Chemistry, The Central Science, 11th edition

Theodore L. Brown, H. Eugene LeMay, Jr.,

and Bruce E. Bursten

Chapter 3
Stoichiometry:
Calculations with Chemical
Formulas and Equations
 Law of Conservation of Mass
“We may lay it down as an
incontestable axiom that, in all
the operations of art and nature,
nothing is created; an equal
amount of matter exists both
before and after the experiment.
Upon this principle, the whole art
of performing chemical
experiments depends.”
--Antoine Lavoisier, 1789

"La République n'a pas besoin de savants ni de chimistes ;

le cours de la justice ne peut être suspendu." The Judge
 Chemical Equations
Chemical equations are concise
representations of chemical reactions.
 Anatomy of a Chemical Equation

CH4 (g) + 2 O2 (g) CO2 (g) + 2 H2O (g)

 Chemical Equations
Reactants

CH4 (g) + 2 O2 (g) CO2 (g) + 2 H2O (g)

Reactants appear on the left

side of the equation.
 Chemical Equations
Reactants Products

CH4 (g) + 2 O2 (g) CO2 (g) + 2 H2O (g)

Products appear on the

right side of the equation.
 Chemical Equations
gas liquid

CH4 (g) + 2 O2 (g) CO2 (g) + 2 H2O (l)

The states (gas, liquid, solid, aqueous)

of the reactants and products are written
in parentheses to the right of each
compound.
 Chemical Equations

CH4 (g) + 2 O2 (g) CO2 (g) + 2 H2O (g)

Stoichiometric Coefficients are

inserted to balance the equation.
 Subscripts and Coefficients Give
Different Information

• Subscripts tell the number of atoms of

each element in a molecule.
 Subscripts and Coefficients Give
Different Information

• Subscripts tell the number of atoms of

each element in a molecule
• Coefficients tell the number of
molecules.
Chapter 3 Definitions

Chemical Reaction - A process in which substances are changed

into other substances through rearrangement, combination, or
separation of atoms.
Chemical Equation - A written representation of a chemical
reaction, showing the reactants and products, their physical states,
and the direction of the reaction.
Reactants - The starting material in a chemical reaction or
equation.
Products - The substances formed in a chemical reaction or
equation.
Physical States - solids (s), liquids (l), gases (g) and aqueous (aq).
Balanced Chemical Equation - A written representation of a
chemical reaction that gives the relative amounts of the reactants
and products, their physical states, and the direction of the
reaction.
 Some General
Types of
Chemical Reactions
 Combination Reactions

• In this type of
reaction two
or more
substances
react to form
one product.

• Examples:
– 2 Mg (s) + O2 (g) 2 MgO (s)
– N2 (g) + 3 H2 (g) 2 NH3 (g)
– C3H6 (g) + Br2 (l) C3H6Br2 (l)
 Decomposition Reactions

• In a decomposition
one substance breaks
down into two or more
substances.

• Examples:
– CaCO3 (s) CaO (s) + CO2 (g)
– 2 KClO3 (s) 2 KCl (s) + O2 (g)
– 2 NaN3 (s) 2 Na (s) + 3 N2 (g)
 Combustion Reactions
• These are generally
rapid reactions that
produce a flame.
• Most often involve
hydrocarbons
reacting with oxygen
in the air.

• Examples (complete combustion):

– CH4 (g) + 2 O2 (g) CO2 (g) + 2 H2O (g)
– C3H8 (g) + 5 O2 (g) 3 CO2 (g) + 4 H2O (g)
Balanced Chemical Equations
• Chemical equations should be balanced
to follow the law of conservation of
mass.
 Total mass of each element on the
reactant side must equal the total mass of
each element on the product side.
 Total charge of reactant side must equal
the total charge of product side.
 Practice
Balance the following reactions.

Fe(s) + O2 Fe2O3

Al(s) + HCl(aq) AlCl3(aq) + H2(g)

 Practice
Balance the following reactions.

4Fe(s) + 3O2 2Fe2O3

2Al(s) + 6HCl(aq) 2 AlCl3(aq) + 3H2(g)

 Combustion Reactions
• Reactions that occur between oxygen (O2)
and another element (typically C) in a
compound.
 When the other compound is a hydrocarbon,
the products of complete combustion are
carbon dioxide and water vapor.
• Hydrocarbons are molecular compounds
composed of only hydrogen and carbon and
are an important class of organic
compounds.
 Practice
Balance the following equations for the
following combustions reactions.

C3H8 + O2 CO2 + H2O

C5H10 + O2 CO2 + H2O

Formula
Weights
 Formula Weight (FW)
• A formula weight is the sum of the
atomic weights for the atoms in a
chemical formula.
• So, the formula weight of calcium
chloride, CaCl2, would be
Ca: 1(40.1 amu)
+ Cl: 2(35.5 amu)
111.1 amu
• Formula weights are generally reported
for ionic compounds.
 Molecular Weight (MW)
• A molecular weight is the sum of the
atomic weights of the atoms in a
molecule.
• For the molecule ethane, C2H6, the
molecular weight would be
C: 2(12.0 amu)
+ H: 6(1.0 amu)
30.0 amu
 Percent Composition
One can find the percentage of the
mass of a compound that comes from
each of the elements in the compound
by using this equation:

(number of atoms)(atomic weight)

% element = x 100
(FW of the compound)
 Percent Composition
So the percentage of carbon in ethane
(C2H6) is…

(2)(12.0 amu)
%C =
(30.0 amu)
24.0 amu
= x 100
30.0 amu
= 80.0%

It follows that the %H is 20%...

 Moles
and Molar
Mass
Avogadro number and the mole.
NA = 6.0221367 E23 mol-1
A mole is the amount of a substance that contains as
many elementary particles (atoms, molecules, or
whatever) as there are in exactly 12 g of the carbon-
12 isotope.
1 mol = 6.0221367 E23 particles
Problem
Express the following estimates for the year 2010 in
nanomoles.
a. USA. 312. million
b. World Population. 6.96 billion
c: US Debt: 14.7 Trillion
 Avogadro’s Number

• 6.02 x 1023 per mole

• 1 mole of 12C has a
mass of 12 g.
 Mole Relationships

• One mole of atoms, ions, or molecules contains

Avogadro’s number of those particles.
• One mole of molecules or formula units contains
Avogadro’s number times the number of atoms or
ions of each element in the compound.
 Molar Mass
• By definition, a molar mass is the mass
of 1 mol of a substance (i.e., g/mol).
– The molar mass of an element is the mass
number for the element that we find on the
periodic table.
– The formula weight (in amu’s) will be the
same number as the molar mass (in
g/mol).
Problem. Calculate the molar masses of the following:
a. sucrose, C12H22O11

Answer: 342.31 g/mol

d. fructose, C6H12O6

Answer: 180.158 g/mol

 Using Moles

Moles provide a bridge from the molecular

scale to the real-world weights and
measures.
 Mole/particle conversions
• Converting between a number of particles and an
equivalent number of moles (or vice versa) is a
matter of dividing (or multiplying) by Avogadro’s
number.
23
2 2+ ions are there ions
6.0221x10 2+
How many Ca
2.113 mol Ca x in 1.272x1024 ions?
2.113 mol of Ca Ca 2 ions
mol

18 1 mol atoms -6
1.36x10
How atomsmoles
many He x of He atoms
23
are there 2.26
in x 10 mol He
6.0221x10
1.36x1018 atoms of He? atoms
• How many formula units of potassium carbonate
(K2CO3; FW 138.206 g mol-1) are there in 2.078 g?

1 mol K 2 CO 3 6.0221E23form. units

2.078 g K 2 CO 3 9.054E21form. units
138.206g mol

The term “formula unit” is used for ionic compounds instead of

molecule. Ionic compounds are continuous “arrays” of positive
and negative charged ions.
 Mole Calculations
• How many moles of Ca atoms are
present in 20.0 g of calcium?

• How many Cu atoms are present in

15.0 g of copper?
What is the definition of a mole (mol)?
a. The amount of a solute in 1 liter of saturated liquid
b. The number of atoms in exactly 12 g of the carbon-12 isotope
c. 6.023 x 1022 atoms of any substance
d. The number of protons, neutrons and electrons in the atomic
mass of a substance

What is the molar mass of aluminum bromide?

a. 106.886 b. 266.694 c. 160.850 d. 186.790

AlBr3 26.982 + 3(79.904) = 266.694 g mol-1

Which of the following contains the most atoms?

N2 H2O
a. 1 mole of nitrogen gas b. 1 mole of water

c. 1 mole of dinitrogen pentoxide d. all contain the same number of atoms (1 mol)

N2O5
 Empirical
Formulas
Empiricism is a theory of knowledge that asserts that
knowledge comes only or primarily via sensory experience.

In chemistry, the empirical formula of a chemical compound is

the simplest whole number ratio of atoms of each element
present in a compound
 Calculating Empirical Formulas

The empirical formula can be calculated from

analysis of the percent composition.

Problem
The compound para-aminobenzoic acid (you may have seen it
listed as PABA on your bottle of sunscreen) is composed of
carbon (61.31%), hydrogen (5.14%), nitrogen (10.21%), and
oxygen (23.33%). Find the empirical formula of PABA.
carbon (61.31%), hydrogen (5.14%), nitrogen (10.21%), and
oxygen (23.33%)
Calculating Empirical Formulas

Assuming 100.00 g of para-aminobenzoic acid,

C: 61.31 g x 1 mol = 5.105 mol C

12.01 g
1 mol
H: 5.14 g x = 5.09 mol H
1.01 g
1 mol
N: 10.21 g x = 0.7288 mol N
14.01 g
1 mol
O: 23.33 g x = 1.456 mol O
16.00 g
 Calculating Empirical Formulas
Calculate the mole (atom) ratio by dividing by the smallest
number of moles:
5.105 mol
C: = 7.005 7
0.7288 mol

5.09 mol
H: = 6.984 7
0.7288 mol

0.7288 mol
N: = 1.000
0.7288 mol

1.458 mol
O: = 2.001 2
0.7288 mol
Exam 1 is TuesdaySep. 20 covering Chapters 1,2 and
3. Use your notes, the Study Guide/Syllabus and
Mastering Chemistry as guides for preparing for the
exam. The exam is given in the Library
Auditorium. Remember: no graphing programmable
calculators, no music devices or cell phones. Ball caps,
wrist bands, labeled water or soft drink bottles, and other
materials that could be used to hide “memory aids” must
also be put away during exams. Bring pencil(s), eraser
and a non-programmable calculator.
Exam times:
5-6:50 PM; Last names starting with A-L.
7-8:50 PM; Last names starting with M-Z.
If you have a conflict please email your instructor, explain
the conflict and make other arrangements.
A “scantron” sheet for you answers will be provided. See
last year’s first exam in your Study Guide/Syllabus for
reference.
 Calculating Empirical Formulas
These are the subscripts for the empirical formula:

C7H7NO2
Mass Percent and Empirical Formulas

Problem 84. A sample of an iron compound is 22.0% Fe,

50.2% oxygen, and 27.8% chlorine by mass. What is the
empirical formula of this compound.

Answer: FeO8Cl2
 Percent Composition and
Empirical Formulas
1. Assume there is 100 g of the sample, so the
percent composition will equal the number of grams
of each element.
2. Convert the grams of each element into the moles
of each element with their molar mass.
3. Divide the smallest number of moles of an element
into the moles of each element present.
4. Convert the fractional ratios for each element into
whole numbers by multiplying all the ratios by the
same number.
5. The resulting numbers are the subscripts for the
each element in the empirical formula.
 Combustion Analysis

• Compounds containing C, H and O are routinely

analyzed through combustion in a chamber like this.
– C is determined from the mass of CO2 produced.
– H is determined from the mass of H2O produced.
– O is determined by difference after the C and H have been
determined.
 Mass Spectrometry and
Molecular Mass
• All Mass spectrometers separate atoms
and molecules by first converting them
into ions and then separating those ions
based on the ratio of their masses to
their electric charges.
• Mass spectrometers are instruments
used to determine the mass of
substances.
Mass Spectrometer
Mass Spectra
Combustion Analysis Problem
The combustion of 135.0 mg of a
hydrocarbon produces 440.0 mg of CO2
and 135.0 mg H2O. The molar mass of the
hydrocarbon is 270 g/mol.
Determine the empirical and molecular
formulas of this compound.
 Determining the Molecular
Formula
• The molecular formula can be
determined from the percent
composition and mass spectral data.
Stoichiometric Calculations

The coefficients in the balanced equation give

the ratio of moles of reactants and products.
 Stoichiometric Calculations
Starting with the
mass of Substance
A you can use the
ratio of the
coefficients of A and
B to calculate the
mass of Substance
B formed (if it’s a
product) or used (if
it’s a reactant).
 Stoichiometric Calculations
C6H12O6 + 6 O2 6 CO2 + 6 H2O

Starting with 1.00 g of C6H12O6…

we calculate the moles of C6H12O6…
use the coefficients to find the moles of H2O…
and then turn the moles of water to grams.
 Example Problem
How much water would be formed if 10.0
grams of C5H12 (72.1503 g/mol) were
completely burned in oxygen?

C5H12 + O2 --->
C5H12 + O2 --->
Mastering Chem-Problem
An iron ore sample contains Fe2O3, together with other substances.
Reaction of the ore with CO produces iron metal and CO2.
Write the balanced chemical equation for the reaction:

Calculate the number of grams of Fe(s) formed when 0.200 kg of

Fe2O3 reacts with excess CO.
What is the formula for iron (III) oxide?

a. FeO b. FeO2 c. Fe2O3 d. Fe3O4

What is the formula for dinitrogen pentoxide?

a. NO b. N2O c. N2O4 d. N2O5

1. Which combination of name and formula is correct?
a) diphosphorus pentoxide, P2(O2)5
b) magnesium carbonate, MgCO2
c) iron (III) oxide, Fe3O2
d) sodium sulfate, Na2SO4
e) calcium chloride, Ca2Cl

2. Which formula represents the most likely binary compound

formed by magnesium and nitrogen?
a) MgN b) Mg2N c) MgN3

d) Mg3N2 e) Mg2N3
 Practice
Write the names or chemical formulas for
the following compounds.
1. Cr(ClO4)3 Chromium (III) perchlorate
2. NH4NO3 Ammonium nitrate

3. Lithium bicarbonate LiHCO3

4. Calcium hypobromite Ca(BrO)2
Elements heavier than iron-56 are often mostly produced through
_____________ followed by ________________.
a. neutron capture, beta-decay b. uranium fission, alpha capture
c. helium fusion, alpha decay d. proton capture, positron emission

A positron is a particle with the mass of a(n) __________ and a

charge of __________.

a. proton, +1 b. neutron, 0 c. electron, +1 d. proton, -1

1. Krypton-74 can decay by electron capture. The new nuclide
formed in this process should be ________________.
a. 74Rb b. 74Br c. 75Kr d. 74Ar
0
1-e + 11p  10n
74 Kr + 0 e  74 Br
36 1- 35

2. Fusion is the ___________.

a. Splitting of large nuclei to form smaller ones
b. Combination of small nuclei to form larger ones
c. Cold temperature process that forms negatons
d. Process that produces matter from energy
1. The metal copper has been very important to the mining
history of Butte. It has two naturally occurring isotopes: 63Cu at
69.09% and 65Cu at 30.91%. If the exact mass of 65Cu is
64.9278 amu what is the exact mass of 63Cu? [the atomic
weight of Cu is 63.546]
a. 63.000 b. 62.93 c. 62.691 d. 62.993 e. 62.987

63.546 = (x)(.6909) + (64.9278)(.3091)

x = 62.93
2. Which two common decay processes will result in changing the
neutron-to-proton ratio in the same direction?
a.alpha and beta b. beta and positron emision
c. gamma and e-capture d. e-capture and alpha
e. e-capture and positron emission
0 e + 1 p  1 n 1 p  10n + 0
1- 1 0 1 1e
5. In comparing the Kelvin and Celsius temperature scales which
one of the following statements is true?
a. The difference between the freezing and boiling points in ºC
of water is 273.
b. The Kelvin scale has no negative numbers.
c. The scales have the same zero point.
d. -273K = 0ºC
e. 0 K = 273 ºC

6. When a pure solid substance was heated, a student obtained

another solid and a gas, each of which was a pure substance.
From this information which of the following statements is ALWAYS
a correct conclusion?
a. The original solid is not an element.
b. Both products are elements.
c. The original solid is a compound and the gas is an element.
d. The original solid is an element and the gas is a compound.
e. Both products are compounds.
 Problem: What is the molar mass of
sulfuric acid (H2SO4)?
a. 49.0 c. 101
b. 24.5 d. 98.1

What mass of phosphoric acid is produced from the

reaction of 10.00 g of P4O10 with excess water?
a 10.90 g c 10.00 g
. .
b 0.141 g d 13.81 g
. .
What mass of phosphoric acid is produced from the
reaction of 10.00 g of P4O10 with excess water?
a 10.90 g c 10.00 g
. .
b 0.141 g d 13.81 g
. .
Chemical analysis of an organic compound
found the following composition: 40.0% C,
53.5% O, and 6.7% H. If the molecular weight is
180.2 g/mol, how many empirical formula units
are there in the molecular formula?
a. 2 c. 8
b. 4 d. 6
40.0% C, 53.5% O, and 6.7% H. If the molecular
weight is 180.2 g/mol, how many empirical
formula units are there in the molecular formula?
A 10.00 g sample of a hydrocarbon (that is, a
compound that contains carbon and hydrogen
only) was burned in oxygen, and the carbon
dioxide and water produced were carefully
collected and weighed. The mass of the carbon
dioxide was 30.50 g, and the mass of the water
was 14.98 g. What was the formula of the
hydrocarbon?
The mass of the carbon dioxide was 30.50 g,
and the mass of the water was 14.98 g. What
was the formula of the hydrocarbon?
 Limiting
Reactants
How Many Cookies Can I Make?

• You can make cookies

until you run out of one
of the ingredients.
• Once this family runs
out of sugar, they will
stop making cookies
(at least any cookies
you would want to eat).
How Many Cookies Can I Make?

• In this example the

sugar would be the
limiting reactant,
because it will limit the
amount of cookies you
can make.
Ham and Cheese as “limiting” reagents…
 Limiting Reactants
• The limiting reactant is the reactant present in
the smallest stoichiometric amount.
– In other words, it’s the reactant you’ll run out of first (in
this case, the H2) and some O2 will remain.
 Limiting Reactants

In the example below, the O2 would be the

excess reagent.
Problem: Silver nitrate and aluminum chloride react with
each other by exchanging anions:
3AgNO3 (aq) AlCl3 (aq) Al(NO3 )3 (aq) 3AgCl (s)
What mass in grams of AgCl (143.321 amu) is produced
when 4.22 g of AgNO3 (169.873 amu) reacts with 7.73 g of
(133.341 amu)?
 Theoretical Yield
• The theoretical yield is the maximum
amount of product that can be made.
– In other words it’s the amount of product
possible as calculated through the
stoichiometry problem.
• This is different from the actual yield,
which is the amount one actually
produces and measures.
 Percent Yield
One finds the percent yield by
comparing the amount actually obtained
(actual yield) to the amount it was
possible to make (theoretical yield).

Actual Yield
Percent Yield = x 100
Theoretical Yield
Problem. A 3.82-g sample of magnesium nitride (100.928 amu)
is reacted with 7.73 g of water.
Mg3 N2 3H2O 2NH3 3MgO
The yield of MgO (40.304 amu) is 3.60 g.
What is the percent yield in the reaction?
Example Problem (3.79)

Hydrogen sulfide is an impurity in natural gas. One

common removal method is called the Claus process:

8 H2S(g) + 4 O2(g) ↔ S8(l) + 8 H2O(g)

Under optimal conditions this process gives a 98% yield of

S8 from H2S. If you started with 30.0 g of H2S and 50.0 g
of O2, how many grams of S8 would produced (assuming
98% yield).
If you started with 30.0 g of H2S and 50.0 g of O2, how many
grams of S8 would be produced (assuming 98% yield).