://www.ti.com/lit/ds/symlink/mc33078.pdf [13]

4.4.2 Switch-Mode Amplifiers

Switch-Mode Amplifiers
Circuit: Power Stage and 2nd Order Lowpass

161
 Vdd

HS
V GSHS L

LS C R V out

V GSLS

Vss

Switch-Mode Amplifiers
Gate Signals
v(t)
VGSHS
VGSLS

dT T

AC Transfer Function of Switch-Mode Amplifier

V out A
= L
(152)
V in 1 + s R + s2 LC

Operation
• repetitive pulses VGSHS and VGSLS are driving the high-side (HS) and low-side (LS)
transistors respectively
• for "high” drive signals, the corresponding transistor is low-impedance between its drain
and source (on-state): nearly a short circuit
• for "low” drive signals, the corresponding transistor is high-impedance between its drain
and source (off-state): nearly an open circuit
• with alternating gate signals the input to the 2nd order low pass filter gets alternating
shorted to Vdd and Vss
• a pulse width modulator (PWM) controls the duty cycle d, where d ∝ Vin
• the average output Vout is proportional (amplified) to d

Switch-Mode Amplifiers
Bode Plot

162
 A

Gain/dB 0

fc ft

0
P hase/°

−45
−90
−135
−180
fc ft

4.4.3 Generic Properties of Amplifiers

Properties of Amplifiers
IMPORTANT Arbitrary Gain-Bandwidth Product
G0 ωc = Ga ωa
(153)
G0 fc = Ga fa

Meaning
For an arbitrary frequency fa , the maximum achievable gain Ga is bounded by the transfer
function of the amplifier. The open loop case is the maximising the gain, while the buffer
configuration is maximising the bandwidth.

Bode Plot with an arbitrary Gain-Bandwidth Operating Point

Go
Gain/dB

Ga

0
fc fa ft

0
P hase/°

−45

−90
fc fa ft

163
Properties of Amplifiers
An ideal Amplifier
An ideal amplifier is
• "a piece of wire”
• with "no resistance" and
• "a lot of gain".

Linearity

164
vout

vin

input voltage vs. time

amplifier gain
output voltage vs. time

165
Properties of Amplifiers
Cross-over
Especially linear amplifiers (like Operational Amplifiers), switch between com-
ponents, when processing the positive and negative halfwaves. ⇒ Nonlinearity!
⇒ Distortion

Cross-over Nonlinearity

166
vout
crossover

distortion
vin

input voltage vs. time

amplifier gain
output voltage vs. time

167
Properties of Amplifiers
Overdrive / Clipping
When the input of an amplifier is beyond the input stages input range, the
amplifier is overdriven. When the output stage is required to operate beyond
its supply voltages, the amplifier is clipping. ⇒ Nonlinearity! ⇒ Distortion

Overdrive / Clipping Nonlinearity

168
vout
clipping

distortion
vin

input voltage vs. time

amplifier gain
output voltage vs. time

169
Properties of Amplifiers
Sine wave in Time and Frequency Domain
s(t)

t
|S(f )| (log)

∠S(f )

Properties of Amplifiers
Distorted Sine waves in Time and Frequency Domain
d(t)

170
 |D(f )| (log)

∠D(f )
Properties of Amplifiers
s
IMPORTANT Total Harmonic Distortion
P
∞
Vn2
2
T HD = (154)
V1

Nomenclature
• Vn is the amplitude of the n-th harmonic
• V1 is the amplitude of the fundamental.

Examples of THD
For the waveforms above,
• the crossover distortion is 5.0 % and
• the clipping distortion is 5.4 %.

Dependencies of THD
The THD of the output signal of an amplifier is mainly dependent on
• the amplifiers bandwidth,
• the maximum power of the amplifier,
• the amplitude of the signal,
• the frequency of the signal, and
• the amplifiers control loop.

Properties of Amplifiers
Example of measured THD as a function of frequency of MC33078
operational amplifier

171
 http://www.ti.com/lit/ds/symlink/mc33078.pdf [13]

Properties of Amplifiers
Example of measured THD as a function of level of MC33078 opera-
tional amplifier

http://www.ti.com/lit/ds/symlink/mc33078.pdf [13]

Properties of Amplifiers
Signal to Noise Ratio (SN R)
|V out (f )| V in = 0 |V out (f )| V in = V inmax

f f

S
SN R = typically in dB (155)
N
is the relation between signal S and noise N .

172
Properties of Amplifiers
Dynamical Range (DN R)
|V out (f )| arbitrary V in

A |V in |

DN R


Sa 
DN R = typically in dB (156)
Na  V
in

is the relation between signal Sa at a given specific input level V in and noise
N at the same input level V in .
• Anything, that was not present in the spectrum of the input Vin is limits
the DN R, also distortion.
• DN R can not exceed SN R

Properties of Amplifiers
Slew Rate
vin (t) vout (t)

SR

t t

dvout
SR = (157)
dt
is the maximum output voltage vout rise per time t at the output of an
amplifier.

Properties of Amplifiers
Example of measured slew rate of MC33078 operational amplifier

173
 http://www.ti.com/lit/ds/symlink/mc33078.pdf [13]

Properties of Amplifiers
Example of general parameters of MC33078 operational amplifier

http://www.ti.com/lit/ds/symlink/mc33078.pdf [13]

Amplifiers
Exercise 4.1 Gain-phase Simulation of Operational Amplifier
Conduct an AC-simulation of the LTSpice model "opamp” and plot the gain-
phase diagram. Play with the parameters of the "opamp” and see what hap-
pens.

174
Amplifiers
Exercise 4.2 Crossover Distortion of an Operational Amplifier
a Use the LTSpice model "opamp” to plot the output of an ideal buffer and use
the spice directive to calculate the Fourier components and the total harmonic
distortion. Observe how the simulation parameters (tstep, tstop, ..) influence
the result.
b Add two anti-parallel diodes (with a forward voltage drop of 1V) and a resistor
in the adequate places at the input of the buffer to model cross-over distortion
and repeat compare with the above plots and the Fourier calculation.

175
Amplifiers
Exercise 4.3 Clipping distortion of Operational Amplifier
a Use the LTSpice model "UniversalOpamp2” to plot the output of an ideal
buffer with symmetrical ±10 V supply rails.
b Use the step function to step the input voltage from 5 V to 15 V and use
the Fourier spice directive to calculate the spectrum and the total harmonic
distortion.

176
4.5 Oscillators
4.5.1 Barkhausen Criterion
Barkhausen Criterion
Further Literature on Oscillators
Chapters 12. to 12.5 in [14].

Block Diagram of an Oscillator

x y
+
−
A

Transfer Function

y A
y = A x − ky ⇒ H cl = = (158)
x 1 + kA
with H cl : closed loop transfer function

IMPORTANT Barkhausen Oscillation Criterium

y
→ ∞|s (159)
x 0

with s0 : complex oscillation frequency

⇒ H ol (s0 ) = k(s0 )A(s0 ) = −1 = 1e−j180°

!
(160)

with H ol : open loop transfer function

Barkhausen Criterion
Visualization of Barkhausen’s Criterion in a Bode Plot

177
 40
|H cl (0)|

|H cl (s)| /dB
0
−40
−80
0.01 0.1 1 f0 10 100
f /Hz

0
∠H cl (s)/°

−90
−180
−270
0.01 0.1 1 f0 10 100
f /Hz

Visualization of Barkhausen’s Criterion in an s-plane

jℑ(H cl (s))

f =10 Hz 2 f =100 Hz ℜ(H cl (s))

-2 -1 2 4 6 |H cl (0)| 10

−2 f =0.01 Hz

f =1 Hz −4 f =0.1 Hz

−6
f =0.6 Hz

4.5.2 Sinusoidal Oscillators

Sinusoidal Oscillators
Parallel RLC Oscillator
A

L C R

Series RLC Oscillator

178
 A

L C R

Operation

• L and C adjust the oscillation frequency f0 = 2π √1 LC ,

• R adjusts the quality Q of the resonator (often parasitics only), and
• A provides the necessary gain to fulfill the Barkhausen criterion.

Sinusoidal Oscillators
Crystal

Equivalent Circuit Diagram of a Crystal

Cp

L Cs R
with Cp > Cs .

Colpitts Oscillator based on a Crystal

Vdd

M1

M2

Vss

where M1 and M2 form an inverter.

179
Sinusoidal Oscillators
Phase Shift Oscillator

−A

Operation

• The passive filter shifts the frequency by 3 · (−90°) = −270° and

• the inverting amplifier adds another −180°.

4.5.3 Square Wave Oscillators

Square Wave Oscillators
Delay Line Oscillator

x x1 x2 y
td td td

Operation

• Each of the three inverters (NOT-gates) provides a logic "HIGH" or "LOW”

on its output, for its respective input "LOW" or "HIGH".
• The output reaction to an input change is delayed by td in each inverter.

Square Wave Oscillators

Derivation Delay Line Oscillator Transfer Function
x1 (t) = −x(t − td )
x2 (t) = x(t − 2td )
y(t) = −x(t − 3td )
˜ (161)
−td s −3td s
Y (s) = e X 2 (s) = e X(s)
Y (s)
H DL (s) = = e−3td s
X(s)

180
Oscillation Frequency

• The phase of H DL is decreasing linearly from 0° at f = 0 Hz towards −∞°

for f → ∞Hz.
• The delay line oscillates at the frequency, where ∠H DL = −180°.

Square Wave Oscillators

Comparator
Vdd

Vss

Operation
The comparator’s output is the sign of the sine wave at it’s input.

4.5.4 Pulse Width Modulators

Pulse Width Modulator
Astable Integrating Modulator
C W P

Vs < 0 V
Vdd Vs = 0 V
C Vs > 0 V
−

W + P t
Vs
Vss

4.5.5 Triangle Generators

Triangle Generators

181
Bistable Multivibrator

Vdd

triangle
−

Vss

Triangle Generators
Integrator after Square Wave

− triangle
+

4.5.6 Generic Properties of Oscillators

Oscillators
Generic Properties of Oscillators
• Frequency Range: the minimum, typical and maximum frequency an oscil-
lator can provide. Crystal based oscillators are very precise and therefore
used for clock generation in digital circuits.
• Waveform: sinusoidal, square, pulse, triangle or others.
• Jitter: the frequency stability - typically observed in eye-diagrams.
• Temperature Drift: the stability of other oscillator parameters versus tem-
perature.
• Voltage Range: the operating voltage range of the output and the neces-
sary supplies for the oscillator.

Oscillators
Exercise 4.4 Bistable Multivibrator with modulation - Astable Inte-
grating Modulator (AIM)

182
Consider section III in [15], which is modelling an Astable Integrating Modula-
tor (AIM) (same as a bistable multivibrator with additional input). Simulate
the circuit in LTSpice (or any other circuit simulation tool) and reproduce the
diagrams in figure 18 and 19 from [15].

4.6 Power Supplies

4.6.1 Linear power supplies
Linear Power Supplies
Circuit Diagram

R
+
Vsrc − Vout
Cin Cout
Rload

Load Regulation
RL ↓⇒ Cout discharges ⇒ Vout ↓ VGS = VZ − Vout ⇒ VGS ↑ ID = gm VGS ⇒
ID ↑ ⇒ Cout charges ⇒ Vout ↑

Line Regulation
Vin ↑⇒ ID ↑⇒ Cout charges ⇒ Vout ↑ VGS = VZ − Vout ⇒ VGS ↓ ID =
gm VGS ⇒ ID ↓ ⇒ Cout discharges ⇒ Vout ↓

4.6.2 Switch-Mode Power Supplies

Buck Converter
Circuit Diagram of a Buck Converter
vGS (t)

V̂

0
0 dT T t
VGS L
+ IL Iout
Vin −

C VC RL

183
Buck Converter
Operation of a Buck Converter during "on"-time of Transistor (0 <
t < dT )

+
VGS IL L Iout
Vin −

C VC RL

Equivalent circuit diagram during 0 < t < dT

IL L Iout

+
Vin − C VC RL

Buck Converter
Operation of a Buck Converter during "off"-time of Transistor (dT <
t < T)

+
VGS IL L Iout
Vin −

C VC RL

Equivalent circuit diagram during dT < t < T

Iout

+
Vin − L C VC RL
IL

Buck Converter
IMPORTANT DC-transfer function of Buck Converter
VC
=d Iout = IL (162)
Vin

184
Boost Converter
Circuit Diagram of a Boost Converter
L Iout

+
Vin − C VC RL
VGS

vGS (t)

V̂

0
0 dT T t

Boost Converter
Operation of a Boost Converter during "on"-time of Transistor (0 <
t < dT )
L Iout

+
Vin − C VC RL
VGS

Equivalent circuit diagram during 0 < t < dT

Iout
IL
+
Vin − L C VC RL

Boost Converter
Operation of a Boost Converter during "off"-time of Transistor (dT <
t < T)
L Iout

+
Vin − C VC RL
VGS

185
Equivalent circuit diagram during dT < t < T
IL L Iout

+
Vin − C VC RL

Boost Converter
IMPORTANT DC-transfer function of Boost Converter
VC 1
= (163)
Vin 1−d
IL 1
= (164)
Iout 1−d

1/d
VC
Vin

1/ − d
VC
Vin

Boost DC Transfer Function 1/(1 − d)

VC
Vin

2
1
0.5 1 d

186
Flyback Converter
Circuit Diagram of Flyback ConverterOperation of a Boost Converter
during "on"-time of Transistor (0 < t < dT )Transistor off during dT <
t<T

N1 N2
N1
N2 VV
out
in VN 2
Nout
1
Vin Vout

+
Vin − vGS (t)

V̂
VGS
0
0 dT T t

Power Supplies - Isolated: Flyback

IMPORTANT DC Transfer Function of Flyback Converter
Vout N2 d
= (165)
Vin N1 1 − d

DC Transfer Function of Flyback Converter d/(1 − d) as a Function of

Duty Cycle d
Vout
Vin

N2
N1
0
0 0.5 1
d

4.6.3 Generic Properties of Power Supplies

Power Supplies
Generic Properties of Power Supplies

• Input and Output Voltage: DC and/or AC, amplitude, frequency range

• Output Power

187
 • Efficiency η = PPout
in
• Isolation: Buck and boost are non-isolated, Flyback is isolated with Trans-
former

Power Supplies
Exercise 4.5 Designing a Flyback Transformer
A flyback shall convert the peak-rectified European AC mains to 50 V with a
duty cycle of 47.98 % at a switching frequency of 100 kHz. The AC-part of the
input current shall not exceed 2 A.

a What is the inductance of the primary winding?

b What is the inductance of the secondary winding?

188
Part V
References
5 Course Literature
So long, and Thanks for All the Fish

References
Main course literature: [1] [2] [4] [3]:

References
[1] Roland E Thomas, Albert J Rosa, and Gregory J Toussaint. The analysis and design of linear
circuits. Wiley Publishing, 2011.

[2] Allan R Hambley. Electrical engineering: principles and applications, volume 2. Prentice
Hall, 2011.

[3] Sergey N Makarov, Reinhold Ludwig, and Stephen J Bitar. Practical electrical engineering.
Springer, 2016.

[4] Manfred Albach. Grundlagen der Elektrotechnik 1: Erfahrungssätze, Bauelemente, Gleich-

stromschaltungen, volume 1. Pearson Deutschland GmbH, 2011.

[5] Erik Bruun. CMOS Integrated Circuit Simulation with LTspice - 2nd Edition. bookboon,
2017. http://bookboon.com/dk/cmos-integrated-circuit-simulation-with-ltspice-ebook.

[6] Kent H Lundberg, Haynes R Miller, and David L Trumper. Initial conditions, generalized
functions, and the laplace transform troubles at the origin. IEEE Control Systems Magazine,
27(1):22–35, 2007.

[7] Electronics Tutorials. Active Low Pass Filter. https://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/filter/

filter_5.html, March 2019.

[8] Electronics Tutorials. Active High Pass Filter. https://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/filter/

filter_6.html, March 2019.

[9] Wikipedia. Sallen-Key Topology. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SallenKey_topology, March

2019.

[10] Electronics Tutorials. Second Order Filters. https://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/filter/

second-order-filters.html, March 2019.

[11] Sciencedirect Sallen-Key. Sallen-Key Topology. https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/

engineering/sallen-key, March 2019.

[12] Douglas Self. Audio power amplifier design handbook. Focal Press, 2012.

[13] Texas Instruments. MC33078 - Dual High-Speed Low-Noise Operational Amplifier. Technical
report, Texas Instruments, November 2006.

[14] Adel S Sedra and Kenneth Carless Smith. Microelectronic circuits. Oxford University Press,
2016.

[15] Arnold Knott, Gerhard R Pfaffinger, and Michael AE Andersen. A self-oscillating control
scheme for a boost converter providing a controlled output current. IEEE transactions on
Power Electronics, 26(9):2707–2723, 2011.

189