LC 8: Calculate the empirical formula from Ex.

the percent composition of a compound 𝑯𝟐𝑶

𝑯 = 2 x 1.01g = 2.02 g/mol
Molecular Formula 𝑶 = 1 x 16g = 16 g/mol
➢ Indicates the kinds of atoms and the = 18.02 g/mol
number of each kind in a molecule of a
compound. Percent Composition
Molecular Formula
● 𝑪𝟔𝑯𝟏𝟐𝑶𝟔
● 𝑯𝟐𝑶𝟐
● 𝑯𝟐𝑶 Determining the Empirical Formula from
Percent Composition
Empirical Formula
➢ The simplest whole number ratio of atoms 1. What is the empirical formula if a compound
of each element in the compound consists of 21.2% N, 6.1% H, 24.2% S and 48.5%
Empirical Formula O?
● 𝑪𝑯𝟐𝑶
● 𝑯𝑶 Step 1: Get the masses of each element using
● 𝑯𝟐𝑶 the percent composition.
Step 2: Compute for the number of moles of each
Stoichiometry element using this formula:
➢ A section of Chemistry that involves using
relationships between reactants and/or
products in a chemical reaction to
determine desired quantitative data.
Step 3: Solve for the no. of atoms in each
➢ In Greek, stoikhein means element and
element by dividing each computed no. of moles
metron means measure.
by the lowest computed value then write it as a
➢ The measure of elements.
subscript of each element. Round-off the answers
to whole numbers.
The Mole Concept Mole (mol)
➢ the SI measure of quantity of a “chemical
Therefore, the empirical formula of the
entity” such as atoms, electrons or
compound is 𝑁2𝐻8𝑆𝑂4.
protons.

LC 9: Calculate the molecular formula

given the molar mass

Determining the Molecular Formula given the

Molar Mass (g/mol) Empirical Formula
➢ the total mass of all the atoms in one
molecule of the substance. 2. If the molar mass of the compound in example
➢ For monatomic particles, the atomic mass 1 is 132.14 g/mol, find its molecular formula.
expressed in grams is also the molar mass
of the substance. Step 1: Compute for the empirical formula mass.
Step 2: Divide the molar mass of the compound
Ex. (given in the problem) by the empirical formula
𝑪 = 12.01g/mol mass (computed). This will become the multiplier
𝑯 = 1.01 g/mol of each subscript in the empirical formula.
𝑶 = 16 g/mol
Cl = 35.45 g/mol
Reminder: Make sure to round-off the answer to
Molar Mass (g/mol) a whole number.
➢ For compounds or polyatomic molecules, Step 3: Multiply each subscript in the empirical
it is calculated as the sum of the products formula with the computed value in step 2.
of the number of atoms of each element
and its corresponding atomic mass in one Therefore, the molecular formula of the
formula unit of the substance. compound is still 𝑁2𝐻8𝑆𝑂4.
What is the empirical formula of a compound HOW TO BALANCE CHEMICAL EQUATION ?
that is 40.27% potassium, 26.78% chromium
and 32.95% oxygen. •Mass of each element: Balancing chemical equations is usually done by
K = 40.27 g inspection, one element at a time. There are no
Cr = 26.78 g definite steps to follow. Just keep in mind the
O = 32.95 g following general rules:

•Compute for the number of moles of each ➢ Start with the most complicated formula
element. either among the reactants or products.
Balance first the element that appears only
once in either of the reactants or products.
➢ The next element to balance is the one
whose number was affected by the
coefficient written on a formula when the
previous element was balanced.
➢ The one with the simplest formula should
be balanced last; affixing any coefficient to
it will not affect the number of elements in
the other formulas.
➢ The coefficients must be in whole
numbers.
➢ Express the coefficients in their lowest
terms, if applicable.

•Ex:
•Solve for the empirical formula by dividing When magnesium metal is ignited, it produces a
each mole by the least computed value. very bright glow as it reacts with oxygen in the air
and turns into a white powder known as
magnesium oxide. This process can be
represented in a chemical equation as:
Mg + 𝑶𝟐 → MgO

Balance the equation.

2Mg + 𝑶𝟐 → 2MgO
2 - 1 - Mg - 1 - 2
•Empirical Formula : 𝑲𝟐𝑪𝒓𝑶𝟒 2- O -1 - 2
(Potassium Chromate) “2 moles of magnesium react with 1 mole of
oxygen gas to produce 2 moles of magnesium
HOWTOWRITE oxide.”
CHEMICAL EQUATION ?

STEPS: Stoichiometric Coefficients

1. Identify the reactants and the products in the ➢ the number before the chemical formula or
reaction and write their chemical formula. element symbol which indicates the mole
2. Write the equation by putting the reactants on ratio of each reactants and products of a
the left of the arrow and the products on the right. reaction
3. Count the number of atoms of each element in
the reactants and the number of atoms of each
element in the products.
4. If the equation is not balanced, change the
coefficients of the molecules until the number of
atoms of each element on either side of the
equation balance.
5. Check if the atoms are balanced.
Sample Problem ➢ Careful not to fill above the etched mark.
1. Silicon dioxide and carbon reacts to produce
silicon carbide and carbon monoxide. Test Tube
• Identify the substances involved in the equation ➢ Used to hold and mix
then write its chemical formula. small samples.
𝑺𝒊𝑶𝟐 + C → SiC + CO ➢ Stirred by tapping the
• Check if the chemical equation is balanced. bottom with two fingers.
1 - Si - 1 ➢ Fit into both a centrifuge
2-O-1 and test tube rack.
1-C-2 ➢ Often used in qualitative analysis.

Test Tube Rack

LC 10: LAB EQUIPMENT ➢ Used to hold
Erlenmeyer Flask upright multiple test tubes
➢ Designed for easy stirring, at the same time.
can be swirled by hand without ➢ Are most
spilling. commonly used when
➢ Not used for measuring as various different solutions
they are only accurate to 5%. are needed to work with simultaneously,
➢ Often used for titrations. for safety reasons, for safe storage of test
➢ A rubber stopper fits nicely tubes, and to ease the transport of multiple
in the opening. The stopper size needed is tubes.
shown with a number underneath the
serial number. Test Tube Holder
➢ Used to hold test
Florence Flask/Boiling Flask tubes.
➢ A type of flask used as an ➢ Used for holding
item of laboratory glassware and is a test tube in place when the tube is hot or
named after the city Florence. should not be touched
➢ Is used as a container to
hold liquids. Test Tube Brush/Spout
➢ Has a round body, a long Brush.
neck, and often a flat bottom. ➢ a brush used for
➢ Designed for uniform cleaning test tubes and
heating, boiling, distillation and ease of narrow mouth laboratory
swirling. glassware such as
graduated cylinders, burettes, and
Beaker Erlenmeyer flasks
➢ Used to hold varying
volumes of liquid. Vial with Cap
➢ Not used for measuring ➢ Used to hold small
volumes as it is only accurate to portions of samples both solid and
5%. liquid.
➢ The spout lines up nicely ➢ When labeling, if you label
with the rim of other glassware for easy the cap it is easier to read if you
pouring. write on the cap, but be sure not
to separate the cap from the vial.
Volumetric Flask
➢ Measures one specific Graduated Cylinder
volume, marked by the etched line ➢ Used for measuring many
on the neck. different volumes.
➢ Easy to mix solutions, as ➢ the spout lines up nicely
they have glass stoppers and are with the rim of other glassware
designed to be inverted multiple for easy pouring.
times to mix. ➢ Carefully measure the
➢ Size of glass stopper amount you use by reading the
needed is listed on the bottle. Be sure to meniscus.
hold glass stopper while inverting.
Meniscus
➢ A curve in the surface of a molecular Pipette and Aspirator
substance (ex. water) when it touches ➢ They aspirate and
another material. discharge liquid by
➢ With water, you can think of it as when volumetric displacement
water sticks to the inside of a glass. of air by the vertical movement of an
internal piston.

Alcohol Lamp/Alcohol Burner/

Spirit Lamp
➢ Used to produce an open
flame.
➢ Preferred for some uses
over Bunsen burners for safety
Burette purposes, and in laboratories
➢ Often used for titrations or where natural gas is not available.
dispensing specific volumes of liquids.
➢ White plastic stop cock is open Tripod Stand and Wire Gauze
when parallel with the instrument and ➢ A three-legged platform
closed when perpendicular used to support flasks and
beakers.
Glass Funnel ➢ Usually made of
➢ Used to aide in the transfer stainless steel or aluminum and
of liquids made light-weight for efficient
➢ Be careful when using a portability within the lab.
funnel as they can cause you to ➢ Often a wire gauze is
add more liquid than you intend. placed on top of the tripod to provide a flat
base for glassware.

Watch Glass Ceramic Mortar and Pestle

➢ Used to evaporate a liquid ➢ Used to crush up solid
or to heat small portions of a chemicals into smaller pieces, or
substance to grind solids into fine powder.
➢ Often used to cover beakers with NaOH ➢ This makes it easier to
to avoid excess reaction with the CO2 in dissolve solids into solvents
the atmosphere. (when making solutions).

Petri Dish Centrifuge

➢ A shallow transparent ➢ A device that uses
lidded dish that biologists use centrifugal force to
to hold growth medium in separate various
which cells can be cultured components of a fluid.
originally cells of bacteria, fungi ➢ This is achieved by spinning the fluid at
and small mosses. high speed within a container, thereby
separating fluids of different densities (e.g.
Disposable Pipette cream from milk) or liquids from solids.
➢ Used to transfer
small amounts of liquids. Reagent Bottles/Media
➢ Often used in Bottles/Graduated
qualitative analysis. Bottles
➢ Drops can be ➢ Intended to contain
counted to make small measurements but chemicals in liquid or
this is not a very accurate method. powder form for
laboratories and stored in cabinets or on
shelves.
 SAFETY IN THE LABORATORY 4. Pour all chemicals over the sink or a container,
not over your work surface.
DRESS CODE Dispose of excess chemicals as instructed by
1. Wear safety goggles when working with your teacher.
chemicals, burners, or when hammering solids. 5. Be extra careful when working with acids or
NEVER wear your contact lenses in the lab. bases. When mixing an acid and water, always
2. Wear aprons or coats when working with pour the water into the container first and then
chemicals or heated substances. add the acid to the water. Never pour water into
3. Tie back long hair to keep it away from fire, an acid. Wash chemical spills and splashes
chemicals and equipment. immediately with plenty of water.
4. Remove pieces of jewelry and accessories that
may hang down and touch flames, chemicals or USING GLASSWARE SAFELY
equipment 1.If glassware is broken or chipped, notify your
teacher immediately. Never handle broken or
GENERAL SAFETY RULES chipped glass with your bare hands.
1.Read all procedures several times before 2.Never force glass tubing or thermometers into a
performing an activity. When in doubt ask the rubber stopper or rubber tubing. Have your
teacher. teacher insert the glass tubing or thermometer if
2.Never perform unauthorized activities. 3.Never required for an activity
handle any equipment without specific
permission. USING SHARP INSTRUMENTS
4.Take extra care not to spill your materials. If spill • Handle sharp instruments with extreme care.
occurs ask teacher immediately about proper Never cut materials toward you
clean-up procedures. NEVER dispose of
chemicals or trash into the sink. 5.Never eat in the END OF EXPERIMENT RULES
lab. Wash your hands before and after an activity. 1.Unplug all electrical equipment. Clean your work
area.
FIRST AID 2.Dispose of waste materials as instructed by
1.Report all accidents, however minor to the your teacher.
teacher immediately 3.Wash your hands after every experiment.
2.Rinse acids spilled on your skin under cold
running water for at least 20 minutes. SAFETY SYMBOLS
3.Be aware of the location of the first-aid kit. The
teacher should administer first aid care or bring
the student to the clinic.
4.Be aware of the location of the fire extinguisher,
phone, fire alarm and fire exit. Know where and
how to report accidents or fire.

HEATING AND FIRE SAFETY

1.Keep all combustible materials away from
flames.
2.When heating a substance in a test tube, make
sure that the mouth of the tube is not pointed at
you or anyone else.
3.Never heat a liquid in a closed container. Use
an oven mitt to pick up a container that has been
heated.

USING CHEMICALS SAFELY

1.Never put your face near the mouth of a
container that holds chemicals. Never touch,
taste, or smell a chemical unless your teacher
tells you to do so.
2.Use only those chemicals needed in the activity.
3.Keep all containers closed when chemicals are
not being used.
1. It is the process of separating the components
of a substance by means of electric current.
Answer: Electrolysis
2. It is the substance used in the experiment to
create an electrolyte.
Answer: Baking Soda/Sodium Bicarbonate
3. It is the gas produced at the negative terminal.
Answer: Hydrogen Gas
4. It is the type of battery used in the experiment.
Answer: Galvanic Cell
5. It is the ratio of hydrogen gas and oxygen gas
in the decomposition of water.
Answer: 2:1

LC 11: Constructing Mole or Mass Ratios

Mole to Mole Ratios

1.How many moles of 𝑶𝟐 will be produced from

6.2 moles of water in the reaction below:
𝟐𝑯𝟐𝑶 → 𝟐𝑯𝟐 + 𝑶𝟐
✓Refer to the chemical equation and check the
ratio in moles of the substances mentioned in the
problem. You may use conversion factor
method/dimensional analysis in solving.

𝟐𝑯𝟐𝑶 : 𝑶𝟐 = 2 : 1
2 moles 𝑯𝟐𝑶 ; 1 mole 𝑶𝟐

Mass to Mass Ratios

1. What mass of calcium reacts with oxygen to

make 56g of calcium oxide?
2Ca + 𝑶𝟐 → 2CaO
▪Compute for the molar masses of CaO and Ca
first.
▪Upon computation, the molar masses are as
follows:
MM of CaO
Ca = 1 x 40.08 = 40.08 g/mol
O = 1 x 16 = 16 g/mol
CaO = 56.08g/mol
MM of Ca
Ca = 1 x 40.08 = 40.08g/mol

1 mole CaO = 56.08g/mol

1 mole Ca = 40.08 g/mol
LC 12: Percent Yield and Theoretical Yield
of the Reaction
➢ Chemists need a measurement that
indicates how successful a reaction has
been. This measurement is called the
percent yield.
➢ To compute the percent yield, it is first Therefore, the experiment was 81.39%
necessary to determine how much of the successful.
product should be formed based on
stoichiometry. This is called the
theoretical yield, the maximum amount of
product that could be formed from the LC 13: LIMITING AND EXCESS REACTANT
given amounts of reactants.

▪The actual yield is the amount of product that is

actually formed when the reaction is carried out in
the laboratory. ▪The percent yield is the ratio of
the actual yield to the theoretical yield, expressed
as a percentage.

FORMULA:
Limiting Reactant
➢ The first reactant that is used up in a
reaction. When the limiting reactant is all
used up, no more product can form and
the reaction stops.
1. How many grams of hydrofluoric acid (HF) are ➢ It limits how much product we can make.
required to react completely with 23.68g of
calcium hydroxide 𝑪𝒂(𝑶𝑯)𝟐 in the following Excess Reactant
reaction? ➢ Is what is left over after the reaction stops
𝑪𝒂(𝑶𝑯)𝟐 + 2HF → 𝑪𝒂𝑭𝟐 + 𝟐𝑯𝟐𝑶 because the limiting reactant got all used
▪Compute for the molar masses of 𝐶𝑎(𝑂𝐻)2 and up.
HF first.
▪Upon computation, the molar masses are as Example:
follows: 1.What is the greatest amount of 𝐴𝑙𝐶𝑙3 (in grams)
MM of 𝑪𝒂(𝑶𝑯)𝟐 that can be made with 114 g of Al and 186 g of
𝑪𝒂 = 1 x 40.08 = 40.08 𝐶𝑙2? Which is the limiting reactant? Which
𝑶 = 2 x 16 = 32 reactant is in excess and how many grams of it
𝑯 = 2 x 1.01 = 2.02 are left?
𝑪𝒂(𝑶𝑯)𝟐 = 74.10g/mol 2Al + 𝟑𝑪𝒍𝟐 → 𝟐𝑨𝒍𝑪𝒍3
Given: 114 g of Al and 186 g of 𝐶𝑙2
MM of HF Find:
H = 1 x 1.01 = 1.01 a. Limiting Reactant
F = 1 x 19 = 19 b. Excess Reactant
HF = 20.01g/mol c. The amount of Excess Reactant left
d. The maximum amount of 𝐴𝑙𝐶𝑙3 that can be
▪Use dimensional analysis to solve for the made.
required. Start with what is given in the problem.
Compute for the molar masses of the 3
substances first.
✓MM of Al:
Al = 1 x 26.98 = 26.98 g/mol
✓MM of 𝑪𝒍𝟐:
Cl = 2 x 35.45 = 70.9 g/mol
✓MM of 𝑨𝒍𝑪𝒍𝟑:
Al = 1 x 26.98 = 26.98
When this experiment was conducted, an actual Cl = 3 x 35.45 = 106.35 133.33 g/mol
yield of only 10.41g HF was collected. What is the
percent yield?
Find the limiting and the excess reactant.
Manometer/Pressure Gauge
➢ measure the pressure in a
closed system.

Given:
114 g of Al
186 g of 𝐶𝑙2 COMMON UNITS OF PRESSURE
➢ We need 449.37g 𝐶𝑙2 to use all of the Al.
✓Therefore: 𝑪𝒍𝟐 is the Limiting Reactant. Atmosphere (atm)
➢ is a unit of pressure defined as 101,325
Pa which is equivalent to 760 mmHg or
14.696 psi. - the reference pressure
referred to in “Standard Temperature and
Pressure” (STP) is commonly 1 atm.

➢We need 47.19g Al to use all of the 𝐶𝑙2. Torr

✓Therefore: Al is the Excess Reactant. ➢ is a measure of pressure based on an
absolute scale and is equal to 1/760 of a
Find the amount of Excess Reactant left. standard atmosphere.
1 Torr is equal to 133.32 Pa
= 114 g Al – 47.19 g Al
= 66.81g Al in excess Millimeter of Mercury (mmHg)
➢ a manometric unit of pressure formerly
▪Compute for the amount of 𝐴𝑙𝐶𝑙3 produced when defined as the extra pressure generated
all the 𝐶𝑙2 is used: by a column of mercury one millimeter
2Al + 𝟑𝑪𝒍𝟐 → 𝟐𝑨𝒍𝑪𝒍3 high.
1 mmHg is approximately 1 Torr

Pascal (Pa)
➢ is named after Blaise Pascal, a French
philosopher and mathematician.
➢The greatest amount of 𝐴𝑙𝐶𝑙3 that can be
produced is 233.19 g.

Pounds per square inch (psi)

LC 15: PRESSURE AND ITS COMMON ➢ is the pressure resulting from a force of
one pound force applied to an area of one
UNITS
square inch.
1 psi is approximately equal to 6,895 Pa
PRESSURE
➢ The force produced when the particles of
Bar
gases collide along a surface.
➢ is a unit of pressure defined as 100 kPa.
➢ was introduced by the British
COMMON INSTRUMENTS USED TO MEASURE
meteorologist William Napier Shaw in
PRESSURE
1909.

Barometer
➢ invented by the Italian
physicist Evangelista Torricelli
which is used to measure the
atmospheric pressure.
 LC 16-18:GAS LAWS

A. BOYLE’S LAW
➢ The pressure of a
fixed amount of gas is
inversely proportional to
its volume at constant
temperature.

C. CHARLES’ LAW
➢ Together with
Gay-Lussac discovered
the volume-temperature
relationship in an effort
to improve the design of
hot air balloons.
1. A 10 L gas kept in a movable piston has an
➢ The volume of a
initial pressure of 1.5 atm at 25°C. If the piston is
gas is directly
allowed to expand isothermally (at constant
proportional to its
temperature) to 45 L, what will be the resulting
absolute temperature at a constant
pressure of the gas?
pressure.

•T is expressed in Kelvin.

1. Consider a 45 L gas in a container initially at

25℃ and 1 atm. If this gas is heated to 75℃, what
will happen to its volume under constant
pressure?

B. GAY-LUSSAC’S
LAW
➢ The pressure
of a fixed amount of
gas is directly
proportional to its
absolute temperature
at a constant volume.

1. A 80 L tank of helium gas placed outside a

laboratory has a pressure of 8 atm at 25℃. How
much will the pressure increase at noon time when
the temperature reaches 32℃?