ANAMTOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY-1

CHAPTER 3- CELL STRUCTURES AND THEIR FUNCTIONS

CELL STRUCTURE
cell- determine the form and functions of the human body and is
the basic living unit of all organisms
- simplest organism- single cell ; human- multiple cells
- 1/5 of the size of smallest dot you can make using sharp
pencil
- it is a highly organized unit and mostly specialized to perform
specific functions
FUNCTIONS:
• Cell metabolism and energy use
• Synthesis of molecules (Ex. nucleic acid)
• Communication
• Reproduction and inheritance

MAJOR PARTS OF THE CELLS

CELL MEMBRANE
- plasma membrane which encloses the cytoplasm and forms
the boundary between material inside the cell and material
outside it
FUCNTIONS:
-encloses the cell
- supports the cell contents
- acts as a selective barrier that determines what moves into and
out of the cell
- plays a role in communication between cells.
Structure of Cell Membrane :
• Fluid Mosaic Model
• Made of phospholipids that form a double layer of
molecules
• Phospholipids contain 2 regions: polar, phosphate-
containing ends (hydrophilic) and nonpolar, fatty acid ends
(hydrophobic)
• The double layer of phospholipids forms a lipid barrier
between the inside and outside of the cell

NUCLEUS
-contains the cell’s genetic material
CYTOPLASM
-living material surrounding the nucleus
-jelly-like fluid that fills a cell
-material between cell membrane and the nucleus
-contains many types of organelles

Fluid-mosaic model of the cell membrane. The membrane is composed of a bilayer (2

layers) of phospholipids and cholesterol with proteins “floating” in the membrane. The
nonpolar hydrophobic region of each phospholipid molecule is directed toward the
center of the membrane, and the polar hydrophilic region is directed toward the fluid
environment either outside or inside the cell.
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CHAPTER 3- CELL STRUCTURES AND THEIR FUNCTIONS
ORGANELLES
Little organs that has specialized structure which performs specific function

Organelle Location Function

contains genetic material of cell (DNA) and nucleoli; site RNA synthesis
Nucleus near center of the cell
and ribosomal subunit assembly
Ribosomes (membrane bound)
free ribosome- di nakadikit sa cytoplasm site of protein synthesis
RER
Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum cytoplasm has many ribosomes attached; site of protein synthesis
Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum cytoplasm site of lipid synthesis; participates in detoxification
Golgi Apparatus cytoplasm modifies protein structure and packages proteins in secretory vesicles
contains materials produced in the cell; formed by Golgi Apparatus;
Secretory Vesicle cytoplasm
secreted by exocytosis
Lysosome cytoplasm contains enzymes that digest material taken into the cell
Mitochondrion cytoplasm site of aerobic respiration and the major site of ATP synthesis
supports cytoplasm; assists in cell division and forms components of
Microtubule cytoplasm
cilia and flagella
Centrioles cytoplasm facilitate the movement of chromosomes during cell division
cell surface with
Cilia move substances over surfaces of certain cells
many on each cell
sperm cell surface
Flagella propel sperm cells
with one per cell
extensions of cell
Microvilli surface with many on increase surface area of certain cells
each cell
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CHAPTER 3- CELL STRUCTURES AND THEIR FUNCTIONS
TRANSPORT/MOVEMENT THROUGH CELL MEMBRANE
• Cell membrane selectively determines what can pass in Concentration gradient- difference in concentration of a
and out of the cell. dissolved substance in a solution between a region of
• Enzymes, glycogen, and potassium are found in higher high density and one of lower density.
concentrations INSIDE the cell. Ex. 1. application and subsequent fading of perfume or
• Sodium, calcium, and chloride are found in higher aftershave scent
concentrations OUTSIDE the cell. concentration of scent molecules is highest on areas of the skin that have had perfume
or aftershave directly applied. Others can smell the scent because some of those
• may be passive or active molecules are always traveling away from the perfumed person, the source, out into the
PISO (Potassium In, Sodium Out) air—moving down the concentration gradient, from a high concentration to a lower
concentration. Eventually the scent molecules are so widely dispersed that they can no
PASSIVE MEMBRANE TRANSPORT longer be detected.
• does not require the cell to expend energy. 2. putting creamer in the coffee
• requires no metabolic energy from the cell but solely on the Molecules not only travel through air, but through other media as well. When a person
physical properties of the substances themselves. puts creamer in his or her coffee, the cream molecules would eventually bounce around
in the cup, moving down the concentration gradient until evenly distributed. However,
• Ex. diffusion, osmosis, and facilitated diffusion. most coffee drinkers do not wait for this to happen. They introduce additional energy by
ACTIVE MEMBRANE TRANSPORT stirring the coffee and speeding up the process.
• does require the cell to expend energy, usually in the form OSMOSIS
of ATP. • diffusion of water (a solvent) across a selectively permeable
• Ex. active transport, secondary active transport, membrane (cell membrane) from a region of higher water
endocytosis, and exocytosis. concentration to one of lower water concentration.
Osmotic Pressure- force required to prevent the
movement of H2O across a selectively permeable
membrane
- measure of the tendency of H2O to move by osmosis
across a selectively permeable membrane.
TYPES OF OSMOTIC SOLUTIONS:

Hypotonic solution- lower concentration of solutes & higher

SOLUTION conc. of H2O than the cytoplasm of the cell
a homogenous mixture composed of - Solution has less osmotic pressure than the cell
two or more substances - H2O moves into cell → swell → rupture (lysis)
Solute- substance dissolved in another Isotonic solution- equal concentrations of various solutes
substance; the chemical dissolved in a and water on both sides of the cell membrane
solution - cell neither shrinks nor swells
Solvent- a substance that dissolves a Hypertonic solution- higher concentration of solutes and a
solute lower concentration of water than the cytoplasm of the
cell.
PASSIVE MEMBRANE TRANSPORT - H2O moves from the cell into the hypertonic solution
DIFFUSION → cell shrinkage, or crenation.
• tendency for solutes (ions or molecules) to move from an
area of higher concentration to an area of lower
concentration of that solute in a solution.
Ex. tendency of smoke to distribute throughout the room
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CHAPTER 3- CELL STRUCTURES AND THEIR FUNCTIONS
CARRIER-MEDIATED TRANSPORT ENDOCYTOSIS
• the transport of large, water-soluble molecules or -movement of materials into cells by the formation of a vesicle.
electrically-charged ions across a membrane by means of -process of cellular ingestion by which the plasma membrane
a carrier molecule. folds inward to form a vesicle containing the material to be taken
• exhibits specificity - only specific molecules are transported into the cell
by the carriers Types :
FACILITATED DIFFUSION Phagocytosis (cell-eating)- solid particles are ingested
• moves substances across the cell membrane from an area Pinocytosis (cell-drinking)- intake of liquid particles
of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration of Receptor–mediated endocytosis- movement/transport of a
that substance substance into the cell after binding with the
• ATP is not required receptor molecule

ACTIVE TRANSPORT
• moves substances across the cell membrane from regions
of lower concentration to those of higher concentration
against a concentration gradient
• requires ATP

EXOCYTOSIS
- movement out of cells by vesicles
- allows the release/secretion of materials from cells by vesicle
formation.
Ex. secretion of digestive enzymes by the pancreas | secretion
of mucus by the salivary glands.

SECONDARY ACTIVE TRANSPORT

• diffusion of a transported substance (Na+) down its
concentration gradient that provides the energy t o transport
a second substance, (glucose), across the cell membrane
• cotransport, both substances move in the same direction
• counter transport, move in opposite directions.
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CHAPTER 3- CELL STRUCTURES AND THEIR FUNCTIONS
ORGANELLES ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM (ER)
NUCLEUS series of membranes forming sacs and tubules that extends
• contains 23 pairs of chromosomes, which consist of DNA from the outer nuclear membrane into the cytoplasm
and proteins ROUGH ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
• the chromosomes are loosely coiled and collectively called - studded with ribosomes; transport channel for protein
chromatin synthesized by the ribosomes; a major site of protein
Nucleoli – diffuse bodies with no surrounding membrane that synthesis.
are found within the nucleus; consist of RNA and proteins; and
are the sites of ribosomal RNA synthesis and ribosomal
subunit assembly.
• Bounded by a nuclear envelope, which consists of outer
and inner membranes
• Inner & outer membranes come together to form nuclear
pores, through which materials can pass into or out of the
nucleus

SMOOTH ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM

- without ribosomes; major site of lipid synthesis; detoxification
RIBOSOMES of chemicals within cells
• where proteins are produced
• The protein builders or the protein synthesizers of the cell
• May be attached to other organelles (ER)
• When not attached to any organelle → free ribosomes
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CHAPTER 3- CELL STRUCTURES AND THEIR FUNCTIONS
GOLGI APPARATUS MITOCHONDRIA
• Golgi complex • Small organelles with inner and outer membranes
• a series of closely packed membrane sacs that collect, separated by a space
modify, package, and distribute proteins and lipids • outer membranes have a smooth contour, but the inner
produced by the ER. membranes have numerous folds, called cristae
Secretory Vesicles- membrane-bound sacs that carry
substances from the Golgi apparatus to the
cell membrane, where the vesicle contents
are released.
- Pinch off from the golgi complex and move
to the cell membrane • Mitochondria are the major sites for the production of ATP,
which cells use as an energy source.
• Mitochondria carry out aerobic respiration, requiring O2 to
break down food molecules to produce ATP.

LYSOSOMES
• membrane-bound vesicles containing enzymes that break
down phagocytized material or destroy foreign materials
Peroxisomes- contain enzymes that break down fatty acids,
amino acids, and hydrogen peroxide.

PRIMARY SECONDARY
membrane-bound sac which combination of primary
buds from Golgi Apparatus lysosome and ER
smaller larger
inactive digestive enzyme active digestive enzyme
digestion ❌ digestion ✔
unable to eliminate content can to eliminate content to
to outside of the cell outside of the cell
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CHAPTER 3- CELL STRUCTURES AND THEIR FUNCTIONS
CYTOSKELETONS MICROVILLI
- cell’s framework that are made of proteins • do not actively move as cilia and flagella do
Functions: supports the cell, holds organelles in place, enables • abundant on the surface of cells that line the intestine,
cell to change shape kidney, and other areas in which absorption is an
COMPOSED OF: important function.
microtubules- largest diameter • increase surface area of certain cells and thus, aid in
- support the cytoplasm of cells, assist in cell absorption.
division, and form essential components of cilia
and flagella.
microfilaments- smallest diameter
- involved with cell movement

intermediate filaments- smaller in diameter than microtubules

but larger in diameter than
microfilaments
- provide mechanical support to the cell.

WHOLE CELL ACTIVITY

• A cell’s characteristics are ultimately determined by the
CENTRIOLES types of proteins it produces, which are determined by the
• located in the centrosome and are made of microtubules. genetic information in the nucleus.
• forms spindle fibers to separate chromosomes during cell • Understanding how genetic information is used in the cell
division. and distributed to daughter cells is important for
• facilitate chromosome movement during cell division. understanding basic cellular activity.
CENTROSOME
• small region of cytoplasm adjacent to the nucleus DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid )
• serves to organize microtubules; hence, it is called as • long molecule that contains our unique genetic code.
microtubule organizing center. • holds the instructions for making all the proteins in our
CILIA bodies.
• Project from the cells surface • Contains four basic building blocks or bases: adenine (A),
• Vary in number & capable of moving cytosine (C), guanine (G) and thymine (T).
• move substances over surfaces of certain cells. • The order, or sequence, of these bases determines the
FLAGELLA information available for building and maintaining an
• Longer than cilia and usually occur only 1 per cell organism
• Found on sperm cell surface • DNA bases pair up with each other, A with T and C with G,
• Propel sperm cells (Flagellum) to form units called base pairs.
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CHAPTER 3- CELL STRUCTURES AND THEIR FUNCTIONS
• Each base is also attached to a sugar molecule and a STEPS IN GENE EXRESSION:
phosphate molecule. transcription -making a copy of a gene
nucleotide- base, sugar, and phosphate - First step in gene expression
- join to form two nucleotide strands - Takes place in the nucleus of the cell
- has a unique ‘double helix’ shape, like a twisted - process by which DNA is copied (transcribed) to
ladder. mRNA, which carries the information needed for
- with the base pairs forming the ladder’s rungs and protein synthesis.
the sugar and phosphate molecules forming the
vertical sidepieces of the ladder
• Each DNA molecule contains many different genes
Gene– a sequence of nucleotides that provides a chemical set
of instructions for making a specific protein
• DNA can replicate, or make copies of itself

translation- converting that copied information into a protein

- synthesis of proteins based on the information in
GENE EXPRESSION
mRNA
• The ultimate expression of a gene is the production of a
- mRNA formed in transcription is transported out of
protein from the information contained in DNA
the nucleus, into the cytoplasm, to the ribosome
• its effect on physiology contributes to the trait or
(the cell's protein synthesis factory)
'phenotype' we observe.
• The information encoded in a gene goes through a multi-
step process in which it is copied, transported, read, and
finally, used as a template for building proteins.
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CHAPTER 3- CELL STRUCTURES AND THEIR FUNCTIONS
CELL LIFE CYCLE Mitosis - new cells necessary for growth and tissue repair are
INTERPHASE formed
• The DNA (located in chromosomes in the cell’s nucleus) is - occurs in all cells except sex cells
replicated. - parent cell divides to form two daughter cells with
• The two strands of DNA separate from each other, and the same amount and type of DNA as the parent cell.
each strand serves as a template for the production of a FOUR STAGES:
new strand of DNA. Prophase- The nuclear membrane breaks down and
• Nucleotides in the DNA of each template strand pair with disappears.
nucleotides that are subsequently joined by enzymes to - centrioles move to opposite poles of the cell and the
form a new strand of DNA. mitotic spindle forms.
• The sequence of nucleotides in the DNA template
determines the sequence of nucleotides in the new strand
of DNA because adenine pairs with thymine, and cytosine
pairs with guanine.
• The two new strands of DNA combine with the two
template strands to form two double strands of DNA.
• At the end, a cell has two complete sets of genetic
material. The DNA is dispersed throughout the nucleus as
thin threads called chromatin
CHROMOSOME Metaphase- Chromosomes are moved to the equator
Chromatin- two genetically identical strands of chromatin (metaphase plate) and are now attached to a pair
Centromere- region on a chromosome that joins two sister of spindle fibers.
chromatids
Centriole- forms spindle fibers to separate chromosomes
during cell division.
Kinetochore- a specialized region on the centromeres of
chromosomes
Cytokinesis- cytoplasmic division of a cell, bringing about the
separation into 2 daughter cells

Anaphase- Sister chromatids separate and are moved towards

opposite poles of the spindle by the spindle fibers
(microtubules). By the end of anaphase, cleavage
or pinching in is evident (cytoplasm begins to divide)

CELL DIVISION
• formation of 2 daughter cells from a single parent cell

Telophase- Chromosomes disperse, the nuclear membrane

and the nucleoli reform, and the spindle
disappears. The cytoplasm continues to divide to
form two cells.

Meiosis - sex cells necessary for reproduction are formed

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CHAPTER 3- CELL STRUCTURES AND THEIR FUNCTIONS
Semipermeable- Term that describe a membrane that
DNA is Packaged into Chromosomes allows only some types of particles to pass through it
Brownian motion- natural vibration of particles; it drives
diffusion
Skin and Heart muscle- cells that are likely to have been
formed during mitosis

INTERPHASE

CELL DIVISION
• Each cell of the human body, except for sex cells, contains
46 chromosomes. Sex cells have half the number of
chromosomes
• 46 chromosomes (the diploid number) are organized to
form 23 pairs of chromosomes.
• Of the 23 pairs, 1 pair is the sex chromosomes, 2 X
chromosomes (female) or an X chromosome and a Y
chromosome (male).
• The remaining 22 pairs of chromosomes are called
autosomes
• The sex chromosomes determine the individual’s sex,and
the autosomes determine most other characteristics.

APOPTOSIS
-programmed cell death
-normal process by which cell numbers within various tissues
are adjusted and controlled.
-apoptosis begins, the chromatin within the nucleus condenses
and fragments → fragmentation of the nucleus → death and
fragmentation of the cell.
-Specialized cells called macrophages phagocytize the cell
fragments.

FACTORS AFFECTING AGING

• Cellular clock
• Death genes
• DNA damage
• Free radicals Mitosis followed by Cytokinesis
• Mitochondrial damage

ADDITIONAL NOTES FROM THE LAB MANUAL

Filtration-movement through a membrane driven by a
hydrostatic pressure gradient
- In the Kidney, blood pressure forces some water and
solute particles from a blood vessel and into a kidney
tubule
Osmosis- Term that specifically describes the diffusion of
water across a membrane
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CHAPTER 3- CELL STRUCTURES AND THEIR FUNCTIONS
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CHAPTER 3- CELL STRUCTURES AND THEIR FUNCTIONS

ADDITIONAL INFOS FROM THE BOOK messenger RNA (mRNA)- copy that travels from nucleus to
ribosomes, where the information in the copy is used to
MEMBRANOUS NON-MEMBRANOUS construct a protein by means of translation
surrounded by a cell do not contain surrounding transfer RNAs (tRNAs)- specialized molecules that carry the
membrane in order to cell membranes, separating amino acids to the ribosomes
separate out the organelles' the organelle from the
fluid-filled spaces cytoplasm codons- three nucleotides carrying the information in mRNA
prokaryotes lack prokaryotic organelles are -there are 64 possible mRNA codons, but only 20 amino acids
membranous organelles non-membranous -more than 1 codon can specify the same anmino acid
compromise fluid-filled do not compromise fluid- UAA- stop codon
cavities inside the organelle filled cavities inside the
organelle TRANSLATION:
compromise a defined continuous with the requires 2 types of RNA in addition to the mRNA: tRNA and
boundary to the organelle cytoplasm ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
nucleus, endoplasmic nucleoid, ribosomes, -there is one type of tRNA for each mRNA codon
reticulum, mitochondria, centrioles, cilia, flagella, anticodon- series of 3 nucleotides of tRNA, pairs with the
golgi apparatus, plastids and components of cytoplasm codon of mRNA
lysosomes like microtubules and peptide bond- caused by an enzyme associated with
intermediate filaments ribosomes
-between the amino acids bound to tRNAs
extracellular substance- substances outside the cell polypeptide bond- occurs after the process (peptide bond)
intracellular substances- substances inside the cell
-ends when ribosome reaches stop codon on mRNA
fluid-mosaic model- model of the structure of cell membrane
*carbohydrates may be bound to some protein molecules, cell differentiation- process by which cells develop with
modifying their functions specialized structures and functions
*proteins functions as membrane channels, carrier
molecules, receptor molecules, enzymes, or structural
supports in the membrane

membrane channels and carrier molecules- involved with

the movement of substances through the cell membrane
receptor molecules- part of an intracellular communication
system that enables cell recognition and coordination of the
activities of the cell
leak channels- constantly allow ions to pass through
gated channels- limit the movement of ions across the
membrane by opening and closing

hydrostatic pressure- moves the water out of the tube back

into the distilled water surrounding the tube
carrier molecules- proteins within the cell membrane
Prokaryotic cells lack internal cellular bodies (organelles), while
cystic fibrosis- genetic disorder that affects the active transport eukaryotic cells possess them. Examples of prokaryotes
of Cl into the cells. are bacteria and archaea. Examples of eukaryotes are protists,
fungi, plants, and animals (everything except prokaryotes)
sodium-potassium pump- moves Na (high concentration) out of
the cells and K (high concentration), into the cells. the
concentration gradient for Na and K (by sodium-potassium
pump) are essential in maintaining the resting membrane
potential.
vesicles- membrane bound sacs
-accumulate materials for release from the cell