MIL-HDBK-1002/3

30 SEPTEMBER 1987
SUPERSEDING
NAVFAC DM-2.03
MAY 1980

MILITARY HANDBOOK

STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING

STEEL STRUCTURES

NO DELIVERABLE DATA REQUIRED BY THIS DOCUMENT

DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT A. APPROVED FOR PUBLIC RELEASE: DISTRIBUTION IS

UNLIMITED

AREA FACR
 ABSTRACT

Basic criteria for the design of structural elements and systems

fabricated of structural steel or cold-formed light gage steel are presented
for use by experienced engineers. Design standards are established for Class
A (Bridge), Class B (Building), and Class C (Special) structures. Guidance
for the design of special structures includes crane runways, towers, stacks,
storage tanks, and bins for storage of bulk solids. Problems of corrosion,
abrasion, design of expansion joints, and exposure to extreme temperatures
are discussed. Design cautions based on previous experience are presented in
an appendix. A discussion of design practices that promote economy in the
cost of materials, fabrication, and erection is also included in an appendix.

ii
PAGE iii IS INTENTIONALLY BLANK
 FOREWORD

This military handbook has been developed from an evaluation of facilities in

the shore establishment, from surveys of the availability of new materials
and construction methods, and from selection of the best design practices of
the Naval Facilities Engineering Command (NAVFACENGCOM); other Government
agencies, and the private sector. This handbook uses, to the maximum extent
feasible, national professional society, association, and institute
standards. Deviations from this criteria, in the planning, engineering,
design, and construction of Naval shore facilities, cannot be made without
prior approval of NAVFACENGCOM HQ Code 04.

Design cannot remain static anymore than can the functions it serves or the
technologies it uses. Accordingly, recommendations for improvements are
encouraged and should be furnished to Naval Facilities Engineering Command,
Northern Division, Code 04AB, Building 77 Low, U.S. Naval Base, Philadelphia,
PA 19112; telephone (215) 897-6090.

THIS HANDBOOK SHALL NOT BE USED AS A REFERENCE DOCUMENT FOR PROCUREMENT OF

FACILITIES CONSTRUCTION. IT IS TO BE USED IN THE PURCHASE OF FACILITIES
ENGINEERING STUDIES AND DESIGN (FINAL PLANS, SPECIFICATIONS, AND COST
ESTIMATES). DO NOT REFERENCE IT IN MILITARY OR FEDERAL SPECIFICATIONS OR
OTHER PROCUREMENT DOCUMENTS.

iv
 STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING DESIGN MANUALS

Criteria
Manual Title PA

DM-2.01 General Requirements HDQTRS

DM-2.02 Loads HDQTRS

MIL-HDBK-1002/3 Steel Structures NORTHDIV

DM-2.04 Concrete Structures LANTDIV

MIL-HDBK-1002/5 Timber Structures NORTHDIV

MIL-HDBK-1002/6 Aluminum Structures, Masonry

Structures, Composite Structures,
Other Structural Materials NORTHDIV

MIL-HDBK-1002/7 Seismic Site Response Spectra HDQTRS

MIL-HDBK-1002/8 Blast Resistant Design NORTHDIV

DM-2.09 Masonry Structural Design

for Buildings (Tri-Service) ARMY

Note: Design manuals, when revised, will be converted to military handbooks

and listed in the military handbook section of NAVFAC P-34.

v
 STEEL STRUCTURES

CONTENTS

Page

Section 1 INTRODUCTION............................................ 1
1.1 Scope................................................... 1
1.2 Cancellations........................................... 1
1.3 References.............................................. 1
1.4 Abbreviations for Standards Organizations............... 1

Section 2 STANDARD DESIGN CRITERIA - CLASS A STRUCTURES

2.1 Steel Highway Bridges................................... 2
2.1.1 Load Factor Design...................................... 2
2.1.2 Composite Design........................................ 2
2.1.3 Orthotropic Steel Plate Decks........................... 2
2.1.4 Fatigue................................................. 2
2.1.5 Details................................................. 2
2.2 Steel Railway Bridges................................... 3
2.3 Steel Culverts and Drainage Structures.................. 3
2.4 Other................................................... 3

Section 3 STANDARD DESIGN CRITERIA - CLASS B STRUCTURES

3.1 Structural Steel Buildings.............................. 4
3.1.1 Additional Design Requirements.......................... 4
3.1.1.1 Magnified Moment in Girders of Unbraced Frames.......... 4
3.1.1.2 Stability of Frames with Both Rigid and Non-Rigid
Beam-to-Column Connections.............................. 4
3.1.1.3 Web Stiffening in Beams Over Columns.................... 4
3.1.1.4 Stability of Frames with Semi-Rigid Connections......... 4
3.1.1.5 Minimum Bolting......................................... 5
3.1.1.6 Lateral Support of Slender Purlins and Girts............ 5
3.1.2 Welded Connections...................................... 5
3.1.3 Bolted Connections...................................... 5
3.1.4 Steel to Concrete Connections........................... 5
3.1.5 Load and Resistance Factor Design....................... 6
3.1.6 Design and Detailing Aids............................... 6
3.1.7 Criteria for Tubing..................................... 6
3.1.8 Composite Design........................................ 7
3.1.9 Floor Vibrations........................................ 7
3.1.10 Ponding Due to Deflection of Roof Structure............. 8
3.1.11 Snow Drift Loads for Large Multi-Level Roofs............ 8
3.1.12 Mill and Other Industrial Buildings..................... 8
3.1.13 Steel Shapes Prior to 1953.............................. 9

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3.2 Steel Joists............................................ 9

3.2.1 Joists With Unsymmetrical Members....................... 9
3.2.2 Existing Joist Structures............................... 9
3.2.3 Floor Vibrations........................................ 9
3.2.4 Ponding................................................. 9
3.2.5 Snow Drift Loads for Large Multi-Level Roofs............ 9
3.2.6 Uplift.................................................. 9
3.2.7 Bridging................................................ 9
3.2.8 Welding................................................. 9
3.3 Light Gage Cold-Formed Steel............................ 9
3.3.1 Technical Information.................................. 10
3.3.2 Exterior Masonry Curtain Walls with Steel Studs........ 10
3.4 Steel Decking.......................................... 10
3.4.1 Commercially Available Decking......................... 10
3.4.2 Composite Deck......................................... 10
3.4.3 Diaphragm Design....................................... 10
3.4.4 Roof Deck.............................................. 10
3.5 Prefabricated Steel Buildings.......................... 10
3.5.1 Supplementary Design Guidance.......................... 10
3.5.2 Design Loads........................................... 10
3.5.3 NAVFAC Guide Specifications............................ 11
3.6 Crane Support Systems.................................. 11
3.6.1 Deflection Limits for Crane Runway Girders............. 11
3.6.2 Runway Crane Stops..................................... 11
3.7 Stainless Steel........................................ 11
3.7.1 General Guidelines..................................... 12
3.7.2 Light-Gage Cold-Formed Stainless Steel................. 12
3.7.3 Fasteners.............................................. 12
3.7.4 Technical Data for Materials Selection................. 12

Section 4 STANDARD DESIGN CRITERIA - CLASS C STRUCTURES

4.1 General................................................ 13
4.2 Wire Strand and Rope................................... 13
4.3 Towers................................................. 13
4.3.1 Basic Design Standards................................. 13
4.3.2 Free Standing Towers................................... 14
4.3.2.1 Geometry............................................... 14
4.3.2.2 Foundations............................................ 14
4.3.3 Guyed Towers........................................... 14
4.3.3.1 Design Guidance........................................ 14
4.3.3.2 Special Design Requirements............................ 14
4.3.3.3 Guys................................................... 15
4.4 Steel Stacks........................................... 15
4.4.1 Basic Design Standard.................................. 15
4.4.2 Additional Design Criteria............................. 15

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4.4.2.1 Local Buckling......................................... 15

4.4.2.2 Compact Section........................................ 15
4.4.2.3 Beam Shear............................................. 15
4.4.2.4 Deflection............................................. 15
4.4.2.5 Wind-Induced Vibration................................. 16
4.4.2.6 Foundations............................................ 16
4.4.3 Design Guidance........................................ 16
4.4.4 Stainless Steel Stacks................................. 16
4.4.5 Steel Chimney Liners................................... 16
4.5 Steel Tanks for Liquid and Gas Storage................. 16
4.5.1 Vertical Tanks......................................... 16
4.5.1.1 Water.................................................. 16
4.5.1.2 Petroleum Fuels........................................ 17
4.5.1.3 Other Liquids, Including Tanks with Gas Pressure....... 17
4.5.1.4 Stainless Steel Tanks.................................. 17
4.5.1.5 Design Guidance........................................ 17
4.5.1.6 Design Aids............................................ 18
4.5.2 Horizontal Tanks....................................... 18
4.5.2.1 Underground Petroleum Storage Tanks.................... 18
4.5.2.2 Small Above-Ground Petroleum Storage Tanks............. 19
4.5.2.3 Design Guidance........................................ 19
4.6 Pressure Vessels....................................... 19
4.7 Hyperbaric Facilities.................................. 19
4.8 Steel Bins for Storage of Bulk Solids.................. 19
4.8.1 Basic Design Standards................................. 19
4.8.2 Design Guidance........................................ 19
4.8.3 Clad Steels for Bins................................... 19

Section 5 SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS

5.1 Expansion Joints....................................... 21
5.1.1 Class A Structures..................................... 21
5.1.1.1 Use of Expansion Joints and Provisions
for Movement........................................... 21
5.1.1.2 Design of Expansion Joints............................. 21
5.1.2 Class B Structures..................................... 21
5.2 Corrosion Control...................................... 22
5.2.1 Allowance for Corrosion Loss........................... 22
5.2.1.1 Atmospheric Corrosion.................................. 22
5.2.1.2 Corrosion in Soils..................................... 22
5.2.1.3 Seawater Corrosion..................................... 22
5.2.1.4 Electrolytic Corrosion................................. 22
5.2.1.5 Corrosion in Tropical Climates......................... 22
5.2.2 Paint Coatings......................................... 22
5.2.2.1 General................................................ 22
5.2.2.2 Water Tanks............................................ 25
5.2.2.3 Members Embedded in Concrete........................... 25
5.2.2.4 Surface Preparation.................................... 25

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5.2.3 Metallic Coatings for Corrosion Control................ 26

5.2.4 Corrosion Control for Piles, Sheet Piles, and
Structures in Similar Environments..................... 26
5.2.4.1 Marine Environments.................................... 26
5.2.4.2 Other Environments..................................... 26
5.2.5 Corrosion Control Using Corrosion-Resistant
Steel.................................................. 26
5.2.5.1 Moisture Effects....................................... 26
5.2.5.2 Paint.................................................. 26
5.2.5.3 Staining............................................... 26
5.2.5.4 Light-Gage Metal....................................... 26
5.2.5.5 Salt Water Exposure.................................... 26
5.2.5.6 Buried Structures...................................... 27
5.2.6 Corrosion Control Using Stainless Steel................ 27
5.2.7 Design Guidelines for Corrosion Control of
Aboveground Structures................................. 27
5.2.7.1 Box-Shaped Members..................................... 27
5.2.7.2 Exterior Double Angle Members.......................... 28
5.2.7.3 Drainage............................................... 28
5.2.7.4 Sheet Piling Ends...................................... 28
5.3 Wear................................................... 28
5.3.1 Increase in Metal Thickness............................ 28
5.3.2 Wear Plates............................................ 28
5.4 Climatic Requirements.................................. 28
5.4.1 Class A Structures in Cold Regions..................... 28
5.4.2 Other Structures in Cold Regions....................... 28
5.4.3 Tropic Zones........................................... 29
5.5 Elevated Temperatures.................................. 29
5.5.1 Strength............................................... 29
5.5.2 Typical Strength Properties............................ 29
5.6 Fire Resistance........................................ 29
5.6.1 General................................................ 29
5.6.2 Fire Resistance........................................ 29
5.6.3 Fire Resistance Ratings................................ 29

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 Page

APPENDICES

APPENDIX A DESIGN CAUTIONS........................................ 31

A.1 Buckling Resistance.................................... 31
A.2 Brittle Fracture....................................... 31
A.3 Lamellar Tearing....................................... 31
A.4 Corrosion Protection................................... 32
A.5 Floor Vibrations....................................... 32
A.6 Rainwater Ponding on Flat Roofs........................ 32
A.7 Snow Drifting on Large Multi-Level Roofs............... 32
A.8 Common Design Errors................................... 32

APPENDIX B DESIGN FOR STRUCTURAL ECONOMY.......................... 35

B.1 General................................................ 35
B.2 Metal Decking for Roofs and Concrete Slab
Floors on Steel Beams.................................. 35
B.2.1 Roofs.................................................. 35
B.2.2 Floors................................................. 35
B.2.3 Depth, Shape, and Thickness............................ 35
B.2.4 Concrete Slabs Composite with Steel Deck............... 35
B.2.5 Use of Shoring......................................... 36
B.2.6 Fireproofing........................................... 36
B.2.7 Use with Composite Concrete Slab and Steel Beams....... 36
B.2.8 Edges.................................................. 36
B.2.9 Fastening Method....................................... 36
B.2.10 Deck Attachments....................................... 36
B.3 Composite Concrete Slab - Steel Beam Construction...... 36
B.3.1 Design................................................. 36
B.3.2 Economy................................................ 37
B.3.3 Shored Construction.................................... 37
B.3.4 Camber and Deflection Control.......................... 37
B.3.5 Floor Openings......................................... 37
B.3.6 Stud Installation...................................... 37
B.3.7 Partially Restrained End Connections................... 37
B.4 High Strength Steels................................... 38
B.4.1 Economy................................................ 38
B.4.2 Corrosion Resistance................................... 38
B.4.3 Fracture Toughness..................................... 38
B.5 Cantilevered Framing................................... 38
B.5.1 Description and Use.................................... 38
B.5.2 Lateral Bracing........................................ 39
B.6 Framing Systems for Lateral Load Resistance............ 39
B.6.1 Typical Systems........................................ 39
B.6.2 Economy................................................ 39
B.6.3 Drift Control and Frame Stability...................... 40
B.6.4 Frames Designed Based on Type 2 (AISC) Connections
for Vertical Loads and Moment Resisting Connections
for Wind Load.......................................... 40

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B.7 Tubular Sections for Columns and Other Members......... 41

B.7.1 Types and Sizes........................................ 41
B.7.2 Economy................................................ 41
B.8 Beam Web Openings...................................... 41
B.9 Fabrication Considerations............................. 41
B.9.1 Size of Components..................................... 41
B.9.2 Connections............................................ 42
B.9.3 Stiffeners............................................. 42
B.9.4 Splices and Coverplates................................ 43
B.9.5 Curved Members and Bent Plates......................... 43
B.9.6 Lengthwise Trimming.................................... 43
B.9.7 Detail Material........................................ 43
B.9.8 Surface Treatment...................................... 43
B.10 Erection and Field Assembly............................ 44
B.10.1 Shop Assembly vs. Field Assembly....................... 44
B.10.2 Anchor Bolts........................................... 44
B.10.3 Leveling Devices....................................... 44
B.10.4 Bolted Field Connections............................... 44
B.10.5 Field Welding.......................................... 45
B.11 Tolerances and Standard Practice....................... 45

FIGURES

1 Time-Corrosion Curves for Industrial and Marine

Atmospheres............................................ 23
2 Time-Corrosion Curves in Soils......................... 24

TABLES

1 Relative Corrodibility of Atmospheres at

20 Locations Throughout the World...................... 25

BIBLIOGRAPHY............................................................. 47

REFERENCES............................................................... 49

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 Section 1: INTRODUCTION

1.1 Scope. This military handbook prescribes the structural design

criteria for structures fabricated of structural steel and related materials.
Recommendations in this handbook pertain to structures constructed from hot
rolled steel plates and shapes, high strength alloy steels, cold-formed
light gage steel components and decking, and prefabricated steel components
such as joists, prefabricated steel buildings, steel wire strand and rope,
and stainless steel sheet, plate, and shapes. They also pertain to
composite concrete and steel beams, girders, and metal decking.

1.2 Cancellations. This handbook cancels and supersedes NAVFAC

DM-2.03, May 1980.

1.3 References. A number enclosed with ( ) refers to references at the

end of this handbook.

1.4 Abbreviations for Standards Organizations

AASHTO - American Association of State Highway and Transportation

Officials
AISC - American Institute of Steel Construction
AISE - Association of Iron and Steel Engineers
AISI - American Iron and Steel Institute
API - American Petroleum Institute
AREA - American Railway Engineering Association
ASCE - American Society of Civil Engineers
ASM - American Society for Metals
ASME - American Society of Mechanical Engineers
ASTM - American Society for Testing and Materials
AWWA - American Water Works Association
AWS - American Welding Society
CISC - Canadian Institute of Steel Construction
EIA - Electronic Industries Association
FM - Factory Mutual
FHWA - Federal Highway Administration
IASS - International Association for Shell and Spatial Structures
ISO - International Organization for Standardization
MBMA - Metal Building Manufacturers Association
NAVFACENGCOM - Naval Facilities Engineering Command
NBS - National Bureau of Standards
SDI - Steel Deck Institute
SJI - Steel Joint Institute
SSPC - Steel Structures Painting Council
SSRC - Structural Stability Research Council
UL - Underwriters Laboratories
WSTI - Welded Steel Tube Institute

1
 Section 2: STANDARD DESIGN CRITERIA - CLASS A STRUCTURES

Class A structures are those to which standard specifications for bridge

type structures are applicable. Included are bridges, trestles, viaducts,
and their components. The basis for classification as a Class A structure is
the type of loading applied. This type of loading consists of groups or
trains of wheels moving on the structure with impact effect. In addition the
wheels and tires are presumed to be within a size range and range of inflation
pressure (generally less than 100 psig) corresponding to those of wheels and
tires for passenger car and truck usage. Class A includes structures carrying
automobile and truck traffic, railroad traffic, certain types or
materials-handling equipment such as forklift truck (other than those having
solid tires), and straddle carries. Class A does not include supports for
overhead traveling cranes (Class B), mobile cranes or types of heavy-lift
cranes generally used for waterfront work (Class C), equipment or other
equipment operating on tracks or oversize tires or forklift trucks having solid
tire (Class C). In general, consider supports for machinery under Class B,
with due consideration for impact and resonant response.

2.1 Steel Highway Bridges. Steel highway bridges shall be designed in

accordance with AASHTO, Standard Specifications for Highway Bridges (1.1).
Section 10 of Division 1 gives design and detailing requirements for steel
bridges.

2.1.1 Load Factor Design. When load factor design is used, the overall
load factor for the combined loads (dead load plus live load) shall be at
least the specified amount, but not less than 1.5 for loads without wind
load, and not less than 1.25 for loads that include wind.

This provision is required because for structures designed

primarily for dead load or for earth load, the load factor of 1.3 specified
for these load categories results in an overall load factor for combined
design loads that is reduced below a level that can be justified by previous
experience or available statistical data.

2.1.2 Composite Design. Criteria for the design of steel beams, girders,
and box girders with composite concrete flanges are given in Division 1,
Section 10 of (1.1).

2.1.3 Orthotropic Steel Plate Decks. Design criteria and guidance are
given in AISC, Design Manual for Orthotropic Steel Plate Deck Bridges (2.11).

2.1.4 Fatigue. Design guidance to avoid brittle fracture due to fatigue

is given in AISC, Bridge Fatigue Guide Design and Details (2.14) and in AISC
Journal, 1st Quarter, 1977, Rolfe, Fracture and Fatigue Control in Steel
Structures, (2.55).

2.1.5 Details. Guidance for practical details is given in AISC Journal,

Jan. 1969, Lally and Milek, Bridge Construction Details (2.41).

2
2.2 Steel Railway Bridges. Steel railway bridges shall be designed in
accordance with AREA, Manual for Railway Engineering (Fixed Properties)
(6.1). Chapter 15, "Steel Structures" gives design and material requirements
for steel bridges.

2.3 Steel Culverts and Drainage Structures. Steel culverts and

drainage structures shall be in accordance with (1.1). Section 12 of
Division 1 presents design and detailing requirements for corrugated steel
culverts and drainage structures. Section 16 of Division 1 presents design
requirements for steel tunnel liner plates. Additional guidance is provided
in AISI, Handbook of Steel Drainage and Highway Construction Projects (3.6).

2.4 Other. Unless special considerations exist, design in accordance

with (1.1). Specifically, the AASHTO Standard may be used for the design of
waterfront structures supporting mobile cranes, and cranes moving on tracks.
For methodology in distributing concentrated loads on tracks to supporting
steel members, refer to Chapter 15 of (6.1).

3
 Section 3: STANDARD DESIGN CRITERIA - CLASS B STRUCTURES

Class B structures are those to which standard specifications for

building-type structures are applicable. Portions of waterfront structures
(piers and wharves) which are designed for uniform live load are included in
Class B.

3.1 Structural Steel Buildings. Structural steel buildings shall be

designed in accordance with AISC, Specification for the Design, Fabrication
and Erection of Structural Steel for Buildings, with Commentary (2.2), or
Load and Resistance Factor Design Specification for Structural Steel
Buildings (2.6). Related standards as published in the AISC, Manual of Steel
Construction, 8th Edition, and the Load and Resistance Factor Design Manual
of Steel Construction, First Edition (2.1), shall also apply.

3.1.1 Additional Design Requirements. Design and detailing shall also

conform to the following requirements that are not included in the standard
reference above.

3.1.1.1 Magnified Moment in Girders of Unbraced Frames. Beams or girders

of unbraced rigid frames and their connections sahll be designed using an
appropriate "magnified" moment that is consistent with the magnified column
moments specified in the above-referenced standard to account for non-linear
frame sway deflections. Refer to AISC Journal, 2nd Quarter, 1977,
LeMessurier, W., A Practical Method of Second Order Analysis, Part 2,
"Unbraced Frames," (2.42), and AISC Journal, April 1971, Yura, J., The
Effective Length of Unbraced Columns (2.60), for a more detailed discussion
of this requirement.

3.1.1.2 Stability of Frames with Both Rigid and Non-Rigid Beam-to-Column

Connections. When a structural frame contains both rigid and non-rigid
connections at different beam-to-column joints in a particular story, provide
the additional stiffness needed in the rigid jointed frames to adequately
brace all the columns in the entire story. Methods for determining required
rigid frame stiffness are described in (2.42) and (2.60), Structural
Stability Research Council (SSRC), Fritz Engineering Lab No. 13, Lehigh
University, Bethlehem, PA 18105, Guide to Stability Design Criteria for Metal
Structures (edited by Johnston, B.), 3rd Ed., 1976 (34.1)

3.1.1.3 Web Stiffening in Beams Over Columns. When beams frame over the
tops of columns, provide beam web stiffener plates extending between beam
flanges and welded to the beam web in the same plane as the column web or
flanges, depending on relative orientation of beam and column. This is to
ensure that adequate strength is provided to transfer concentrated loads
through this type of connection and that the top of the column and the bottom
flange of the beam are laterally braced.

3.1.1.4 Stability of Frames with Semi-Rigid Connections. When semi-rigid

(Type 3) connections or Type 2 Construction with Wind Moment Connections are
used, increase the effective length of columns to allow for the reduced
girder stiffness resulting from these connections for column design.

4
Refer to AISC, Type 2 Construction with Wind Moment Connections, A Return to
Simplicity (2.16); AISC Journal, April 1966 (Errata July, 1966), DeFalco and
Marino, Column Stability in Type 2 Construction (2.29); and AISC Journal, th
Quarter, 1981, Driscoll, Effective Length of Columns with Semi-Rigid
Connections (2.32), for design procedures.

3.1.1.5 Minimum Bolting. A minimum of two bolts shall be provided in all

bolted connections, unless a specially designed single pinned joint is
required for adequate structural performance.

3.1.1.6 Lateral Support of Slender Purlins and Girts. Provide properly

spaced sag rods or other lateral bracing shall be provided, where required,
to resist loads in the weak direction of roof purlins or wall girts with webs
inclined to the vertical direction. Sag rods or bracing in pitched roofs
must be supported by members and connections with sufficient strength to
resist both unsymmetrical and symmetrical combinations of design loads on one
or both sides of the pitched roof.

3.1.2 Welded Connections. The design and detailing of welded connections

shall conform to (2.2) or (2.6), and to AWS Structural Welding Code-Steel,
D1.1-86 (13.1). Refer to AISC Journal, 4th Quarter, 1980, Blodgett,
Detailing to Achieve Practical Welded Fabrication (2.21), for design
guidance. Refer to AWS Welding Handbook (13.2) and Lincoln Electric Co., The
Procedure Handbook of Arc Welding (28.2) for technical information. Also
refer to the discussion of lamellar tearing with restrained welded
connections in Appendix A, para. A.3.

3.1.3 Bolted Connections. Design and detailing of connections using

high-strength bolts shall conform to reference (2.2) or reference (2.6) and
to Specification for Structural Joints Using ASTM A325 or A490 Bolts,
approved by Research Council on Riveted and Bolted Structural Joints of
Engineering Foundation, Endorsed by American Institute of Steel Construction
and by Industrial Fastener Institute (26). See also the following references
in AISC Journal: 4th Quarter 1978, Birkemoe and Gilmore, Behavior of Bearing
Critical Double Angle Beam Connections (2.20); 1st Quarter 1983,
Brockenbrough, R., Considerations in the Design of Bolted Joints for
Weathering Steel (2.24); 1st Quarter, 1982, Driscoll and Beedle, Suggestions
for Avoiding Beam-to-Column Web Connection Failure (2.33); 2nd Quarter, 1985,
Thornton, Prying Action - A General Treatment (2.58); and Fisher and Struik,
Design Criteria for Bolted and Riveted Joints, Wiley & Sons, 1974 (18).
Additional technical information about standard practice for
mechanical connectors is available from Industrial Fastener Institute (26).

3.1.4 Steel-to-Concrete Connections. For design guidance relating to

steel-to-concrete connections, refer to the following references in AISC
Journals: 1st Quarter 1981, Hawkins and Roeder Connections Between Steel
Frames and Concrete Walls (2.38); 1st Quarter 1980, Hawkins, Mitchell and
Roeder, Moment Resisting Connections for Mixed Construction (2.39); 2nd
Quarter, 1983, Shipp and Haninger, Design of Headed Anchor Bolts (2.56).

5
3.1.5 Load and Resistance Factor Design. The design of steel structures
is usually based on the working stress method in conformance with the
provisions given in (2.2). An acceptable alternate procedure based on the
strength design method is given in (2.6).

If this method is used, the overall load factor for the combined loads (dead
load plus live load plus snow load, etc.) shall be at least the specified
amount, but not less than 1.4 for loads without wind load and 1.2 for loads
that include wind. Additional design guidance for load and resistance factor
design (plastic design) may be found in AISC, Plastic Design of Braced
Multistory Steel Frames (2.5) and ASCE, Plastic Design in Steel (7.2).

3.1.6 Design and Detailing Aids. Useful aids for design and detailing of
structural steel are available in the following AISC reference publications:

a) Engineering for Steel Construction (2.9)

b) Detailing for Steel Construction (2.7)

c) Torsional Analysis of Steel Members (2.8)

d) AISC Journal, 2nd Quarter, 1982, Johnston, Design of W-Shapes

for Combined Bending and Torsion (2.40).

e) Web openings. AISC Journals: Oct. 1971, Bower, Recommended

Design Procedures for Beams with Web Openings (2.23); Oct. 1971, Redwood,
Simplified Plastic Analysis for Reinforced Web Holes (2.50); and Jan. 1972,
Redwood, Tables for Plastic Design of Beams with Rectangular Holes (2.51).

f) Bearing plates. AISC Journal, April 1970, Fling, Design of

Steel Bearing Plates (2.37).

g) Domes and space frames. AISC Journals: Oct. 1963, Stevens

and Odom, The Steel Framed Dome (2.57); Oct. 1965, Buchert, Buckling of
Framed Domes (2.25), Oct. 1968, Buchert, Space Frame Buckling (2.26); ASCE
Struct. Div. Journal, Feb. 1965, Wright, Membrane Forces and Buckling in
Reticulated Shells (7.7).

h) Single story rigid frames. MBMA, 1981 Lee, Ketter, and Hsu,
Design of Single Story Rigid Frames (29.2), provides design aids for uniform
and tapered member rigid frames.

3.1.7 Criteria for Tubing. Additional criteria and technical data for
design of components fabricated from steel tubing and pipe are given in:

a) AISI, Tentative Criteria for the Structural Application of

Steel Tubing and Pipe (3.7).

b) Welded Steel Tube Institute, Manual of Cold Formed Welded

Structural Steel Tubing (40.1).

6
3.1.8 Composite Design. Criteria and technical data for design of steel
beams with composite concrete flanges are given in (2.2), (2.6) and (15.1).

a) Reference (2.2)

b) Reference (2.6)

c) Reference (15.1)

d) See also the following references in the AISC Journal: July

and Oct. 1970, Fisher, Design of Composite Beams with Formed Metal Deck
(2.34); 1st Quarter, 1977, Fisher, Grant and Slutter, Composite Beams with
Formed Steel Deck (2.36); and 2nd Quarter, 1983, Lorenz, Some Economic
Considerations for Composite Floor Beams (2.44), for additional design
guidance.

3.1.9 Floor Vibrations. Floors with large open spaces without

partitions are particularly susceptible to objectionable vibrations. These
include lobbies, retail stores, restaurants, ballrooms, laboratories,
hospital operating rooms, and microelectronic facilities.

Design criteria and guidance for control of floor vibrations in

structural steel framing are given in the following references in the AISC
Journal: 2nd Quarter 1981, Murray, Acceptability Criterion for Occupant-
Induced Floor Vibrations, (2.47); 3rd Quarter, 1975, Murray, Design to
Prevent Floor Vibrations, (2.48); 3rd Quarter, 1977, Murray and Hedrick,
Floor Vibrations and Cantilevered Construction, (2.49).

Human occupancy acceptability levels for continuous floor

vibrations, as induced by machinery and equipment located inside or outside
of a building, are given in the following references:

a) International Organization for Standardization (ISO), Standard

ISO 2631-1978, Guide for the Evaluation of Human Exposure to Whole-Body
Vibration (25.1).

b) Harris, C.M., Handbook of Noise Control, Chapter 18 (21).

c) Harris, C.M. and Crede, C.E., Shock and Vibration Handbook,

Chapter 44 (22).

d) Richart, F.E., Foundation Vibrations, Trans. ASCE, 1962, Vol.

127, Part 1, pp. 863-898 (7.5).

Methods for isolating vibrations produced by machinery and

equipment are given in references (b) and (c) above and e) below.

e) Jones, R.S., Noise and Vibration Control in Buildings (27).

The operation of sensitive equipment is affected by environmental

vibration sources that may be grouped into three categories: external to
the building, internal activities, and service machinery. External sources
include ambient vibrations of the ground at the site, such as road and rail
traffic, nearby construction activities, and machinery operating in nearby
buildings. Internal activities include human motion (foot falls),
maintenance and repair, in-plant vehicles, and production machinery and
equipment. Service machinery includes the air conditioning system,
furnaces, pumps and compressors, elevators and mechanically activated doors,
and loading platforms. Limits on permissible environmental vibrations for
sensitive equipment can best be obtained from the manufacturers of such
equipment. Permissible limits for equipment used in the microelectronics
industry are given in the following references from the Proceedings of a
1985 ASCE Symposium on Noise and Vibration Measurements - Predication and
Mitigation.

f) Ungar, E. E., and Gordon, C. G., Cost-Effective Design of

Practically Vibration-Free High Technology Facilities (7.6).

g) Nelson, J. T., Blazier, W. E., and Saurenman, H. J., Site

Selection and Building Design for Minimizing Vibration (7.4).

3.1.10 Ponding Due to Deflection of Roof Structure. Requirements for

minimum roof slopes to minimize ponding problems are given in NAVFAC
DM-1.05, Roofing and Waterproofing (Proposed) (38.1). Design criteria and
guidance for control of ponding on roofs are given in (2.2). Additional
guidance is given in the following references in the AISC Journal: 1st
Quarter, 1973, Burgett, Fast Check for Ponding, (2.27); April 1963, Chinn,
Failure of Simply-Supported Flat Roofs by Ponding of Rain, (2.28); July
1966, Marino, Ponding of Two-Way Roof Systems, (2.45).

3.1.11 Snow Drift Loads for Large Multi-Level Roofs. When the upper
level of a multi-level roof has a large dimension perpendicular to the line
of separation between roof levels, snow drift loads may be significantly
larger than the loads given in ANSI A58.1, Minimum Design Loads for
Buildings and Other Structures (4.1). In such buildings, use the larger of
the snow drift loads given in (4.1) or in the Metal Building Manufacturers
Association (MBMA) Design Practices Section, Metal Building Systems Manual
(29.3).

3.1.12 Mill and Other Industrial Buildings. Additional criteria and

technical data for the design of steel mill and other industrial buildings
are given in:

a) Association of Iron and Steel Engineers (AISE), Specifications

for the Design and Construction of Mill Buildings, AISE Technical Report No.
13 (14.1).

b) MBMA Crane Manual for Metal Building Systems, 1982 (29.1).

c) Fisher and Buettner, Light and Heavy Industrial Buildings,

1979, AISC (2.15), and AISC Journal, 3rd Quarter 1981, Fisher, Structural
Details in Industrial Buildings (2.35); AISC Journal, 4th Quarter 1977,
Bakota, Mill Building Design Procedures (2.19).

8
3.1.13 Steel Shapes Prior to 1953. Strength and dimensional properties
of steel and iron structural shapes in use prior to 1953 are given in AISC,
Iron and Steel Beams 1873-1952 (2.10).

3.2 Steel Joists. Steel joinsts shall be designed in accordance with

SJI, Standard Specifications, Load Tables, and Weight Tables for Steel
Joists and Joist Girders - K-Series, LH-Series, DLH-Series, Joist Girders
(32.1).

3.2.1 Joists With Unsymmetrical Members. If any elements of a joist are

unsymmetrically arranged, the manufacturer of the joist should demonstrate,
both by design calculations and by tests, that the joist is not overstressed
as a result of the eccentric transfer of forces through unsymmetrically
located members and joints, such as single angle compression webs.

3.2.2 Existing Joist Structures. Information in SJI Technical Digest

No. 7: Fifty-Year Steel Joist Digest - A Compilation of Specifications and
Load Tables 1928-1978 (32.6), may be useful for determining the design
strength of existing joist structures.

3.2.3 Floor Vibrations. Joist floors shall be designed to avoid

objectionable vibrations with certain types of human occupancy. This is
more likely to be of concern in floors of large open spaces without
partitions. See SJI Technical Digest No. 5, Vibration of Steel Joist-
Concrete Slab Floors (32.4), Lenzen, Vibration of Steel Joist Concrete Slab
Floors, (2.43), and (2.47) and (2.48) for guidance.

3.2.4 Ponding. Joist roofs shall be designed to avoid excessive ponding

of water that overloads the roof. Refer to (38.1) for minimum roof slopes
and see SJI Technical Digest No. 3, Structural Design of Steel Joist Roofs
to Resist Ponding Loads (32.3).

3.2.5 Snow Drift Loads for Large Multi-Level Roofs. Refer to design
load requirements in para. 3.2.11 of this handbook.

3.2.6 Uplift. Uplift forces due to wind action sometimes act on steel
joist roof structures that frequently have dead loads that are insufficient
to counterbalance the wind uplift forces. See SJI Technical Digest No. 6:
Structural Design of Steel Joist Roofs to Resist Uplift Loads (32.5).

3.2.7 Bridging. Requirements and considerations for bridging are given

in SJI Technical Digest No. 2, Spacing of Bridging for Open Web Steel Joists
(32.2).

3.2.8 Welding. Requirements and limitations for welding of connections

of and to steel joists are given in SJI Technical Digest No. 8, Welding of
Open Web Steel Joists (32.7).

3.3 Light Gage Cold-Formed Steel. Design in accordance with AISI,

Specification for the Design of Cold-Formed Steel Structural Members (3.2).

9
3.3.1 Technical Information. AISI (3.2) contains the design
specification, a commentary, supplementary information, illustrative
examples, and design aids in the form of charts and tables.

3.3.2 Exterior Masonry Curtain Walls with Steel Studs. For brick
masonry-steel stud curtain wall systems, design the backup wall light gage
steel studs to support the full design wind load within the allowable
stresses given in the above reference standard (3.2) and with the maximum
deflection of studs acting without considering stiffening from the masonry
no greater than the span length (unsupported height) divided by 600. If
windows are supported on the curtain wall system, provide sufficient
strength and stiffness in the stud adjacent to windows to support the
lateral forces transferred from the window wall. Normally, doubled or
special, extra-strength studs are required adjacent to windows.

3.4 Steel Decking. Steel decking shall be designed in accordance with

(3.2). Also refer to Steel Deck Institute (SDI) Design Manual for Composite
Decks, Form Decks and Roof Decks, Publ. 25-85 (31.1), for guidance.

3.4.1 Commercially Available Decking. For technical data on

commercially available decking, refer to SDI Inc. File (31.3).

3.4.2 Composite Deck. Composite concrete and steel deck slabs shall be
designed in accordance with ASCE, Specifications for the Design and
Construction of Composite Slabs, with Commentary (7.3). Follow additional
recommendations in (31.1).

3.4.3 Diaphragm Design. The design criteria for roof deck diaphragms
are given in NAVFAC P-355, Seismic Design for Buildings (38.17) and the SDI
Diaphragm Design Manual, Publ. DDM01-82 (31.2).

3.4.4 Roof Deck. Roof deck shall be designed to meet criteria for
roofing and insulation given in ASTM E 936-83, Standard Practice for Roof
System Assemblies Employing Steel Deck, Preformed Roof Insulation, and
Bituminous Built-up Roofing (10.18). Also follow design recommendations in
Factory Mutual System Loss Prevention Data 1-28, Insulated Steel Deck (17.1).

3.5 Prefabricated Steel Buildings. Prefabricated steel buildings

shall be design in accordance with (2.2) or (2.6) and (3.2). Include any
applicable additional requirements given in para. 3.2 to 3.5 of this
handbook.

3.5.1 Supplementary Design Guidance. Refer to (29.3) for additional

design guidance and fabrication and erection practices.

3.5.2 Design Loads. Use the design loadings and their method of
application that are specified in NAVFAC DM-2.02, Structural
Engineering-Loads (38.3). Use the design load combinations given in (29.3).
For low roof areas adjacent to high roofs, use the greater of the snow drift
loads given in (4.1) or in (29.3). The latter criteria accounts

10
for the size of the upper roof, which has been found to be very significant
when the upper roof has a large dimension perpendicular to the roof
separation.

Loads may be reduced for temporary or minor structures as

specified in paras. 8 and 11 of NAVFAC DM-2.01, Structural Engineering-
General Requirements (38.2).

3.5.3 NAVFAC Guide Specifications. Requirements in NFGS-13121,

Preengineered Metal Buildings (38.21) take precedence over provisions in the
MBMA Design Manual.

3.6 Crane Support Systems. Design information for cranes and crane
support systems is given in

a) Reference (29.1)

b) Reference (14.1)

c) AISC Journal, Jan. 1965, Mueller, Lessons from Crane Runways

(2.46); 4th Quarter 1982, Ricker, Tips for Avoiding Crane Runway Problems
(2.54). See also Paragraph 3.1.12.

The MBMA Crane Manual is applicable to structures supporting

cranes used in a range of service from standby and infrequent service to
heavy duty service, while AISE Technical Report 13 is primarily concerned
with structures supporting cranes used in severe duty and steel mill
service. Criteria are given in these references for lateral loads from
changes in acceleration of moving cranes, for impact, for forces on runway
stops, and for limits to vertical and lateral deflection of runway beams.
These vary with the type and expected use of the cranes. These publications
also give references that provide further technical data about cranes and
valuable recommendations for good design and detailing practices for crane
support structures.

3.6.1 Deflection Limits for Crane Runway Girders. Limit maximum

vertical deflection of runway girders for live load without impact on
overhead cranes to span length/1000. Limit maximum horizontal deflection to
span length/500.

3.6.2 Runway Crane Stops. Design runway crane stops to develop the
maximum force applied to it by the crane striking the stop at the velocity
specified by the manufacturer. Guidance for very heavy duty service cranes
is given in AISE Standard No. 6, Specification for Electric Overhead
Traveling Cranes for Steel Mill Service (14.2). The magnitude of the force
applied on the stop is dependent on the stroke and the properties of the
energy-absorbing device provided on the crane. The magnitude and point of
application of this force shall be provided by the crane manufacturer.
Design the crane runway for the force developed by the runway stop.

3.7 Stainless Steel.

11
3.7.1 General Guidelines. AISI, Design Guidelines for the Selection and
Use of Stainless Steel (3.3). Also refer to CSI, Spec. Data - Stainless
Steel (3.1).

3.7.2 Light-Gage Cold-Formed Stainless Steel. Design in conformance

with Specification for the Design of Cold-Formed Stainless Steel Structural
Members as contained in AISI Stainless Steel Cold-Formed Structural Design
Manual (3.8).

3.7.3 Fasteners. For guidance in selecting fasteners refer to AISI

Stainless Steel Fasteners-A Systematic Approach to Their Selection (3.9).
Also, for guidance in anchoring stone cladding, refer to AISI, Stainless
Steel Stone Anchors (3.10).

3.7.4 Technical Data for Materials Selection. Refer to ASM, Source Book
on Stainless Steels (11.1). Also refer to ASM, Source Book on Industrial
Alloy and Engineering Data (11.2).

12
 Section 4: STANDARD DESIGN CRITERIA - CLASS C STRUCTURES

Class C covers special structures not readily classified in either

of the above two categories. These include storage tanks, cable guyed
structures, floating structures, structures supporting heavy-lift cranes and
heavy earth-moving equipment, airport runways, catapults, and aircraft
operating adjuncts, and other designed as special structures for which
criteria are not specifically provided. Consider special codes or other
information available in technical literature and manufacturers' publications
in establishing standards for design.

4.1 General. The provisions of the Standard Design Criteria for Class
B structures shall apply, except as described in (38.2) or elsewhere herein.

4.2 Wire Strand and Rope. Technical information about wire strand,
rope, and fittings is available from various wire and fittings manufacturers.
Working loads for various types of wire rope, including guys, but not
including running ropes such as in cranes or derricks, and not including wire
rope used in other types of equipment or machinery, shall be as follows:

a) Prestretched Zinc-Coated Steel Wire Rope and Strand (ASTM A603,

Standard Specification for Zinc-coated Steel Structural Wire Rope,
Specifications for (10.16), A586-81, Standard Specification for Zinc-coated
Parallel and Helical Steel Wire Structural Strand (10.14); and A475, Standard
Specification for Zinc-coated Steel Wire Strand (10.11)): For guyed towers,
the provisions of EIA, RS-222-C, Structural Standards for Steel Antenna
Towers and Antenna Supporting Structures (16.1) (see Towers) shall apply.
For other types of structures, consult NAVFACENGCOM. In general the factor
of safety, based on breaking strength, shall not be less than 2.0 and shall
be increased for cases where occupied areas would be threatened by failure of
the rope or strand.

b) Other Types of Wire Rope and Strand and Non-Prestretched Wire

Rope and Wire Strand: Consult NAVFACENGCOM.

c) Fasteners: For speltered fasteners, follow recommendations in

the ASTM Standard applicable to the type of rope (or strand) being used. For
threaded fasteners in guyed towers, consult NAVFACENGCOM regarding the
desirability of increasing the factor of safety.

4.3 Towers.

4.3.1 Basic Design Standards. Refer to (2.2), (2.6), or (13.1), and

other related standards given previously for Class B structures, except:

a) Refer to (16.1) for loads and other criteria for towers 300 ft.
(91.44 m) or less in height.

13
 b) Consult with NAVFACENGCOM for criteria for each project
involving towers over 300 ft. (91.44m) in height.

c) Do not use an increased allowable stress for wind effects.

4.3.2 Free Standing Towers

4.3.2.1 Geometry. Taper free standing towers inward toward the top. For
high towers, the tapering can consist of two or more slopes. The upper part
of the tower can be uniformly shaped. Use a partial bottom tier only where
functionally required (for access, to bring in equipment, or to straddle an
obstruction). Otherwise, use diagonals in the bottom tier and connect the
bottom struts to the tower legs close to the foundation.

4.3.2.2 Foundations. The foundation for each leg shall have a factor of
safety against uplift, overturning, and sliding, including the weight of
earth cover, that conforms to the requirements of (38.2), Section 7. It
shall also have a factor of safety of at least 1.0 against uplift,
overturning, and sliding when the weight of the earth cover is neglected.

4.3.3 Guyed Towers

4.3.3.1 Design Guidance. The IASS Recommendations for Guyed Masts (23.1),
developed by IASS, Working Group 4, provides loading criteria, materials
information, design guidance and procedures, and fabrication and erection
requirements for guyed masts and towers. It also contains an extensive list
of reference papers. Although this document reflects European design
practice, it contains valuable guidance for all designers of guyed towers.

4.3.3.2 Special Design Requirements.

a) Consider the effect of temperature variations on guy tension

and tower design stresses.

b) With no wind and with air temperature at the design value,

initial tension in guy cables shall be no more than one-tenth of the cable
breaking strength.

c) Working loads for guys shall be not greater than as given in

para. 4.2.1.

d) Working loads for insulators and eye bolts of fail-safe

insulators shall not exceed 30 percent and 20 percent, respectively, of the
manufacturer's guaranteed minimum breaking strength.

e) Design for a condition with any one guy broken, subject to one-
quarter of the design load plus the dead load. Under this condition, the
allowable stress may be increased by 33 percent.

14
 f) Design towers that must have eccentrically located dead loads
so as to minimize tower dead load deflections. The design should consider
cambering the tower so that introduction of the eccentric dead load will
result in a plumb condition.

4.3.3.3 Guys. Guys shall be prestretched. Follow recommendations in ASTM

Standards applicable to the type of rope (or strand) being used.

4.4 Steel Stacks.

4.4.1 Basic Design Standard. Refer to (2.2) or (2.6).

4.4.2 Additional Design Criteria.

4.4.2.1 Local Buckling. When local buckling, due to axial compression and
bending is a consideration:

a) The allowable compressive strength of unstiffened, cylindrical

stacks shall be reduced for local buckling when D/t is greater than
3,300/FÚy¿, but D/t shall not exceed 13,000/FÚy¿.

The reduced compressive strength, FÚyr¿ is (3.2):

EQUATION: 660
FÚr¿ = ----- + 0.4 FÚy¿
D/t

where
D = average diameter, inches
t = wall thickness, inches
FÚy¿ = yield strength, ksi

See reference (3.2) for further guidance.

b) Longitudinal or circumferential stiffeners may be used to

increase the allowable compressive strength of a cylindrical stack shell
whose strength is reduced by local buckling. Design procedures are described
in references given in para. 4.4.3. Special stiffeners may also be required
to facilitate the transfer of forces and support against buckling in
portions of the stack adjacent to openings for breeching ducts.

4.4.2.2 Compact Section. Cylindrical stacks may be designed with the

increased allowable stresses allowed for compact sections when D/t is less
than or equal to 1,300/FÚy¿.

4.4.2.3 Beam Shear. An effective shear area of one-half of the gross

cross-sectional area shall be used when calculating beam shear in the
cylinder.

4.4.2.4 Deflection. The maximum beam deflection at the top of the stack
shall not be more than 1/100th of the stack height.

15
4.4.2.5 Wind Induced Vibration. Low velocity winds may induce resonant
vibrations in light steel stacks. This phenomenon may be more severe when
multiple stacks are in series. Criteria for evaluating wind-induced
vibrations of stacks and additional references are given in:

a) ASME Report 63-WA-248, Dynamic Response of Tall Stacks to Wind

Excitation (9.1).

b) Gaylord, E.H., and Gaylord, C.N., Section 26, "Chimneys", in

Structural Engineering Handbook (20).

c) Troitsky, M.S., Tubular Steel Structures, Chapter 5, "Self

Supporting Stacks", and Chapter 6, "Multilevel Guyed Stacks" in (28.1).

4.4.2.6 Foundations. Design stack foundations using the uplift resistance

criteria given in para. 4.3.2.2 of this handbook.

4.4.3 Design Guidance. Design procedures and aids for steel stacks are
provided in reference (28.1). Basic procedures for calculating structural
behavior of tubular structures are covered in Chapter 1, "Introduction",
Chapter 2, "Local and Overall Buckling of Cylindrical Shells", Chapter 3,
"Edge Effect at Tubular Structures", and Chapter 4, "Thermal Stresses in
Tubular Structures". Design procedures for self-supporting stacks are
covered in Chapter 5. Design procedures for multi-level guyed stacks are
covered in Chapter 6.

4.4.4 Stainless Steel Stacks. Design criteria for stainless steel

structural components, including cylindrical tubular structures, are given in
(3.8). Information for the selection of stainless steel is given in
publications referenced in para. 3.7. Refer to para. 4.4.3 for design
guidance.

4.4.5 Steel Chimney Liners. Criteria for the design and construction of
steel chimney liners are given in ASCE, Design and Construction of Steel
Chimney Liners (7.1).

4.5 Steel Tanks for Liquid and Gas Storage.

4.5.1 Vertical Tanks.

4.5.1.1 Water. Water tanks shall be designed in accordance with AWWA

D100-84, Welded Steel Tanks for Water Storage (12.1), with the following
exceptions:

a) Loads. Use design loads given in (38.3) in place of loads

given in Section 3.1 of D100.

b) Corrosion Allowance. Modify Section 3.9 of (12.1) to require

that corrosion allowances be added to flanges of beams and channels as well
as to their webs.

16
 c) Horizontal Girders Used as Balcony Floors. Provide the
following minimum girder widths:

Minimum girder
Tank capacity widths
(gallons) (inches)
ÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄ
75,000 or less 24
Over 75,000 to 100,000 27
Over 100,000 to 200,000 30
Over 200,000 36

d) Proportion thickness of hemispherical bottoms of elevated

tanks in accordance with Section 4.8 of D100, but not less than the thickness
of the lowest shell plate in the cylindrical part of the tank.

e) Painting. Use AWWA D102-78, Painting Steel Water-Storage Tanks

(12.3).

f) Inspection and repair. Refer to AWWA D101-53, Standard for

Inspecting and Repairing Steel Water Tanks, Standpipes, Reservoirs and
Elevated Tanks for Water Storage (12.2).

g) Bolted tanks. Refer to AWWA D103-84, Standard for Factory-

Coated Bolted Steel Tanks for Water Storage (12.4).

h) Refer to NAVFAC NFGS-13411, Water Storage Tanks (38.22).

Follow Guide Specifications in case of conflict with above standards.

4.5.1.2 Petroleum Fuels. Design in accordance with the requirements in

NAVFAC DM-22, Petroleum Fuel Facilities (38.11).

4.5.1.3 Other Liquids, Including Tanks with Gas Pressure. Use API Standard
650, Welded Steel Tanks for Oil Storage (5.2) with appropriate consideration
of the compatibility of the selected steel materials with the stored liquid.
Use API Standard 620-82, Recommended Rules for Revision of Design and
Construction of Large, Welded, Low Pressure Storage Tanks (5.1), for large
storage tanks that are subject to gas pressure. Use appropriate appendixes
of this Standard for cryogenic liquid storage tanks.

4.5.1.4 Stainless Steel Tanks. Guidelines and rules for the design of
stainless steel tanks at atmospheric pressure are given in Part IV of the
AISI publication, Steel Tanks for Liquid Storage (3.11). Rules for stainless
steel tanks for storage at low pressures of liquified hydrocarbon gases,
particularly liquified ethane, ethylene, and methane are given in Appendix Q
of (5.1).

4.5.1.5 Design Guidance.

a) Use all-welded, cylindrical construction, unless special

conditions require other types of construction.

17
 b) High strength and alloy steels permitted in reference standards
for water storage tanks, petroleum fuels, storage tanks, and other types of
tanks may be used for the respective types of tanks.

c) If two or more steels of different strengths are used in the

same tank, plates must be permanently marked and also differentiated by a
different thickness or by a different plate width. These differences must be
shown on the shop drawings. These requirements are needed to minimize the
potential for mislocating plates during tank assembly.

d) Take into account principal stresses, combining primary ring

stresses and vertical compression, with secondary bending due to restraints
offered by top and bottom plates for design of tank shells.

e) For local buckling resistance of riser pipe, see criteria in

para. 4.4.2.1.

f) Design tank foundations using the uplift resistance criteria

given in para. 4.3.2.2.

g) Design steel tanks in seismic areas based on criteria given in

(38.17) and (12.1), for seismic design.

h) Provide ring beams for the foundations of all tanks greater

than 10,000 bbl, and for tanks of all sizes in seismic Zones 3 and 4. Refer
to (38.11) for more detail.

4.5.1.6 Design Aids. Reference (3.11) provides guidance on design

procedures and materials selection and gives design aids and useful technical
information about materials and fabrication and erection practices for large
field fabricated vertical steel tanks.

4.5.2 Horizontal Tanks. Design of horizontal tanks is not covered in the

previously described standards for vertical tanks since these standards are
primarily concerned with design and construction of large field-erected
tanks. However, many provisions in these standards relating to design,
materials, fabrication, erection, and quality assurance are equally
applicable to horizonal tanks. Refer to (38.11) for requirements for all
petroleum storage tanks.

4.5.2.1 Underground Petroleum Storage Tanks. Design and fabricate in

accordance with UL Standard 58, Standard for Steel Underground Tanks for
Flammable and Combustible Liquids (36.2). Diameters of tanks without
internal bracing are limited to 12 ft. (3.66 m), and lengths are limited to
six times the tank diameter.

Comply with local environmental requirements for the design of

underground tanks that contain petroleum products or other hazardous fluids
or that contain any products that have a potential to contaminate the
surrounding soil and groundwater, if leaks develop.

18
4.5.2.2 Small Above-Ground Petroleum Storage Tanks. Tanks up to 12 ft.
(3.66 m) in diameter and 40,000 gallon (151,400 litres) capacity that are
shop fabricated shall be of welded steel construction, designed and
fabricated in accordance with UL Standard 142-81, Standard for Steel
Aboveground Tanks for Flammable and Combustible Liquids (36.1).

4.5.2.3 Design Guidance. Design procedures and practices for horizontal

tanks and pressure vessels are described in Chapter 8, Horizontal Storage
Tanks of (28.1). Additional technical information is found in Parts III, VI,
and IX, Volume 2 in (3.12), in the series Steel Plate Engineering Data. Some
of the information presented in (3.11) is applicable to horizontal tanks.

4.6 Pressure Vessels. Vessels designed for internal or external

pressures greater than 15 psi shall be designed and fabricated in accordance
with rules and requirements given in ASME, Boiler and Pressure Vessels Code,
Section VIII (9.2). Frequently, design rules and guidance given in this code
are also useful for horizontal vessels designed for less than 15 psi internal
or external pressure. For additional guidance see ASME, Pressure Vessels
and Piping: Design and Analysis, Vol. 1, Analysis, and Vol. 2, Components
and Structural Dynamics (a compilation of technical papers) (9.3).

4.7 Hyperbaric Facilities. Hyperbaric facilities shall be designed in

accordance with NAVFAC DM-39, Hyperbaric Facilities (38.13). Consult with
NAVFACENGCOM, Code 04B, for guidance.

4.8 Steel Bins for Storage of Bulk Solids.

4.8.1 Basic Design Standards. Refer to (2.2), (2.6), or (13.1), and

other related standards given previously for Class B structures. (5.2)
should be used for allowable plate stresses, joint efficiency factors, and
other relevant design criteria.

4.8.2 Design Guidance. Design criteria for bins and other design aids,
including descriptions of typical bins, filling and emptying equipment, steel
materials, properties of bulk solids, functional design of bins, loads from
bulk solids, and design procedures for roofs, walls, hoppers, and
foundations, and example designs are given in Gaylord, E.H., and Gaylord,
C.N., Design of Steel Bins for Storage of Bulk Solids (19). Similar
technical information, design procedures, and example designs are given in
Chapter 7, Bins and Bunkers, of (28.1).

4.8.3 Clad Steels for Bins. Clad steel is formed by mill-rolling under
pressure a sheet of cladding material and a sheet of base material until they
bond integrally over their entire surface. Typically, ASTM A-36-81A
Specification for Standard Structural Steel (10.1) or ASTM A283, Standard
Specification Low and Intermediate Tensile Strength Carbon Steel Plates,
Shapes, and Bars, (10.6) or ASTM A514 High-Yield Strength, Quenched, and
Tempered Alloy Steel Plate, Suitable for Welding (10.12), alloy steels are
used as base metal, while stainless steel, nickel or nickel alloys, and
copper or copper alloys are used as cladding materials.

19
Typical clad steels are:

ASTM A-263-84, Standard Specification for Corrosion-Resisting Chromium

Steel-Clad Plate Sheet and Strip (10.3)

ASTM A-264-84, Standard Specification for Stainless Chromium-Nickel

Steel-Clad Plate or Sheet and Strip (10.4)

ASTM A-265-84, Standard Specification for Nickel and Nickel-Base

Alloy-Clad Steel Plate (10.5)

Cladding thickness varies from 5 to 10 percent of the total plate thickness,

depending on the application. Cladding thickness of 10 to 20 percent of the
total plate thickness is most common when clad steels are used. Refer to (19)
for design information.

20
 Section 5: SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS

5.1 Expansion Joints

5.1.1 Class A Structures. Design practice varies widely among the

Departments of Transportation of the various states relative to the type and
spacing of expansion joints in bridge decks and superstructures. Follow the
bridge design practice of the locality where a structure is to be built. In
general, the current trend is toward the use of longer lengths between
joints, requiring fewer joints with greater potential movement at each joint.

5.1.1.1 Use of Expansion Joints and Provisions for Movement. The FHWA
Technical Advisory T5140.13, Integral, No-Joint Structures and Required
Provisions for Movement, January 28, 1980 (39.1) recommends the elimination
of expansion joints in steel bridges whose lengths are less than 300 ft. (for
typical environments in the U.S.). They also recommend integral abutments
unless the abutments are restrained against lateral movement, together with
a suitable approach apron on the pavement tied to the abutment. This
reference suggests that provisions for movement follow recommendations in
the AASHTO Bridge Specification. These suggest an allowance for movement of
1 1/4 in. (31.74mm) per 100 ft. (30.48 m) of bridge length for structures in
cold climates and 1 in. per 100 ft. of bridge length in moderate climates,
refer to (39.1) for more details.

5.1.1.2 Design of Expansion Joints. Refer to the following FHWA Technical

Advisories for guidance:

a) Expansion Devices for Bridges, FHWA T5140.15, March 26, 1980

(39.2).

b) Bridge Deck Joint Rehabilitation (Retrofit), FHWA T5140.16,

March 26, 1980 (39.3).

5.1.2 Class B Structures. Provide expansion joints in accordance with

the following general rules:

a) Where structures are more than 300 to 500 ft. in length,

(91.44 to 152.4 m) unless special conditions of climate or exposure exist, and
except for structural frames exposed to outdoor environments, such as open
parking structures. Follow rules for Class A structures for outdoor
structures.

b) At junctures of T-, L-, U-shaped, and other irregularly shaped

buildings.

c) Where there is such a change in the foundation soils or type of

construction that differential settlements are expected to occur.

d) Guidance for expansion joint design. See Building Research

Advisory Board, BRAB Technical Report No. 65, Expansion Joints in Buildings,
National Academy of Sciences, 1974 (30.1).

21
5.2 Corrosion Control

5.2.1 Allowance for Corrosion Loss (ASTM A-36). For purposes of

estimating service life, the following provisions may be used as "first
approximation." Where serious corrosion problems are anticipated, the advice
of corrosion engineers should be sought. Also refer to the Corrosion
Handbook (8.1) of the National Association of Corrosion Engineers (NACE).

5.2.1.1 Atmospheric Corrosion. See Figure 1 for typical time-corrosion

curves for industrial and marine atmospheres for various types of uncoated
steels. The industrial atmosphere is Kearny, New Jersey, and the marine
atmosphere is Kure Beach, North Carolina. Use Table 1 to modify values for
relative corrosion effects of atmospheres at different locations throughout
the world to approximate corrosion loss with uncoated steel.

5.2.1.2 Corrosion in Soils. See Figure 2 for typical corrosion loss for
buried steel. These curves do NOT include allowance for stray current
effects.

5.2.1.3 Seawater Corrosion. For continuously submerged conditions, the

rate of loss for carbon steel is approximately 0.004 in. (0.102 mm) per year
for each surface exposed. In and above the splash zone, the rate of
corrosion loss is greater. A general rate of 0.01 in. (0.25 mm) per year
with random pits of 0.02 in. (0.508 mm) per year is suggested in AISI,
Handbook of Corrosion Protection for Steel Pile Structures in Marine
Environment (3.5).

5.2.1.4 Electrolytic Corrosion. Do not use dissimilar materials without

separation by proper insulators, or cathodic protection, or both.

5.2.1.5 Corrosion in Tropical Climates. Except where specific values are

presented in Table 1, assume that corrosion loss is usually increased in
tropical climates (high humidity and temperatures). Unless local experience
is available, a corrosion loss of twice the comparable exposure in temperate
climates may be assumed.

5.2.2 Paint Coatings

5.2.2.1 General. Paint coatings are the most frequent means of limiting
corrosion of steel structures. Guidance for their selection and design is
provided in NAVFAC MO-110, Painting and Protective Coatings (38.20).
Additional guidance is given in SSPC, Steel Structures Painting Manual,
Volume 2, Systems and Specifications (33.2); in SSPC, Steel Structures
Painting Manual Volume 1, Good Painting Practice (33.1); and in AISC, A Guide
to Shop Painting of Structural Steel (2.12). Recommendations for shop
cleaning and painting and for painting various types of steel structures are
found in these publications. Also, comparative cost data and life cycle cost
information are presented for various paint systems.

22
23
24
 Table 1
Relative Corrodibility of Atmospheres at
20 Locations Throughout the World

ÚÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄ¿
³ Type of Relative ³
³ Location Atmosphere Corrodibility ³
ÃÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄ´
³ Khartoum, Sudan Dry inland 1 ³
³ Abisco, North Sweden Unpolluted 3 ³
³ Aro, Nigeria Tropical inland 8 ³
³ Singapore, Malaysia Tropical marine 9 ³
³ Basrah, Iran Dry inland 9 ³
³ Apapa, Nigeria Tropical marine 15 ³
³ State College, PA Rural 25 ³
³ South Bend, IN Semi-rural 29 ³
³ Berlin, Germany Semi-industrial 32 ³
³ Llanwrtyd Wells, U.K. Semi-marine 35 ³
³ Kure Beach, NC Marine 38 ³
³ Calshot, U.K. Marine 41 ³
³ Sandy Hook, NJ Marine, semi-industrial 50 ³
³ Congella, S. Africa Marine 50 ³
³ Kearny, NJ Industrial-marine 52 ³
³ Motherwell, U.K. Industrial 55 ³
³ Vandergrift, PA Industrial 56 ³
³ Pittsburgh, PA Industrial 65 ³
³ Sheffield, U.K. Industrial 78 ³
³ Frodingham, U.K. Industrial 100 ³
³ ³
ÀÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÙ

5.2.2.2 Water Tanks. Painting guidance for steel water tanks is given in
reference (12.3).

5.2.2.3 Members Embedded in Concrete. Usually, painting is not required

for steel members or surfaces that are to be embedded in or in contact with
concrete unless chloride ions are present or likely to become present due to
seawater, salt spray, or deicing salts. If chloride ion concentration
exceeds or is expected to exceed a concentration of 1 pound per cubic yard,
coat surfaces with epoxy. It is also not required for members in dry
interior environments that are to be covered with membrane or sprayed-on
fireproofing. In the latter case, however, it may be desirable to
provide a minimum shop coat for protection during construction in typical
outdoor environments where relative humidity may frequently exceed 70 percent
or to consult the manufacturer or applicator of the sprayed-on fireproofing
system.

5.2.2.4 Surface Preparation. Requirements for shop cleaning and

preparation of surfaces and the shop paint coat shall be consistent with the
painting system selected to meet the anticipated exposure requirements.

25
5.2.3 Metallic Coatings for Corrosion Control. Guidance on the use of
hot dip galvanizing is given in Chapter 21, Hot Dip Galvanizing, in (33.1).
A list of applicable ASTM standards for galvanizing is contained in this
reference. Do not use galvanizing in high temperature environments. It has
also been identified with brittle fracture of certain bolts.

5.2.4 Corrosion Control for Piles, Sheet Piles, and Structures in Similar
Environments.

5.2.4.1 Marine Environments. Recommendations and criteria for corrosion

protection of steel pile and sheet pile structures are given in DM-25.6,
General Criteria for Waterfront Construction (38.12). Additional technical
information is given in (3.5). Some of these recommendations are applicable
to many other components of marine structures.

5.2.4.2 Other Environments. Follow recommendations in (38.12).

Additional technical information about resistance of steel foundation piles
is given in NBS Monograph 127, NBS Papers on Underground Corrosion of Steel
Pilings - 1962-71 (37.1).

5.2.5 Corrosion Control Using Corrosion-Resistant Steel. Corrosion-

resistant steels must conform to (10.1), (10.16), and A-588 Standard
Specification for High Strength Low-Alloy Structural Steel with 50 ksi
[345 MPa] Minimum-Yield Point to 4 in. (100 mm) Thick (10.15).

5.2.5.1 Moisture Effects. Use only where all exposed surfaces of members
are air-dried after contact with moisture, such as from intermittent rain.
Do not use where moisture can remain in contact with the steel surface.
Details used with exposed members must permit free drainage of moisture. No
pockets that entrap water are permitted.

5.2.5.2 Paint. If paint coatings are used, steel is expected to have an

increased life.

5.2.5.3 Staining. Staining shall not be used in locations where adjacent

surfaces may be damaged. Wind-driven moisture may extend the range of
staining, depending on the elevation of the exposed steel.

5.2.5.4 Light-Gage Metal. Light-gage sheet steel shall not be used for
architectural metal paneling. It is too difficult to be certain that all
locations in panel joints will dry out after contact with atmospheric
moisture.

5.2.5.5 Salt Water Exposure. No increase in corrosion protection

over that provided by carbon steel is obtained when submerged in seawater.
However, the type of steel described in (10.16) is sometimes used in
marine environments because this steel has approximately two to three

26
times greater resistance to seawater splash zone corrosion than ordinatry
ASTM A36 carbon steel (10.1), but only where boldly exposed to the washing
action of rain and the drying action of the wind or sun, or both. Follow
recommendations in (38.12).

5.2.5.6 Buried Structures. Do not use corrosion control in buried

structures.

5.2.6 Corrosion Control Using Stainless Steel. Stainless steels are

often used for their very good resistance to corrosion in many environments.
Refer to Section III, Corrosion Resistance and Protection in (11.1), for
information about resistance in specific environments. The following is a
limited summary of expected performance in certain common environments:

a) Rural environments without significant chemical pollution:

Austenitic types (AISI Series 300) and AISI Types 410 and 430 give prolonged
service without significant changes in appearance.

b) Industrial environments: Austenitic types and Type 430 provide

long-term service essentially free of rust staining except when significant
industrial chlorides are present.

c) Marine environments: AISI Type 316 is the most resistant to

attack; Types 301, 302, and 304 may develop some staining, which is often
easily removable. Types 410 and 430 will develop thin rust films in a
relatively short time.

d) Fresh water: AISI 300 Series and Type 430 are almost
completely resistant to corrosion at ambient temperatures, and Type 410 is
much better than carbon steel, but is susceptible to attack in some
applications.

e) Acid water: Series 300 steels have generally good resistance.

f) Salt water: AISI Types 316 and 317 are superior to other
grades and provide the best resistance of the Series 300 steels in a wide
variety of conditions. Even they are subject to pitting and crevice
corrosion after significant exposure.

g) Soils: AISI Series 300 steels have generally excellent

resistance to most soils except those containing chlorides. Types 410 and
430 are subject to attack. See NBS Circular 579, Underground Corrosion
(37.2).

h) Other chemicals: Refer to (11.1).

5.2.7 Design Guidelines for Corrosion Control of Aboveground Structures.

5.2.7.1 Box-Shaped Members. Design box-shaped members so that all inside

surfaces may be readily inspected, cleaned, and painted, or close them
entirely.

27
5.2.7.2 Exterior Double Angle Members. In outdoor structures, provide a
minimum of 3/8 in. (9.52 mm) of space between the flanges of two angle
members.

5.2.7.3 Drainage. In outdoor structures, provide drain holes in pockets or

depressions, or fill with concrete, mastic, or grout. Provide positive
drainage away from exposed steel. Terminate column bases on concrete curbs
or piers above grade, and pitch tops of curbs or piers to drain. If tubes
box-shaped components are not sealed and can accumulate interior moisture,
they must have drain holes to remove moisture. Freezing of moisture might
produce bursting pressures.

5.2.7.4 Sheet Piling Ends. Ends of steel sheet piling may be capped with
concrete or have a protective coating applied to eliminate rapid corrosion of
exposed ends.

5.3 Wear.

5.3.1 Increase in Metal Thickness. Allow for wear by increasing the

metal thickness of those portions of the design section subject to wear,
beyond the stress requirements. The amount of such increase depends on the
material to be handled and on the desired service life. Estimate
wear requirements on the basis of previous experience and from observation of
similar conditions at existing installations.

5.3.2 Wear Plates. Consider the use of replaceable wear plates where
extremely severe wear conditions occur.

5.4 Climatic Requirements.

5.4.1 Class A Structures in Cold Regions. When these structures are to

be exposed to extremely low temperatures, as will occur in Arctic and
Antarctic zones and adjacent portions of temperate zones, special design
provisions shall be implemented to reduce the probability of brittle
fracture. These include the use of steels with improved fracture toughness,
detailing to reduce stress raisers, and the control or elimination of welding
to reduce stress raising defects and residual stresses from restraint of
weld shrinkage. These design provisions are most important for structures
subject to impact loading and repeated or cyclic loading (fatigue).
Examples of these structure types are highway and railway bridges and crane
girders, refer to (1.1), (2.14), and (2.55) for guidance.

5.4.2 Other Structures in Cold Regions. Consider using steels with

improved fracture toughness for major load carrying components of structures
in extreme cold environments. These include ASTM A-588 and A-572, Standard
Specification for High-Strength Low-Allow Columbium-Vanadium Steels of
Structural Quality, (10.13) for rolled sections and plates, and ASTM A-333,
Standard Specification for Seamless and Welded Steel Pipe for Low
Temperature Service (10.9) for pipe used for cylindrical piling. These and
other low carbon steels that are "made to fine grain practice" will have
improved toughness at low temperature compared to conventional ASTM A36

28
steel. When structural components in a low-temperature service are not
subject to significant impact loads or fatigue conditions, it is generally
more cost effective to specify a type of steel with inherently good fracture
toughness, but to avoid a requirement for a specific Charpy impact strength
at the reference temperature.

5.4.3 Tropic Zones. There are no adverse effects on the strength of

steel members from the increased temperatures representative of tropic zones.

5.5 Elevated Temperatures.

5.5.1 Strength. The yield strength of steel is the strength at an

ambient temperature of 80 deg. F (27 deg. C). The strength of steel decreases
with increased temperature. These decreases are not significant until
temperatures exceed 200 deg. F (93 deg.C). Strengths at about 1000 deg. F
(537 deg. C) are generally about 0.6 to 0.7 of room temperature strengths.
These relations may differ for heat-treated or other high-strength steels.
The strength of such steels at elevated temperatures must be determined for
each steel material over the range of service temperature environment.

5.5.2 Typical Strength Properties. Strength properties at elevated

temperatures for ASTM A-36 mild carbon structural steel and ASTM A-441,
Specifications for High-Strength, Low-Alloy, Structural-Manganese Vanadium
Steel (10.10) are given in AISI, Fire-Resistant Steel Frame Construction
(3.4).

5.6 Fire Resistance.

5.6.1 General. Steel structures are incombustible, but rapidly lose

strength at elevated temperatures. Thus, they must be protected by an
incombustible insulative covering to achieve a fire resistance rating.

5.6.2 Fire Resistance. Criteria for the fire resistance of steel

structural systems are given in MIL-HDBK-1008A, Fire Protection for Facilities
Engineering, Design, and Construction (38.14). This document incorporates
the requirements for fire resistance ratings required in the International
Conference of Building Officials (ICBO), Uniform Building Code (24.1), for
various types of construction and various occupancy types.

5.6.3 Fire Resistance Ratings. Fire resistance ratings for various

assemblies of steel-framed structures, steel joist floors and roofs, light
gage metal deck systems, and light-gage metal stud walls and framing systems
are given in UL, Fire Resistance Directory with Hourly Ratings for Beams,
Columns, Floors, Roofs, Walls, and Partitions (36.3). Ratings are given for
various combinations of membrane (gypsum board), spray-on, concrete, and
other protective non-structural materials with structural steel systems.

29
PAGE 30 IS INTENTIONALLY BLANK
 APPENDIX A

DESIGN CAUTIONS

A.1 Buckling Resistance. Steel framing systems involve the use of

highly stressed members with relatively thin plate elements such as the
flanges and webs of rolled sections. In view of this, their strength in
compression involves the consideration of resistance to buckling in the
inelastic or elastic stress range. This requires careful design of bracing
to provide adequate stability of compression members and compression flanges
of beams, as well as provision of sufficient width-to-thickness ratios of
local plate elements for adequate resistance to local buckling. Whenever
framed systems are a design requirement, local plate elements must have low
enough ratios of width to thickness at each plastic hinge location to
preclude inelastic buckling prior to sufficient hinge rotation to develop the
required frame strength. Also, there must be lateral bracing at and near
each plastic hinge location that has adequate strength, stiffness, and
spacing to develop the required hinge rotation. Refer to para. 3.1.1 for
additional design requirements for frame stability, lateral support, and
local buckling resistance to cover common design problems that are not
adequately defined in the AISC Specifications.

A.2 Brittle Fracture. The tensile strength of steel framing systems

that are subject to repeated load applications or impact from dynamically
applied loads requires consideration of resistance to brittle fracture. The
dynamic application of load and the repeated application of loads that
produce many cycles of loading, or significant stress reversal, may lead to
fatigue and lowered tensile strength. These considerations are significant
in the design of bridge beams, crane girders, and other structures subject to
repeated applications of large stresses or repeated rapidly applied loads
that cause impact. A low temperature service environment greatly increases
the need to consider the resistance to brittle fracture.

Fracture toughness is increased by careful detailing to avoid local

stress concentrations in regions subject to significant tension, as would be
developed by notches, sharp changes in cross-sectional area or shape,
defects in welds, intermittent welds, tack welds, and similar
discontinuities. For applications involving impact, or fatigue where steel
members are subject to low temperature service conditions, the designer
should also select a steel material with improved fracture toughness. Some
of these are described in para. 5.4.1 and 5.4.2, refer to (2.14) for
guidance.

A.3 Lamellar Tearing. Steel plate and rolled shapes can develop
fractures from excessive strain perpendicular to the plane of the plate or
rolling direction of the shape as a result of impurities in the steel during
rolling. These sometimes result from locked-in stresses produced by weld
shrinkage at improperly detailed and highly restrained welded joints. Refer
to AISC, Engineering for Steel Construction (2.9) and AISC Journal, 3rd
Quarter, 1973, Commentary on Highly Restrained Welded Connections (2.17).

31
A.4 Corrosion Protection. Use special paint or other coating systems
that provide improved protection against corrosive attack from exterior
moisture, chlorides, and other corrosive environments for steel structures
that are exposed to such environments. Common examples include bridges and
waterfront structures. Structures exposed to exterior environment where
access for painting is expensive (such as towers, tanks, and bins) also
should be protected with high quality protective coatings. The selection of
coating system(s) should be based upon the following requirements:
environment, facility use, aesthetic requirements, and life cycle costs
(refer to para. 5.2).

A.5 Floor Vibrations. Floors in places of public assembly, retail

stores, restaurants, ballrooms, laboratories, hospital operating rooms, and
other sensitive occupancies should be designed to avoid objectionable motion
and vibration. Steel bar joist construction is particularly susceptible to
perceptible motion from many different human occupancy loadings. Refer to
paras. 3.1.9 and 3.2.3 for design guidance and references.

A.6 Rainwater Ponding on Flat Roofs. Roofs should be designed with

adequate slope to drains and stiffness to avoid excessive ponding of water
resulting from heavy rain, clogged roof drains, and melting snow. Bar joist
roofs that are flat, or with small nominal slope, having long, clear spans
are the most susceptible to excessive live loading from ponding on deflected
roof structure. Design using high-strength steel and low live loads further
exacerbates the problem. Refer to paras. 3.1.10 and 3.2.4 for guidance and
references, refer to (38.1) for minimum roof slopes.

A.7 Snow Drifting on Large Multi-Level Roofs. Provisions in existing

national and local building codes do not recognize the magnitude of snow
drift loads that often develop on low roofs when the size of the adjacent
upper roofs is very large, particularly in the direction perpendicular to the
line of separation between the low and high roofs. This problem is most
critical in low rise structures such as large warehouses, high-tech
facilities, schools, and the like. Roof collapses have occurred in roofs
designed for the drift loads given in common building regulations. Joists do
not have reserve capacity to support large overloads. The Metal Building
Manufacturers Association recommends designing for a drift load on the low
roof of at least 25 percent of the design snow load on the adjacent upper
roof, with the drift extending out on the low roof 4 times the drift height,
unless the height of separation is not high enough for this much drift to
occur-reference (29.3). Refer to design guidance provided in paras. 3.1.11,
3.2.5, and 3.5.1.

A.8 Common Design Errors. Some mistakes commonly found in design or

detailing that have led to failure of steel structures include:

a) Absence of stiffeners adjacent to beam webs, when beams frame

over columns. These stiffeners are particularly needed when large column
loads are transmitted through a beam from an upper column to a lower

32
column. They are also usually needed in roof framing systems that utilize
"cantilevered beams" where the roof beams of alternate bays cantilever over a
column to support shorter beams suspended between points of inflection (refer
to para. 3.1.1.3).

Stiffeners may also be needed to (1) transfer large compressive or

tensile forces through a variety of beam column joints with various
conditions of moment restraint or (2) transfer large forces applied by
bearing or hangers on flanges into a shear-resisting web.

b) Absence of adequate lateral bracing for the compression flanges

of rigid frames and continuous beams in regions where the lower flange is in
compression.

c) Inadequate local strength and stiffness at connections

transferring tensile hanger forces.

d) Ignoring eccentricity in connections of members with axial

load. Examples include truss and joist web members and x-brace systems that
transfer wind loads.

e) Use of single angle (or otherwise eccentrically located)

compression members in trussed components (joists) and wind bracing. The
eccentric transfer of forces at member ends produces lateral deflection and a
significant reduction in compressive buckling resistance as a result of the
additional lateral moments produced from the deflected shape of the single
angle compression strut. Note that a single angle member is by its nature
an unsymmetrical shape that cannot be connected to other truss members
without introducing eccentricities.

f) Designing the rigidly connected frames (beam-column systems) in

an unbraced steel frame system having simple connections (AISC Type 2) at
some beam-column joints in the frame without accounting for the reduction in
overall frame stability caused by these non-rigid beam column connections.
When the "effective length" (k-factor) method given in (2.2) is used in such
mixed framing systems, the method of determining effective column lengths in
the rigid frame portions of the system must be modified to obtain adequate
stability of all columns in each story. This is explained in para. 3.1.1.2
and (2.42) and (2.60).

g) Inadequate strength of girders and girder end connections in

unbraced rigid frames, if the magnified moments resulting from frame sway and
required for column design are not also used for girder design. Refer to
para. 3.1.1.1 and (2.42) and (2.60).

h) Failure to reduce girder stiffness in unbraced frames designed

as AISC Type 2 construction (simple beams) for vertical loads with moment
connections designed for wind only, or in unbraced frames designed with AISC
Type 3 (semi-rigid) connections. When only partially rigid connections are
used in the design of an unbraced frame system that provides the entire
stability for a structural framing system, the effective stiffness of

33
girders must be reduced for determining effective column length because of
the reduced connection rigidity. Refer to para. 3.1.1.4 and (2.29) and
(2.32).

i) Absence of ties or inadequately connected ties, at the base of

one story long span rigid frames that develop significant horizontal
thrusts. This problem sometimes results when the foundations are designed by
a different organization than the superstructure, as may happen with pre-
engineered metal building systems.

j) Inadequate provision for the effects of variations in live and

snow load patterns in framing systems that utilize shop welded tapered
girders with very high width-to-thickness ratios of flanges and webs. Such
flanges and webs will not develop inelastic strains without local buckling.
Thus, elastic moments that exceed design moments as a result of
unanticipated live load distributions may cause local buckling of the thin
flanges or webs prior to redistribution of moment by plastic hinge formation.

k) Inadequate provision for negative moments that produce

excessive tensile stresses in floor slab concrete near column lines (causing
cracking) when compositely designed beams are shored during concrete
placement and concrete is not adequately reinforced to control crack widths
produced by dead load of the slab, refer to para. B.3.3 of Appendix B.

l) Use of excessively flexible light-gage steel back-up wall studs

in brick veneer-steel stud back-up curtain walls. Also, failure to increase
stud strength (such as adding studs) adjacent to window openings, where
windows are supported on the back-up stud wall systems. Refer to the
design guidance provided in para. 3.3.2.

m) Use of excessively flexible metal decking for support of

roofing, and having insufficient strength and stiffness for support of
construction equipment used to apply roofing and gravel. Refer to the
design guidance and references in para. 3.4.4.

34
 APPENDIX B

DESIGN FOR STRUCTURAL ECONOMY

B.1 General. Recommendations are given in this appendix for design

practices that generally result in economical steel structures. These are
given for general guidance leading to selection of cost effective steel
structural systems. Each specific application and project requires a careful
study of alternative design approaches (conducted in the preliminary design
phase) to select the most appropriate and cost effective structural system
for the conditions of that project.

B.2 Metal Decking for Roofs and Concrete Slab Floors on Steel Beams.

B.2.1 Roofs. Cold-formed steel roof decking is used in most roofs of

steel framed buildings. It is usually used without a concrete slab, unless a
better fire endurance rating than provided by bare deck systems is
required. Most roof decking is 1 1/2-in. (38.1 mm) or 2-in. (50.8 mm) deep
sections. Deeper sections are sometimes available, and their use may be
economical with framing systems that employ rolled steel beams.

B.2.2 Floors. Cold-formed steel decking is nearly universally used as

concrete slab forms with structural steel framing systems that have
cast-in-place concrete slabs. In office buildings, the deck system may have
electrical raceways incorporated to facilitate electrical flexibility with
changing office layouts. Thus, both the electrical and structural functions
must be considered in selecting the most economical deck system.

B.2.3 Depth, Shape, and Thickness. Floor decks are usually available in
depths of 1 1/2 in., 2 in., and 3 in. (76.2 mm). Corrugated metal floor
decks of 1/2 in. or more depth are used with cast-in-place concrete
slabs over closely spaced open web joists. Refer to (31.3) for information
about commercially available depths, flute configurations, and thicknesses.

B.2.4 Concrete Slabs Composite with Steel Deck. Additional economy can
be achieved by using a composite type of steel deck to serve both as a form
and as the bottom reinforcement in the concrete slab. These decks achieve
shear connection by the use of special stampings in the sides of the deck
flutes or by re-entrant type deck flutes that become more tightly gripped
when the concrete shrinks. When the deck serves as the bottom slab
reinforcing, the only other reinforcing in the slab often is a relatively
light weld wire mesh. Minimum deck thickness should be 22 gage, and the deck
should be galvanized.

Composite metal deck should not be used where the deck is exposed
to chloride attack. This may occur from the top through cracks. In view of
this, composite decks should not be used in parking structures in zones
where highway salts are used, unless the owner is prepared to seal any cracks
in the slab promptly and to maintain a protected top surface of the slab.
Also, such parking decks should have free drainage and should be
washed down at suitable intervals.

35
B.2.5 Use of Shoring. Composite metal deck is often selected such that
deck shoring is not required during concrete placement. If shoring is used,
a shallower or lighter deck may be adequate, and the weight and cost of
additional concrete required because of deck deflection are reduced. It
should be noted, however, that if the deck is shored during concrete
placement, the negative moment produced by the weight of the deck (after
removal of shoring) will cause significant flexural tension over the beams
and may result in increased slab cracking. When the deck is shored, the slab
should be reinforced for the negative moment.

B.2.6 Fireproofing. Metal deck and concrete slab assemblies, including

composite deck systems, can attain significant fire ratings without
additional protection from sprayed-on fireproofing or ceiling membranes.
Also, the use of lightweight slab concrete permits a thinner slab and,
generally, a more cost-effective structural system. Contact deck
manufacturers for ratings of typical deck assemblies - refer to (31.3).

B.2.7 Use with Composite Concrete Slab and Steel Beams. Metal deck,
including galvanized deck, may be used in composite slab-beam systems, if
account is taken in the composite beam design of the effect of deck
profile. The shear connectors usually employed are headed studs, resistance
welded through the deck. The type of stud and its application system should
be matched to the type of deck being used.

B.2.8 Edges. Screed angles at slab edges and openings often may be
either rolled steel or cold-formed steel, connected by puddle welding. It is
often more economical if they are cold-formed steel, furnished and installed
by the metal deck contractor.

B.2.9 Fastening Method. Fastening methods available are screws and welds
(and for joining side laps of adjacent slabs, "button-punching"). For decks
that must resist large diaphragm forces, welding may be the only acceptable
method, but generally the contractor should be permitted to use his option,
refer to (31.1). Also, note that the use of powder-actuated fasteners in
diaphragm decks is restricted to structures in Seismic Zones 0 or 1 and to
locations with design wind velocity less than 100 miles (160.9 km) per hour
in Section 5-6 of (38.17).

B.2.10 Deck Attachments. Ceiling hanger tabs and insulation clips should
be designed and specified by the trade that will use them. Ceiling hanger
tabs manufactured by cutting the deck and deforming short strips into
integral tabs are suitable only to support very light loads.

B.3 Composite Concrete Slab - Steel Beam Construction.

B.3.1 Design. Composite concrete slab - steel beam framing systems are
designed under the AISC Specifications in references (2.2) or (2.6). The
depth and type of metal deck profile must be taken into account in the
design. The AISC Specifications also permit the use of "partially"
composite designs.

36
B.3.2 Economy. Composite beams are economical compared to non-composite
beams for longer spans, wider bay spacings, and heavier loads. A general
rule of thumb is that at least 6 pounds (2.24 kg) of total beam weight should
be saved for each stud required for composite action. Refer to A Guide to
Economical Practices in Steel Design and Construction published by the
Structural Steel Fabricators of New England (35). Partial composite design,
50 to 75 percent of full composite design, is often the most
cost-effective design. Except for very heavy members, it is usually not
economical to use coverplates on the bottom flange to reduce the rolled
section weight with composite design. Also in bridge beams, the use of
coverplates may promote brittle cracking at points where they terminate.

B.3.3 Shored Construction. Temporary shoring during concrete placement

is usually not required for strength, although it is sometimes used for
deflection control. It is sometimes used to allow the economical use of high
strength steel and to avoid the need for cambering beams. However, if beams
are shored during concrete placement, the dead load will cause large tensile
stresses and probable cracking of the concrete at the ends of beams and
girders. These stresses can be avoided by designing the composite system
without the need for shoring. However, if shoring is required, potential
slab cracking can be controlled by adequate slab reinforcing in the negative
moment regions.

B.3.4 Camber and Deflection Control. Unshored composite beams deflect

more than comparable non-composite beams because of their lighter weight.
This may result in excessive deflection and ponding of wet concrete with long
span beams. If the surfaces of slabs are held level, it also results in a
significant increase in the weight and cost of the slab concrete as a result
of the increased slab thickness near midspan. Beams may be cambered when
dead load deflection control is needed. This may require a study of trade-
offs between the cost of extra concrete, the cost of cambering beams, and
the cost of shoring and extra negative reinforcing.

B.3.5 Floor Openings. Significant floor openings in the midspan

vicinity of composite beams may reduce or eliminate the benefits of
composite construction. In some types of structures, such as some
industrial buildings, the possible introduction of future openings should be
considered.

B.3.6 Stud Installation. Studs are normally installed in the field.

Proper studs and accessories shall be specified for each installation.
Special ferrules are required for through-the-deck installations.

B.3.7 Partially Restrained End Connections. In braced frames and in

some low unbraced frames, the use of partially restrained end connections
may offer additional economy and advantages in composite structures with
longer spans. The moment resisting end connections reduce deflections
during concrete placement, as well as reducing the size of beams required
to support construction loads without shoring, and total loads as composite
members. Such design requires information about the moment-rotation behavior
of the end connections and should be based on (2.6).

37
 In zones of high seismicity, partially restrained connections that
do not develop the full moment resistance of the steel member connected may
not be permitted. Refer to (38.17) for requirements before considering
partially restrained moment connections in lateral force resisting frames.

B.4 High Strength Steels.

B.4.1 Economy. In large projects, high strength steels such as ASTM

A-572 may prove economical, in comparison with ASTM A-36, for heavily loaded
columns and for girders and beams of moderate to long span where beam size is
governed by strength and not stiffness for deflection or drift control. The
availability of such steels may be limited to mill orders and mill extras
for quantity, length, and shape and may be factors in the cost comparison.

B.4.2 Corrosion Resistance. Certain high strength steels are known as

weathering steels (ASTM A-588 and certain alloys in ASTM A-242). These have
improved resistance to weathering in some environments and sometimes may be
left uncoated in atmospheres where all parts of the surface can dry out at
least intermittently. It should be noted that structures constructed of
weathering steel may experience severe crevice corrosion at bolted
connections, resulting in premature or unexpected failure of the joints;
therefore, close attention must be paid to the design and fabrication of
these joints, refer to para. 5.2.5.

B.4.3 Fracture Toughness. Certain high strength steels, particularly ASTM

A-588, A-441, and A-572, have improved fracture toughness, making them more
suitable than conventional ASTM A-36 steel for use in low-temperature service
and for cyclic and impact loading. Note, however, that resistance to
brittle fracture is also a function of detailing and welding practice and
stress level. Fracture toughness of ASTM A-36 steel can also be improved by
specifying steel that is kilned and made to fine grain practice. Refer to
para. 5.4.1 for further guidance.

B.5 Cantilevered Framing.

B.5.1 Description and Use. In cantilever framing systems, roof beams are
cantilevered over the tops of columns and extended approximately to the
theoretical point in the adjacent spans that will produce equal positive and
negative moments in the cantilevered beams. Simple beams are suspended
between the cantilevered ends of beams from adjacent spans in alternate bays.
Unbalances (patterns) in design roof snow or live loads should be considered
when establishing the optimum length of cantilevers. This system produces
significant weight savings in steel roof framing systems and permits simple
fabrication and fast and safe erection. It is less suited to floor
construction because it precludes the use of 2- and 3-tiered columns.
Furthermore, economy is reduced with the need to consider full pattern live
loads in floor structures. Finally, floor framing is typically designed to
be simply supported when composite beams are used, unless unbraced frames are
used for lateral force resistance.

38
B.5.2 Lateral Bracing. When cantilevered framing is used, stiffeners
should usually be provided in the beam web over the column flanges to extend
sufficient lateral bending stiffness to the bracing plane at roof level.
Lateral bracing is sometimes provided at the top of the column (bottom of
cantilever beam) by extending the bottom chords of an adjacent joist or other
means. Additional lateral bracing of the lower compression flange of the
cantilever beam away from the column line may or may not be needed, depending
on beam depth and cantilever length.

B.6 Framing Systems for Lateral Load Resistance.

B.6.1 Typical Systems. Framing systems for lateral load resistance are
either:

1) Braced frames with diagonals that provide vertical truss

action.

2) Unbraced frames with fully rigid or partially rigid moment

resisting connections.

3) "Tube" systems for tall buildings that involve the full

perimeter structure of the building in lateral force resistance. In a tube
system, the exterior wall framing resists the lateral forces using diagonal
braces or closely spaced columns with deep spandrels. In a "tube-in-tube"
system, a braced interior stair and elevator core structure provides
additional lateral resistance.

4) Shear walls (reinforced concrete, reinforced masonry, or stiff

steel plate) with pin-jointed frames, or used in concert with rigid jointed
frames.

B.6.2 Economy. The choice of the most cost effective framing systems for
lateral load resistance depends greatly on functional requirements, the
height and base dimensions of the building, and the degree of lateral
resistance required. In general, braced frame systems with AISC Type 2
(simple) connections are the most economical for all building heights, but
their required diagonal members are sometimes incompatible with functional or
aesthetic requirements. Shear wall systems with AISC Type 2 steel frames are
theoretically efficient for moderate heights. If the shear wall is
reinforced concrete or reinforced masonry, the requirement that different
types of construction progress at the same rate may reduce the efficiency of
steel erection. This can be mitigated by incorporating steel members in the
shear walls that permit erection of the steel ahead of the walls, or by
constructing the shear walls ahead of the steel frame erection using slip
forming or jump forming techniques. Unbraced rigid jointed frames probably
result in the highest cost steel frame of the above types, but allow the
greatest functional and aesthetic flexibility to the architectural design.
The most economical moment resisting frame for moderate height buildings
probably is the system described in para. B.6.4. However, this type of frame
may not be permitted in zones of high seismicity, refer to (38.17).

39
B.6.3 Drift Control and Frame Stability. Drift is the horizontal
deflection of a tall building frame resulting from lateral loads - wind or
earthquake. The maximum permissible drift is not specified in building codes
or national design standards such as those referenced herein.
However, (38.17) limits story drift produced by seismic design loads to 0.005
times story height. In the other standards, the drift limit is left up to
the judgment of the design engineer. This limit should be a function of the
probable effects of drift on frame stability, and the potential damage to
non-structural components such as cladding, interior partitions and piping,
and the stiffening expected from non-structural elements such as permanent
interior walls.

Significant drift increases the forces that act on both braced

frames and unbraced frames. Traditional limits on drift control may not
provide adequate frame stability in some structures, particularly in
unbraced frames where some joints between beams and columns are not moment
resisting. These columns, termed "leaner" columns, depend on the frames with
moment resisting joints for their stability. Current design standards do
not provide guidance for design of frames with "leaner" columns, nor for the
investigation of the effects of drifts in slender braced frames. Guidance
for design or investigation of such systems may be found in (2.42) and
(2.60).

The increased moments produced by the interaction of drift and

vertical load, commonly termed the P-effect, also cause increased moments in
girders that frame into columns with moment resisting joints. Again, these
are not covered in current design standards, but they should be considered
in, design of girders in unbraced frames, as described in (2.42) and (2.60).

Most columns in tall buildings are considered stressed in the

inelastic range for design purposes. This results in a higher relative ratio
of girder-to-column stiffness than indicated in the current AISC
Specification. This increases the stability of columns in an unbraced frame
over that determined using design aids in the AISC Specifications. The
effect of inelastic behavior of columns can be taken into account using
procedures given in Disque, R., Inelastic K-factor for Column Design (2.30).

B.6.4 Frames Designed Based on Type 2 (AISC) Connections for Vertical

Loads and Moment Resisting Connections for Wind Load. These are frames
designed with moment resisting connections sized only for moments caused by
wind load, as described in (2.16). Beams are generally sized for effects of
vertical loads acting as simply supported beams unless wind moments require
larger beams. Many steel framed buildings with moment resisting connections
have been designed using this simple assumption. These designs are usually
an economical solution, if an unbraced frame is required for buildings of low
to intermediate height.

In frames with partially rigid connections, the design unbraced

lengths of columns should be increased because of the effects of partial
joint restraint. A suggested procedure is given in (2.32). Also,

40
if all connections in the framed system are not moment resisting, the
"leaner" columns with pin-jointed beams must be braced by the other frames,
requiring a further increase in the unbraced lengths of columns in the
frames and a special review of frame stability. Refer to (2.42) and (2.60).

Note that these types of partially rigid frames may not be

permitted in zones of high seismicity, refer to (38.17).

B.7 Tubular Sections for Columns and Other Members.

B.7.1 Types and Sizes. Rectangular and circular tubes are readily
available in sizes from 3 in. (76.2 mm) up to 12 in. (304.8 mm) in 36 ksi
yield material. Larger rectangular sections are sometimes available up to 16
x 16 in. (406.4 mmý) and 20 x 12 in. (508 mm x 304.8 mm), as are tubes
manufactured with 46 and 50 ksi yield material. Availability should be
checked with local fabricators.

B.7.2 Economy. Tubular sections may show competitive costs with wide
flange sections for low-rise building columns, while offering the following
advantages: higher capacity for the same weight section due to more
efficient shape as compression member, less painting and simpler
fireproofing, easier to incorporate in metal stud walls, and more attractive
appearance. Tubular sections show the best economy when connection
requirements are simple. Refer to White, R., Framing Connections for Square
and Rectangular Structural Tubing (2.59). Tubular sections are also
efficient for members subject to loads perpendicular to each axis, or loads
that produce torsion. They also have been used in various large
prefabricated trusses and three-dimensional space frame structures where the
jointing system (usually proprietary) is the principal factor determining
cost effectiveness of the usage. Refer to Bouwkamp, J., Considerations in
the Design of Large-Size Welded Tubular Truss Joints (2.22)

B.8 Beam Web Openings. The depth of a floor system can sometimes be
minimized by designing beams with web openings for HVAC ducts. This is
generally cost effective only if these openings do not require web
reinforcement. The cost of web openings increases significantly where
reinforcing is required. Refer to (2.23), (2.50) and (2.51) for design
guidance.

B.9 Fabrication Considerations. Economy can be promoted without loss

of required performance by incorporating design requirements that promote
efficient fabrication and erection and eliminate unnecessarily complex
details. The following recommendations are a checklist of some commonly
accepted means of reducing the cost of structural steel fabrication without a
loss in required performance. See reference (35) for further discussion of
economical practices in steel construction.

B.9.1 Size of Components. Design large components to be shop fabricated

to the maximum extent possible. Components such as trusses are

41
significantly more economical to assemble in the shop than in the field.
This requires consideration of the envelope of maximum sizes of components
that can be fabricated in the shop and shipped to the field as large
assemblies. Typically, components up to 12 to 14 ft. (3.66 to 4.27 m) in
width and 80 to 150 ft. (24.38 to 45.72 m) in length can be shipped with
special procedures and scheduling.

B.9.2 Connections. To the extent practicable, allow the fabricator

leeway to select fastener type, size, and details for connections. This
enables him to take into account the equipment and other conditions that
result in economical connections for fabrication in his shop. The
fabricator's designs should be based on reactions and design criteria
specified by the design engineer or on standard connections for the beam
sizes shown on the design drawings, where permitted by the design engineer.
Refer to (2.18) for predesigned bolted framing angle connections. The
design engineer should provide complete details on the structural contract
drawings for unusual or special connections. Other considerations that can
reduce the cost of connections include:

a) Use fillet welds rather than welds requiring edge preparation.

b) Use longer single pass fillet welds (up to 5/16 in. (7.94 mm))
rather than equivalent shorter welds requiring multiple passes.

c) Use partial penetration welds where adequate, rather than a

universal requirement for complete penetration welds.

d) Where intermittent fillet welds are appropriate, space welds so

that their center-to-center distance is at least twice their length.

e) Minimize the number of different bolt types, sizes, and gages

on a project.

f) Maintain the same bolt type, size, and gage on a steel piece.

g) Permit the use of single angle connections or shear plate

connections where appropriate for light loads and where properly designed.
Refer to Disque, R. and Young, N., Design Aids for Single Plate Framing
Connections (2.31); reference (2.33); Richard, R., Kriegh, J., and Hornby,
D., Design of Single Plate Framing Connections with A-307 Bolts (2.52); and
Richard, R., Gillet, P., Kreigh, J., and Lewis, B., The Analysis and Design
of Single Plate Framing Connections (2.53) for guidance.

h) Use "bearing type" high-strength bolted connections for joints

where slip is permissible (these include components not subject to
vibrations or to reversing loads) because of the increased bolt capacity
relative to "friction type" connections.

B.9.3 Stiffeners. Stiffeners should be designed in accordance with

requirements in design standards. The use of oversize stiffeners results in
unnecessary welding. Trimming of stiffeners should not be required unless

42
necessary. Snipping to clear fillets in rolled shapes should be permitted.
When partial depth beam and column stiffeners are adequate, they should be
used instead of full depth fitted stiffeners. In some cases, it is cost
effective to select a column with increased weight and increased flange
thickness sufficient to eliminate the need for stiffeners in the column. A
general rule is that the cost of 250 to 300 pounds (113.4 to 136.1 kg) of
increased column shaft weight is equivalent to the cost of a pair of
eliminated stiffeners. Refer to (35).

B.9.4 Splices and Coverplates. Columns in multistory buildings are

usually fabricated in 2- or 3-tier lengths. Although this usually results in
some excess weight in the upper tiers, offsetting benefits are obtained from
ease of erection, from eliminating splices, from reducing or eliminating
stiffeners with a thicker flange, and from greater standardization of floor
framing in details otherwise identical in each floor. A general rule is that
the cost of each column splice is equivalent to the cost of about 400 pounds
(181.44 kg) of column weight, refer to (35). Another option, seldom used, is
to increase the weight of lower-tier columns by adding coverplates. The
fabricator may be given the option to eliminate or modify splice locations
shown on the structural drawings and to optimize the use of column
coverplates.

B.9.5 Curved Members and Bent Plates. Steel rolled shapes may be curved
about either axis, but there are limits to the length of members and radius
of curvature that differ with locality. Also, cold bends are typically
limited to a curvature that produces no more than 12-percent elongation at
extreme fibers.

Plates may be bent to obtain cold-formed shapes, but plate

thickness and configuration are limited by available fabrication equipment.
Check limits with local fabricators.

B.9.6 Lengthwise Trimming. Trimming a rolled section, such as an angle,

lengthwise is costly and may result in warping.

B.9.7 Detail Material. When high-strength steel is used for main

members, the fabricator should be given the option of designing details such
as connections and stiffeners using ASTM A-36 steel or of using the high-
strength steel of the main members. Normally, ASTM A-36 steel is preferred
for detail material, refer to (35).

B.9.8 Surface Treatment. Surface preparation and shop painting

requirements should reflect the performance requirements for the expected
exposure conditions. Do not require painting for steel to be embedded in
concrete (except where exposure to chlorides is anticipated). Allow the
fabricator's standard shop cleaning and paint coat for steel to be erected in
normal exterior atmospheres for structures that will be enclosed without
undue delay. Shop paint must be compatible with finish paint, if used, or
with sprayed-on fireproofing or membrane fireproofing. Do not specify lead-
based shop primers. Require surface preparation by blast cleaning and
special paint systems only for severe exterior exposures such as in bridges,
parking structures, water tanks, water pipe, and other structures exposed to

43
aggressive environments, (2.12) and (33.1). Also follow applicable Navy
guide specifications.

B.10 Erection and Field Assembly. Economy is promoted by designing for

ease of erection and field assembly.

B.10.1 Shop Assembly vs. Field Assembly. Shop labor costs are generally
lower than field labor costs. The availability of equipment for handling and
for automated assembly also greatly increases the efficiency of shop
assembled components, refer to para. B.9.1.

B.10.2 Anchor Bolts. Anchor bolt layouts should be kept simple with
uniform sizes and spacings throughout the project. The possibility of errors
will be reduced when the fewest number of anchor bolt and base plate sizes
are used. A careful check of the location and spacing of all anchor bolts
should be required prior to the start of steel erection. Hole diameters for
anchor bolts usually are specified 1/8 to 1/4-in. (3.10 to 6.35 mm) oversize
for tolerance in setting of anchor bolts.

B.10.3 Leveling Devices. Preset 1/4-in. (6.35 mm)-thick steel leveling

plates under column base plates can facilitate speed and safety in erection
of light columns with shop-welded base plates. Leveling plates promote the
safe erection of columns compared to the use of shims or wedges that may be
knocked out. However, NAVFAC guide specifications require the grouting or
drypacking of column base plates after the steel is plumbed and bolted. This
requirement precludes the grouting or dry packing of leveling plates.

Larger columns with base plates that are grouted after the steel is
plumbed and the bolted connections tightened require the use of leveling nuts
and/or steel shims below the base plates. Leveling nuts are practical and
cost effective for medium-sized base plates, but require at least four anchor
bolts per column base, with proper spacing to develop adequate stabilizing
moment restraint. They also require supplementary steel shims if the weight
of steel and other structures to be erected prior to grouting exceeds the
safe compressive capacity of the nuts, threads, or anchor bolts.

Larger column bases over about 36 in. (914.4 mm) in maximum plan
dimension frequently are shipped separately and pre-set. Grout holes are
sometimes provided along with special leveling devices.

B.10.4 Bolted Field Connections. Bolted field connections are usually

preferred, except for connections that must transfer large direct forces
(such as large moment connections or flange splices), where either bolted or
welded connections may be more economical, depending on local conditions.
Generally, high-strength bolts, see ASTM A-325-85, Standard Specification for
High-Strength Bolts for Structural Steel Joints (10.8), should be used,
rather than ASTM A-307 bolts, because their higher capacity permits fewer
bolts. ASTM A-307-84, Standard Specification for Carbon Steel-Threaded
Standard Fasteners, (10.7) may be economical for small structures.
When ASTM A-325 bolts are used, bearing type connections are generally more
economical because of higher allowable capacity, allowance of paint
on faying surfaces, and reduced inspection requirements. Bearing type

44
connections should be specified unless loads are reversing (such as in wind
and seismic frames in buildings) or cyclic (such as in highway and railway
bridges) or unless oversized holes are used, in which case friction type
bolts should be specified. The fabricator and the erector jointly should be
given the option of using a torque-control (twist-off) type of bolt that may
reduce installation labor costs. Torque-control bolts or load-indicating
washers may have a higher contractor cost, but improve reliability at reduced
inspection costs where friction bolts are required.

Bolt installation specifications as contained in (2.4) now permit

the installation of bearing-type, high-strength bolts by tightening to a
snug-tight condition in connections where slip can be permitted and where
loosening or fatigue due to vibration or load fluctuations are not design
considerations. The snug-tight condition is defined as the tightness
attained by a few impacts of an impact wrench or by the full effort of a man
using an ordinary spud wrench. Bolts that need to be tightened only to the
snug-tight condition must be clearly defined on the design and erection
drawings.

Oversized (slotted) holes are sometimes used to facilitate

tolerances in erection. Such use should be limited to situations where the
extra tolerance is required, such as for reinforcement of, or additions to,
existing structures and other special conditions. Standard holes (bolt
diameter plus 1/16 in.) (1.59 mm) should usually be required for girder and
spandrel connections to columns, in order to control more accurately the
plumbness and dimensions between column centers. Blind (open) holes may be
permitted when extra holes are detailed for the purpose of simplifying the
detailing of identical members with opposite hand connections, or to
facilitate the choice of alternate locations for bolting in areas of
difficult access.

B.10.5 Field Welding. Avoid or minimize connection details that require

overhead or vertical field welds, if other arrangements are available.
Consider the use of partial penetration welds rather than full penetration
groove welds in column splices, when permitted by the design standards.
Minimize the use of field welding on small-to-medium sized projects where the
quality control and assurance required for field welding increase the
relative cost of welded connections compared to bolted connections.

B.11 Tolerances and Standard Practice. The AISC Code of Standard

Practice (2.3) covers tolerances and standard fabrication and erection
practice. AISC, Quality Criteria and Inspection Standards (2.13) provide
additional guidance. Provisions in NAVFAC guide specifications shall take
precedence in the event of conflicts with these references.

45
PAGE 46 IS INTENTIONALLY BLANK
 BIBLIOGRAPHY

Naval Facilities Engineering Command - Naval Facilities Guide Specifications

(NFGS) - and Technical Specifications (TS) - copies can be obtained from the
U.S. Naval Publications and Forms Center, 5801 Tabor Avenue, Philadelphia,
PA 19120

NFGS-02368 Rolled Steel Section Piles

NFGS-02369.1 Steel Sheet Piles

NFGS-05120 Structural Steel

NFGS-05210 Steel Joists

NFGS-05311 Steel Roof Decking

TS-05321 Steel Floor Decks with Amendment-1

NFGS-05400 Cold-Formed Metal Framing

NFGS-05500 Metal Fabrications

NFGS-09100 Metal Support Systems

NFGS-13411 Water Storage Tanks

NFGS-15176 Steel Tanks with Fixed Roofs

General Services Administration - Federal Specification copies can be

obtained from General Services Administration, 7th & D Streets, SW,
Washington, DC 20407.

RR-W-410D Wire Rope and Strand

47
PAGE 48 IS INTENTIONALLY BLANK
 REFERENCES

1. American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials

(AASHTO) specifications, 444 North Capitol St., NW., Washington,
DC 20004.

1.1 Standard Specifications for Highway Bridges, 13th Edition,

1983, with annual updates.

2. American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC) specifications,

manuals, technical papers from Engineering Journal, and books, 400
North Michigan Avenue, Chicago, IL 60611-4185.

2.1 Standard Specification for Manual of Steel Construction,

8th Edition, 1980, and Load and Resistance Factor Design
Manual of Steel Construction, First Edition, 1986.
2.2 Standard Specification for the Design, Fabrication, and
Erection of Structural Steel for Buildings, with
Commentary, 1978.
2.3 Standard Specification for Code of Standard Practice for
Steel Buildings and Bridges, 1976.
2.4 Standard Specification for Structural Joints Using ASTM
A325 or A490 Bolts, 1985 (approved by Research Council on
Structural Connections and endorsed by AISC).
2.5 Standard Specification for Plastic Design of Braced
Multistory Steel Frames, 1968.
2.6 Load and Resistance Factor Design Specification for
Structural Steel Buildings, 1986.
2.7 Standard Specification for Detailing for Steel
Construction, 1983.
2.8 Standard Specification for Torsional Analysis of Steel
Members, 1983.
2.9 Standard Specification for Engineering for Steel
Construction, 1984.
2.10 Standard Specification for Iron and Steel Beams 1873-1952,
1953.
2.11 Standard Specification for Design Manual for Orthotropic
Steel Plate Deck Bridges, 1963.
2.12 Standard Specification for A Guide to the Shop Painting of
Structural Steel, 1972.
2.13 Standard Specification for Quality Criteria and Inspection
Standards, 2nd Ed., 1980.
2.14 Standard Specification for Bridge Fatigue Guide Design and
Details, 1977.
2.15 Fisher, J. and Buettner, D., Standard Specification for
Light and Heavy Industrial Buildings (1979).
2.16 Type 2 Construction with Wind Moment Connections, A Return
to Simplicity. (No date.)
AISC Engineering Journal - Technical Papers that Give Aids for
Practical Design (see 20 Year Index 1964-1983)

49
2.17 AISC, Commentary on Highly Restrained Welded Connections,
3rd Quarter, 1973.
2.18 AISC, Predesigned Bolted Framing Angle Connections, 1st
Quarter, 1982.
2.19 Bakota, J., Mill Building Design Procedures, 4th Quarter,
1977.
2.20 Birkemoe, P., and Gilmore, M., Behavior of Bearing Critical
Double Angle Beam Connections, 4th Quarter, 1978.
2.21 Blodgett, D., Detailing to Achieve Practical Welded
Fabrication, 4th Quarter, 1980.
2.22 Bouwkamp, J., Considerations in the Design of Large-Size
Welded Tubular Truss Joints, July 1965.
2.23 Bower, J., Recommended Design Procedures for Beams with Web
Openings, Oct. 1971.
2.24 Brockenbrough, R., Considerations in the Design of Bolted
Joints for Weathering Steel, 1st Quarter, 1983.
2.25 Buchert, K., Buckling of Framed Domes, Oct. 1965.
2.26 Buchert, K., Space Frame Buckling, Oct. 1968.
2.27 Burgett, L., Fast Check for Ponding, 1st Quarter, 1973.
2.28 Chinn, J., Failure of Simply-Supported Flat Roofs by
Ponding of Rain, April 1963.
2.29 DeFalco, F. and Marino, F., Column Stability in Type 2
Construction, April 1966; Errata, July 1966.
2.30 Disque, R., Inelastic K-factor for Column Design, 2nd
Quarter, 1973.
2.31 Disque, R. and Young, N., Design Aids for Single Plate
Framing Connections, 4th Quarter, 1981.
2.32 Driscoll, G., Effective Length of Columns with Semi-Rigid
Connections, 4th Quarter, 1981.
2.33 Driscoll, G. and Beedle, L., Suggestions for Avoiding
Beam-to-Column Web Connection Failure, 1st Quarter, 1982.
2.34 Fisher, J., Design of Composite Beams with Formed Metal
Deck, July 1970; Discussion, Oct., 1970.
2.35 Fisher, J., Structural Details in Industrial Buildings, 3rd
Quarter, 1981; Discussion, 2nd Quarter, 1982.
2.36 Fisher, J., Grant, J. and Slutter, R., Composite Beams with
Formed Steel Deck, 1st Quarter, 1977.
2.37 Fling, R., Design of Steel Bearing Plates, April, 1970.
2.38 Hawkins, N. and Roeder, C., Connections Between Steel
Frames and Concrete Walls, 1st Quarter, 1981.
2.39 Hawkins, N., Mitchell, D. and Roeder, C., Moment Resisting
Connections for Mixed Construction, 1st Quarter, 1980.
2.40 Johnston, B., Design of W-Shapes for Combined Bending and
Torsion, 2nd Quarter, 1982.
2.41 Lally, A. and Milek, W., Bridge Construction Details, Jan.
1969.
2.42 LeMessurier, W., A Practical Method of Second Order
Analysis/Part 1 - Pin Jointed Systems, 4th Quarter, 1976;
Part 2 - Unbraced Frames, 2nd Quarter, 1977.
2.43 Lenzen, K., Vibration of Steel Joist Concrete Slab Floors,
July, 1966.

50
 2.44 Lorenz, R., Some Economic Considerations for Composite
Floor Beams, 2nd Quarter, 1983.
2.45 Marino, F., Ponding of Two-Way Roof Systems, July, 1966.
2.46 Mueller, J., Lessons from Crane Runways, Jan., 1965.
2.47 Murray, T., Acceptability Criterion for Occupant-Induced
Floor Vibrations, 2nd Quarter, 1981.
2.48 Murray, T., Design to Prevent Floor Vibrations, 3rd
Quarter, 1975.
2.49 Murray, T., and Hendrick, W., Floor Vibrations and
Cantilevered Construction, 3rd Quarter, 1977.
2.50 Redwood, R., Simplified Plastic Analysis for Reinforced Web
Holes, Oct. 1971.
2.51 Redwood, R., Tables for Plastic Design of Beams with
Rectangular Holes, Jan. 1972.
2.52 Richard, R., Kriegh, J. and Hornby, D., Design of Single
Plate Framing Connections with A-307 Bolts, 4th Quarter,
1982.
2.53 Richard, R., Gillet, P., Kriegh, J. and Lewis, B., The
Analysis and Design of Single Plate Framing Connections,
2nd Quarter, 1980.
2.54 Ricker, D., Tips for Avoiding Crane Runway Problems, 4th
Quarter, 1982.
2.55 Rolfe, S., Fracture and Fatigue Control in Steel
Structures, 1st Quarter, 1977.
2.56 Shipp, J. and Haninger, E. Design of Headed Anchor Bolts,
2nd Quarter, 1983.
2.57 Stevens, D. and Odom, G., The Steel Framed Dome, Oct. 1963.
2.58 Thornton, W., Prying Action - A General Treatment, 2nd
Quarter, 1985.
2.59 White, R., Framing Connections for Square and Rectangular
Structural Tubing, July 1965.
2.60 Yura, J., The Effective Length of Columns in Unbraced
Frames, April 1971; Discussion, Jan. 1972.

3. American Iron and Steel Institute, (AISI) manuals, handbooks and

other design aids, 1000 16th Street, NW., Washington, DC 20036.

3.1 CSI Spec Data - Stainless Steel, 1976.

3.2 Standard Specification for Cold-Formed Steel Design Manual,
1983. Includes Specification for Design of Cold-Formed
Steel Structural Members.
3.3 Design Guidelines for the Selection and Use of Stainless
Steel, 1977.
3.4 Standard Specification for Fire-Resistant Steel Frame
Construction, 2nd Ed., 1974.
3.5 Handbook of Corrosion Protection for Steel Pile Structures
in Marine Environment, 1st Ed., 1981.
3.6 Handbook of Steel Drainage and Highway Construction
Projects, 1983.
3.7 Sherman, D.R., Tentative Criteria for Structural
Applications of Steel Tubing and Pipe, with Errata, 1977.
3.8 Stainless Steel Cold-Formed Structural Design Manual, 1974.

51
 3.9 Stainless Steel Fasteners - A Systematic Approach to Their
Selection, 1976.
3.10 Stainless Steel Stone Anchors, 1975.
3.11 Steel Tanks for Liquid Storage, Volume 1 in the series
Steel Plate Engineering Data, 1982.
3.12 Useful Information on the Design of Plate Structures,
Volume 2 in the series "Steel Plate Engineering Data, 1985.

4. American National Standards Institute, Inc., (ANSI) - 1430

Broadway, New York, NY 10018

4.1 ANSI A58.1-82. Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and

Other Structures.

5. American Petroleum Institute, (API) - ANSI/API Standards - 1220 L

Street, NW., Washington, DC 20005.

5.1 Standard 620-82 Recommended Rules for Revision Design and

Construction of Large, Welded, Low-Pressure Storage Tanks.
5.2 Standard 650-80 Welded Steel Tanks for Oil Storage, 1984.

6. American Railway Engineering Association, (AREA) manual, Chicago,

IL 60605.

6.1 Manual for Railway Engineering (Fixed Properties)

7. American Society of Civil Engineers, (ASCE) specifications,

committee reports and technical articles, 345 East 47th St., New
York, NY 10017-2398.

7.1 Design and Construction of Steel Chimney Liners, 1975.

7.2 Plastic Design in Steel.
7.3 Specifications for the Design and Construction of Composite
Slabs, with Commentary, 1985.
7.4 Nelson, J. T., Blazier, W. E., and Saurenman, H. J., Site
Selection and Building Design for Minimizing Vibration, in
Noise and Vibration Measurement: Prediction and Mitigation
Proceedings of an ASCE Symposium, 1985.
7.5 Richart, F. E., Foundation Vibrations, Trans. ASCE, 1962,
Vol. 127, Part 1, pp. 863-898.
7.6 Ungar, E. E., and Gordon, C. G., Cost-Effective Design of
Practically Vibration-Free High Technology Facilities, in
Noise and Vibration Measurements: Prediction and
Mitigation, Proceedings of an ASCE Symposium, 1985.
7.7 Wright, D.T., Membrane Forces and Buckling in Reticulated
Shells, ASCE Journal of the Structural Division, February
1965.

52
8. National Association of Corrosion Engineers, 1440 S. Creek Drive,
Houston, TX 77084.

8.1 Corrosion Handbook.

9. American Society of Mechanical Engineers, (ASME) reports and

codes, 345 East 47th Street, New York, NY 10017-2398.

9.1 ASME Report 63-WA-248. Dynamic Response of Tall Stacks to

Wind Excitation.

9.2 ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, Section VIII,

Pressure Vessels Divisions I and II, 1983.
9.3 Pressure Vessels and Piping: Design and Analysis, Vol. I,
Analysis, Vol. II, Components and Structural Dynamics, a
compilation of technical papers, 1972.

10. American Society for Testing and Materials, (ASTM) proceedings and
standards, 1916 Race Street, Philadelphia, PA 19103.

10.1 A-36 Standard Specification for Structural Steel

10.2 A-242 Standard Specification for High-Strength
Low-Alloy Structural Steel
10.3 A-263-84 Standard Specification for Corrosion-Resisting
Chromium Steel-Clad Plate, Sheet, and Strip
10.4 A-264-84 Standard Specification for Stainless
Chronium-Nickel Steel-Clad Plate, Sheet and Strip
10.5 A-265-84 Standard Specification for Nickel and Nickel
Base Alloy - Clad Steel Plate
10.6 A-283 Standard Specification for Low and Intermediate
Tensile Strength-Carbon Steel Plates, Shapes,
and Bars
10.7 A-307-84 Standard Specification for Carbon-Steel Bolts
and Studs 60,000 psi tensile
10.8 A-325-85 Standard Specification for High-Strength
Threaded Standard Fasteners
10.9 A-333 Standard Specification for Seamless and Welded
Steel Pipe for Low-Temperature Services
10.10 A-441 Standard Specification for High-Strength
Low-Alloy Structural Manganese Vanadium Steel
10.11 A-475 Standard Specification for Zinc-Coated Steel
Wire Strand
10.12 A-490 Specification for Heat Treated Steel Structural
Bolts, 150 Ksi Minimum Tensile Strength
10.12 A-514 Standard Specification for High-Yield Strength,
Quenched and Tempered Alloy-Steel Plate,
Suitable for Welding
10.13 A-572 Standard Specification for High-Strength
Low-Alloy Columbiun-Vanadium Steels of
Structural Quality

53
 10.14 A-586-81 Standard Specification for Zinc-Coated Parallel
and Helical Steel Wire Structural Strand
10.15 A-588 Standard Specification for High-Strength
Low-Alloy Structural Steel with 50 ksi (345 MPa)
Minimum Yield Point to 4 in. (100 mm) Thick
10.16 A-603-70 Standard Specification for Zinc-Coated Steel
Structural Wire Rope, Specification for
10.17 E-936-83 Standard Practice for Roof System Assemblies
Employing Steel Deck, Preformed Roof Insulation,
and Bituminous Built-Up Roofing

11. American Society for Metals (ASM), Metals Park, OH 44073.

11.1 Source Book on Stainless Steels, 1976.

11.2 Source Book on Industrial Alloy and Engineering Data, 1978.

12. American Water Works Association, AWWA standards and manuals, 6666
West Quincy Ave., Denver, CO 80235.

12.1 D100-79 AWWA Standard for Welded Steel Tanks for Water
Storage, 1979, (Reaffirmed 1984).
12.2 D101-53 AWWA Standard for Inspecting and Repairing Steel
Water Tanks, Standpipes, Reservoirs, and Elevated
Tanks for Water Storage, 1953 (reaffirmed 1979).
12.3 D102-78 AWWA Standard for Painting Steel Water-Storage
Tanks, 1978.
12.4 D103-84 AWWA Standard for Factory-Coated Bolted Steel
Tanks for Water Storage, 1984.

13. American Welding Society (AWS) code and handbook, 2501 N.W. 7th
Street, Miami, FL 33125.

13.1 ANSI/AWS D1.1-26 - Structural Welding Code-Steel, 1986.

13.2 Welding Handbook, 7th Edition, 1973.
Section 1 Fundamentals of Welding
Section 2 Welding Processes: Gas, Arc and Resistance
Section 3 Special Welding Processes and Cutting
Section 4 Metals and Their Weldability
Section 5 Applications of Welding

14. Association of Iron and Steel Engineers, (AISE) guide and

specifications, Pittsburgh, PA.

14.1 Specifications for the Design and Construction of Mill

Buildings, AISE Technical Report No. 13., 1979.
14.2 Specification for Electric Overhead Traveling Cranes for
Steel Mill Service, Standard No. 6, 1969.

54
15. Canadian Institute of Steel Construction, (CISC) report 201
Consumers Rd., Suite 300, Willowdale, Ontario, Canada, M2J 4G8.

15.1 Chien and Ritchie, Design and Construction of Composite

Floor Systems, 1984.

16. Electronic Industries Association (EIA) standard, 2001 Eye Street,

NW., Washington, DC 20006-1807.

16.1 RS-222-C, Structural Standards for Steel Antenna Towers

and Antenna Supporting Structures, March 1976.

17. Factory Mutual (FM) Systems Loss Prevention Data.

17.1 1-28 Insulated Steel Deck.

18. Fisher, John, and Struik, John, Design Criteria for Bolted and
Riveted Joints, John Wiley & Sons, 1974.

19. Gaylord, E.H., & Gaylord, C.N., Design of Steel Bins for Storage
of Bulk Solids, Prentice-Hall, 1984.

20. Gaylord, E.H. & Gaylord, C.N., Section 26, - "Chimneys", in

Structural Engineering Handbook, McGraw-Hill, Book Company, New
York, NY., 1968.

21. Harris, C. M., Handbook of Noise Control, Chapter 18, 2nd Edition,
McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York, NY, 1979.

22. Harris, C. M. and Crede, C. E., Shock and Vibration Handbook,

Chapter 44, 2nd Edition, McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York, NY,
1976.

23. IASS recommendation. International Association for Shell and

Spatial Structures, Alfonso XII, 3, Madrid-7, Spain.

23.1 Working Group 4, Recommendations for Guyed Masts, 1981.

24. International Conference of Building Officials, 5360 South Workman

Mill Road, Whittier, CA 90601.

24.1 Uniform Building Code

25. ISO, International Organization for Standardization, ISO Central

Secretariat, Case postale 56, CH-1211 Geneve 20, Switzerland.

25.1 Standard ISO 2631-1978, Guide for the Evaluation of Human

Exposure to Whole-Body Vibration.

55
26. Industrial Fastener Institute, 1505 East Ohio Building, Cleveland,
OH 44114.

28.1 Tubular Steel Structures - Troitsky, M., 1982.

28.2 The Procedure Handbook of Arc Welding, 12th Edition, 1973.

27. Jones, R.S., Noise and Vibration Control in Buildings, McGraw-Hill

Book Company, New York, NY 1984.

28. James F. Lincoln Arc Welding Foundation - technical books.

27.1 Tubular Steel Structures, Troitsky, M., 1982.

27.2 The Procedure Handbook of Arc Welding, 12th Edition, 1973.

29. Metal Building Manufacturers Association, MBMA specifications,

manuals and technical books. 1230 Keith Building, Cleveland, OH
44115-2180.

29.1 Crane Manual for Metal Building Systems, 1982.

29.2 Lee, G., Ketter, R., and Hsu, T., Design of Single Story
Rigid Frames, 1981.
29.3 Low Rise Building Systems Manual, 1986.

30. National Science Foundation, Building Research Advisory Board

(BRAB), Washington, DC.

30.1 BRAB Technical Report No. 65, Expansion Joints in

Buildings, 1974.

31. Steel Deck Institute (SDI) manuals, P.O. Box 3812, St. Louis, MO
63122.

31.1 Steel Deck Institute Design Manual for Composite Decks,

Form Decks, and Roof Decks, 1985 (Publ 25-85).
31.2 Diaphragm Design Manual, 1st Edition, 1981 (Publ DDM01-82).
31.3 SDI, Inc. File, 1986.

32. Steel Joist Institute (SJI) specifications and technical digests,

1205 48th Avenue N., SUite A, Myrtle Beach, SC 29577.

32.1 Standard Specifications, Load Tables, and Weight Tables

for Steel Joists and Joist Girders - K-Series, LH-Series,
DLH-Series, Joist Girders.
32.2 Standard Specification for Technical Digest #2, Spacing of
Bridging for Open Web Steel Joists, 1970.
32.3 Standard Specification for Technical Digest #3, Structural
Design of Steel Joist Roofs to Resist Ponding Loads, 1971.
32.4 Technical Digest #5, Vibration of Steel Joist - Concrete
Slab Floors. (No date.)
32.5 Technical Digest #6, Structural Design of Steel Joist Roofs
to Resist Uplift Loads. (No date.)

56
 32.6 Technical Digest #7, Fifty-Year Digest - A Compilation of
SJI Specifications and Load Tables, 1928 - 1978.
32.7 Technical Digest #8, Welding of Open Web Steel Joists, 1983.

33. Steel Structures Painting Council (SSPC) specifications and

guides, 4400 Fifth Avenue, Pittsburgh, PA 15213.

33.1 Steel Structures Painting Manual, Good Painting Practice, -

Volume 1, Second Edition, 1982.
33.2 Steel Structures Painting Manual, Systems and
Specifications - Volume 2, Third Edition, 1982.

34. Structural Stability Research Council (SSRC), Fritz Engineering

Lab No. 13, Lehigh University, Bethlehem, PA 18105.

34.1 Guide to Stability Design Criteria for Metal Structures

(edited by Johnston, B.), 3rd Ed., 1976.

35. The Structural Steel Fabricators of New England, A Guide to

Economical Practices in Steel Design and Construction, 1983.

36. Underwriters Laboratories Inc. (UL), 333 Pfingsten Road,

Northbrook, IL 60062.

36.1 UL 142-81, Standard for Steel Aboveground Tanks for

Flammable and Combustible Liquids.
36.2 UL 58-86, Standard for Steel Underground Tanks for
Flammable and Combustible Liquids.
36.3 Fire Resistance Directory, with Hourly Ratings for Beams,
Columns, Floors, Roofs, Walls, and Partitions.

37. U.S. Department of Commerce, National Bureau of Standards. Copies

can be obtained from the National Technical Information Service,
5285 Port Royal, Springfield, VA 22161

37.1 NBS Monograph 127, NBS Papers on Underground Corrosion of

Steel Pilings - 1962-71.
37.2 NBS Circular 579 by M. Romanoff, Underground Corrosion,
1957.

38. U.S. Department of Defense. NAVFAC Design Manuals (DM), Guide

Specifications (NFGS), Maintenance Operations (MO) and Military
Handbooks (MIL-HDBK). Copies can be optained from the U.S. Naval
Publications and Forms Center, Philadelphia, PA 19120. Telephone
number: AUTOVON-442-3321; commercial 215-697-3321.

38.1 Standard Specification for NAVFAC DM-1.05, Roofing and

Waterproofing (Proposed)
38.2 Standard Specification for NAVFAC DM-2.01, Structural
Engineering-General Requirements, 1980.

57
 38.3 Standard Specification for NAVFAC DM-2.02, Structural
Engineering-Loads, 1986.
38.4 Standard Specification for NAVFAC DM-2.04, Structural
Engineering-Concrete Structures, 1986.
38.5 Standard Specification for MIL-HDBK-1002/5, Timber
Structures, 1987.
38.6 Standard Specification for MIL-HDBK-1002/6, Aluminum
Structures, Composite Structures, Structural Plastics, and
Fiber Reinforced Composite, 1987.
38.7 Standard Specification for NAVFAC DM-2.09, Masonry
Structural Design for Buildings (Tri-Service), with Changes
Nos. 1 and 2, 1982.
38.8 Standard Specification for NAVFAC DM-7.01, Soil Mechanics,
1986.
38.9 Standard Specification for NAVFAC DM-7.02, Foundations and
Earth Structures, 1986.
38.10 Standard Specification for NAVFAC DM-7.03, Soil Dynamics,
Deep Stabilization and Special Geotechnical Construction,
1983.
38.11 Standard Specification for NAVFAC DM-22, Petroleum Fuel
Facilities, 1982.
38.12 Standard Specification for NAVFAC DM-25.6, General Criteria
for Waterfront Construction, 1981.
38.13 Standard Specification for NAVFAC DM-39, Hyperbaric
Facilities, 1982.
38.14 Standard Specification for MIL-HDBK-1008, Fire Protection
for Facilities - Engineering, Design and Construction, 1985.
38.15 Standard Specification for NAVFAC DM-50, NAVFAC Index to
Engineering and Design Criteria, 1985.
38.16 Standard Specification for NAVFAC P-34, Engineering and
Design Criteria for Navy Facilities.
38.17 Standard Specification for NAVFAC P-355, Seismic Design for
Buildings (Tri-Service), 1982.
38.18 Standard Specification for NAVFAC P-397, Structures to
Resist the Effects of Accidental Explosions (Tri-Service),
March 1971.
38.20 Standard Specification for NAVFAC MO-110, Painting and
Protective Coatings, 1981.
38.21 Standard Specification for NFGS-13121, Preengineered Metal
Buildings (Rigid Frame)
38.22 Standard Specification for NFGS-13411, Water Storage Tanks

39. U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal Highway Administration,

Office of Engineering, 800 Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC
20590, Washington, D.C.

39.1 FHWA Technical Advisory T5140.13, January 28, 1980,

Integral, No-Joint Structures and Required Provisions for
Movement.

58
 39.2 FHWA Technical Advisory T5140.15, March 26, 1980, Expansion
Devices for Bridges.
39.3 FHWA Technical Advisory T5140.16, March 26, 1980, Bridge
Deck Joint Rehabilitation (Retrofit).

40. WSTI manual. Welded Steel Tube Institute, Inc., Structural Tube
Division, 522 Westgate Tower, Cleveland, OH 44116.

39.1 Manual of Cold-Formed Welded Structural Steel Tubing, 1st

Edition, 1974.

CUSTODIAN PREPARING ACTIVITY

NAVY-YD NAVY-YD

PROJECT NO.
FACR - 0188

59