CHEM181

Section 5: Chemical equations and stoichiometry

 CHEMICAL REACTION

• Chemical reaction - rearrangement of atoms involving the conversion of :

Reactants products

4 Al (s) + 3 O2 (g) 2 Al2O3 (s)

 WRITING CHEMICAL REACTIONS
• Reactants on the LHS of the arrow. Products on the RHS of the arrow. Consider
the following reaction:

CH4 (g) + 2 O2 (g) CO2 (g) + 2 H2O (g)

• 1 molecule CH4 reacts with 2 molecules of O2 gas to form 1 molecule of CO2 and 2
molecules of H2O
• The subscripts in the formula specify the numbers of atoms of each kind of element
in the simplest unit of the substance.

• Can also specify the state of each component

➢ Solid (s), Liquid(l), Gas(g), and Aqueous solution(aq)

3H2(g) + N2 (g) 2NH3(g)

CHEMICAL EQUATION
 SUBSCRIPTS AND COEFFICIENTS PROVIDE DIFFERENT INFORMATION

• Subscripts indicate the number of atoms of each element in a molecule

• Coefficients indicate the number of molecules
TYPES OF REACTIONS
 COMBINATION REACTIONS

• Two or more substances react to form one product

• Examples
N2 (g) + 3H2 (g) 2NH3 (g)

C3H6 (g) + Br2 (l) C3H6Br2 (l)

2 Mg (s) + O2 (g) 2 MgO (s)

 DECOMPOSITION REACTIONS

• One substance breaks down into two or more substances

• Examples:
CaCO3 (s) CaO (s) + CO2 (g)

2 KClO3 (s) 2 KCl (s) + 3 O2 (g)

2 NaN3 (s) 2 Na(s) + 3 N2 (g)

 COMBUSTION REACTIONS

• Rapid reactions that produce a flame

• Most often involve hydrocarbons reacting with oxygen in the air

• Examples:
CH4 (g) + 2 O2 (g) CO2 (g) + 2 H2O (g)

C3H8 (g) + 5 O2 (g) 3 CO2 (g) + 4 H2O (g)

BALANCING CHEMICAL EQUATIONS
 BALANCING CHEMICAL EQUATIONS
• Write an unbalanced equation
➢Reactants and products are separated by an arrow (to show the
direction of the reaction)
➢reactants are listed on the LHS of the arrow
➢products are listed on the RHS side of the arrow

• Balance the equation

➢Apply the Law of Conservation of Mass to get the same number of atoms
of every element on each side of the equation. Tip: Start by balancing an
element that appears in only one reactant and product.
➢Proceed to the other elements.
➢Do not add subscripts, because this will change the formulas.
 BALANCING CHEMICAL EQUATIONS

• Indicate the states of matter of the reactants and products.

➢Write the state of matter immediately following the formula of
the substance it describes.

➢Use (g) for gaseous substances.

➢Use (s) for solids.

➢Use (l) for liquids.

➢Use (aq) for species in solution in water.

 EXAMPLE

• Write the chemical reaction for ammonia reacting with

oxygen.
 EXAMPLE

• Unbalanced reaction:
NH3 + O2 → N2 + H2O
 EXAMPLE

• Balanced reaction:
3
2NH3 + O2 → N2 + 3H2O…………….x2
2

4NH3 + 3 O2 → 2N2 + 6H2O

• Include the states of matter:

4NH3 (aq) + 3 O2 (g) → 2N2 (g) + 6H2O (l)
 THE MOLE CONCEPT

• Formula/ Molecular mass:

➢sum of the atomic masses of the elements in the chemical formula,
multiplied by their stoichiometric coefficient, i.e. the mass of one
molecule or formula unit in u.

• Molar mass:
➢mass of one mole of a compound, in grams, the units of molar mass are
g mol-1
 FORMULA/ MOLECULAR MASS

• Example: Calculate the molecular mass of C2H6

C: 2 x 12.01 u = 24,1 u
H: 6 x 1.008 u = 6.008 u

Molecular mass of C2H6 = 30.1 U

 MOLE OF A COMPOUND

• Mole:
➢SI quantity describes an amount of substance by relating it to a number
of particles of that substance

➢Is the amount of substance that contains the same number of

elementary entities as there are atoms in exactly 12 g of pure carbon-12.

➢The number of elementary entities (atoms, molecules, and “so on”) in a

mole is the Avogadro constant, NA

• NA = 6.02214199 x 1023 mol-1

 MOLE CALCULATION

𝐦
n=
𝐌𝐌

➢n = number of moles, mol

➢m = mass, g
➢MM = molar mass, g mol-1
 MOLE CALCULATIONS

• Calculate the number of moles in 10 g of H2O

m
n=
MM

10 g
=
18.02 g mol−1

= 0.555 mol
 AVOGADRO CONSTANT

• Calculate the number of molecules in 1.058 gram of H2O

m 1.058 g
n= = = 0.0588 mol
MM 18.02 g mol−1

Number of atoms/ molecules = moles x Avogadro’s number

= n x NA
6.02214 x 1023 molecules
= 0.0588 mol x
1 mol
= 3.54 x 1022 molecules
 PERCENT COMPOSITION FROM A CHEMICAL FORMULA

• Determine the molar mass of the compound

• Determine the contribution of the given element to the molar mass

• Formulate the ratio of the mass of the given element to the mass of the
compound as a whole

(no. of atoms of element per formula unit) x (MM of element)

Mass % = x 100%
(MM of compound)
 EXAMPLE

• Calculate the percentage mass of Na, O, and H in NaOH.

(no. of atoms of element per formula unit) x (MM of element)

Mass % = x 100%
(MM of compound)

MM of Na = 22.990 g mol-1
MM of O = 15,99 g mol-1
MM of H = 1.008 g mol-1

MM of NaOH = 22.990 g mol-1 + 15.999 g mol-1 + 1.008 g mol-1

= 39.997 g mol-1
 EXAMPLE

(no. of atoms of element per formula unit) x (MM of element)

Mass % = x 100%
(MM of compound)

(1) x (22,990 𝑔 𝑚𝑜𝑙−1 )

% Na = x 100% = 57,48 %
(39,997 𝑔 𝑚𝑜𝑙−1 )

(1) x (15,999 𝑔 𝑚𝑜𝑙−1 )

%O= x 100% = 40,00 %
(39,997 𝑔 𝑚𝑜𝑙−1 )

% H = 100 – (57,48 + 40,00) = 2,52 %

 EMPIRICAL FORMULA

• Assume a sample size of 100 g

• Convert masses of the elements to moles

• Write a formula with these number of moles determined

• Divide each subscript by the smallest value

• Round of subscripts to nearest whole number if they differ slightly, otherwise,

multiply all subscripts by a small whole number.
 CALCULATING THE EMPIRICAL FORMULA

• A molecule with molecular weight of 180.18 g mol-1 is analysed and found to

contain 40.00% carbon, 6.72% hydrogen and 53.28% oxygen.
➢Assume 100 g of the sample, therefore sample contains: 40 g C, 6.72 g H
and 53.28 g O

➢Find the number of moles of each of the elements

𝑚
➢Use formula : 𝑛 =
𝑀𝑀
 CALCULATING THE EMPIRICAL FORMULA

• Write out the ratios

C3.33 H6.72 O3.33

• Divide by the smallest number of moles (divide by 3.33)

C1 H2,02 O1

C1 H2 O1

• Therefore the empirical formula is CH2O

 EMPIRICAL FORMULA VS MOLECULAR FORMULA

• The empirical formula is the simplest formula for a compound.

• Smallest whole-number subscripts are used to describe the ratio

of the atoms of different elements in a compound.

• The molecular formula of a compound may be the empirical

formula, or it may be a multiple of the empirical formula.

• CH2, C2H4, C3H6

 MOLECULAR FORMULA

• Determine empirical formula

• Determine multiplying factor by comparing formula mass based on empirical

formula with the true MM of the compound

MM Molar mass of Molecular formula

• Factor (n) = =
EFM Molar mass of Empirical formula
 EXAMPLE CONTINUED

• CH2O
Empirical formula mass = [(12.01 g mol-1) + (2 x 1.008 g mol-1) + (15.999 g mol-1)]
= 30.025 g mol-1

• Molecular weight of 180.18 g mol-1

180.18 g mol−1
Ratio = =6
30.025 g mol−1

• Therefore, the experimentally determined formula mass (180.18 g mol-1) is 6 times

the empirical formula mass, the molecular formula is 6 times the empirical formula
Molecular formula = C6H12O6
 STOICHIOMETRY

• Stochiometric factor:
➢relates the amounts (on a mole basis) of any two substances involved in a
chemical reaction, i.e. mole ratio
aA + bB -> cC + dD

• Stochiometric factors are :

𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐴 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐵 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐶 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐷
= = =
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐 𝑑

Therefore,
𝑎 𝑥 𝑛(𝐵) 𝑎 𝑥 𝑛 (𝐶) 𝑎 𝑥 𝑛(𝐷)
Moles of A = = =
𝑏 𝑐 𝑑
Where a, b, c, and d are stochiometric coefficients
 MOLE RATIOS

3H2 (g) + N2 (g)→ 2NH3 (g)

• 3 mols of hydrogen gas reacts with 1 mol of nitrogen gas to form 2 moles of
ammonia gas
• 3 mols of H2 : 2 mols of NH3

• Assume in the above reaction, 6 moles of H2 gas was used as a starting

material, how many moles of ammonia gas would be obtained

2 mol of N𝐻3
moles of NH3 = 6 mol of H2 x = 4 mols of NH3 will form
3 mol of H2
 EXAMPLE

• If 80.0 g of O2 (g) was produced in the below reaction, calculate the

number of moles of KClO3 decomposed.

Δ
KClO3 (s) ՜ 2KCl (s) + O2 (g)
 EXAMPLE

• If 80.0 g of O2 (g) was produced in the below reaction, calculate the

number of moles of KClO3 decomposed.
Δ
KClO3 (s) ՜ 2KCl (s) + O2 (g)

Step 1: balance the chemical equation

Δ
2 KClO3 (s) ՜ 2KCl (s) + 3 O2 (g)

Step 2: calculate the number of moles of O2

m 80.00 g
nO2 = = = 2.5 mol
MM 32.00 g mol−1
 EXAMPLE

• If 80.0 g of O2 (g) was produced in the below reaction, calculate the

number of moles of KClO3 decomposed.
Δ
KClO3 (s) ՜ 2KCl (s) + O2 (g)

Step 3: determine the stochiometric ratio

2 mols KClO3 : 3 mols O2 (g)

Step 4: calculate the number of moles of KClO3 decomposed

2 mols KClO3
n KClO3 = 2.5 mol O2 x = 1.7 mols of KClO3 decomposed
3 mols O2
 COMBUSTION REACTION

• Combustion reaction is one in which the elements in a compound react with molecular
oxygen to form the oxides of those elements

• So C in a carbon-containing compound will be converted to CO2 and if there is

hydrogen it will be converted to H2O

• By accurately measuring the mass of CO2 obtained by combustion of the carbon-

containing compound, the mass of carbon in the original sample can be calculated

• Similarly, by measuring the mass of H2O formed in the reaction, the mass of hydrogen in
the original sample can be calculated

• These calculations assume that all of the carbon in the sample is captured in the CO2
and that all the hydrogen is captured in the H2O
 COMBUSTION ANALYSIS

• Compounds containing C, H and O are routinely analysed through

combustion

➢C is determined from the mass of CO2 produced

➢H is determined from the mass of H2O produced

➢O is determined by difference after the C and H have been determined

 COMBUSTION ANALYSIS
• Chemical reaction
CxHyO + O2 (g) CO2 (g) + H2O (g)

• Stochiometry
➢1 mol C -> 1 mol CO2, therefore mol C = mol CO2
➢2 mol H -> 1 mol H2O
n n
➢ H = H O , therefore mol H = 2 mol H2O
2
2 1

• Note: the amount of oxygen cannot be measured directly, is determined by

difference
 EXAMPLE

• Vitamin C is essential for the prevention of scurvy. Combustion of a 0.2000 g

sample of this carbon-hydrogen-oxygen containing compound yield 0.2998
g CO2 and 0.0819 H2O. What is the percent composition and the empirical
formula of vitamin C?
 EXAMPLE

• Step 1: write the chemical reaction

CXHYOZ + O2 (g) -> CO2 + H2O

• Step 2: stochiometric ratio

1 mol C : 1 mol CO2

1 mol H : 2 mol H2O
 EXAMPLE

• Step 3: determine the number of moles and mass of C

𝑚 0,2998 𝑔
n (CO2) = = = 6.812 x 10-3 mol
𝑀𝑀 44,01 𝑔 𝑚𝑜𝑙 −1

n (C) = n (CO2) = 6.812 x 10-3 mol

m (C) = n (C) x MM
= (6.812 x 10-3 mol) x (12.01 g mol-1)
= 0.08182 g C
 EXAMPLE

• Step 4: determine the number of moles and mass of H

𝑚 0.0819 𝑔
n (H2O) = = = 4.54 x 10-3 mol
𝑀𝑀 18.02 𝑔 𝑚𝑜𝑙 −1

n (H) = 2 x n(H2O)
= 2 X (4.54 X 10-3 mol) = 9.09 X 10-3 mol

m (H) = n (H) x MM
= (9.09 x 10-3 mol) x (1.008 g mol-1)
= 0.00916 g H
 EXAMPLE

• Step 5: calculate the mass of oxygen by difference

m (O) = msample – m(C + H)

= 0.2000 g – (0.08182 + 0.00916) g
= 0.1090 g O

m 0.1090 g
n (O) = = = 6.813 x 10-3 mol
MM 16.00 g mol−1
 EXAMPLE

C H O
n/mol 0.006812 0.00909 0.006813
Divide by smallest n 1.000 1.33 1.000
Multiply by smallest whole number (x3) 3 4 3

Empirical formula = C3H4O3

 LIMITING REAGENT

• Reactants are not normally supplied in stoichiometric proportions indicated

by balanced equation

• Limiting reagent
➢reactant that is completely consumed, it is used up first and determines
the amount of product that forms

• Excess reagent
➢is not completely consumed, it is present in amounts greater than those
required to react completely with initial amount of limiting reagent
 LIMITING REAGENT

• Dealing with limiting reagent questions:

➢Write a chemical equation and balance it

➢Convert to moles

➢Use stoichiometry to determine which will be the limiting reagent and

excess reagent.

➢Compare stoichiometric ratio to the mole ratio

➢Calculate the mass of product formed by both reactants

 EXAMPLE

• What mass of CO2 could be formed by reaction of 8.0 g of CH4 with 48.0 g of
O2 ?

➢Write out and balance the equation:

CH4 + 2O2 → CO2 + 2H2O

➢Calc no. of mols for each of the reactants:

8g
nCH4 = = 0.50 mol
[(12.01+ 4 x 1.008 ] g mol−1

48 g
nO2 = = 1.5 mol
(2 x 15.999) g mol−1
 EXAMPLE

• Compare stoichiometric and mole ratio

➢1 mol CH4 : 2 mol O2 (stoichiometric ratio) -> 1:2
➢0.5 mol CH4 : 1.5 mol O2 (mole ratio) -> 1:3
➢Therefore, O2 is in excess and CH4 is in limiting

Compare mass of reactant formed:

1 mol of CO2
➢nCO2 = 0.5 mol of CH4 x = 0.5 mol CO2
1 mol of CH4
➢mCO2 = 0.0114 g

1 mol of CO2
➢nCO2 = 1.5 mol of O2 x = 0.75 mol CO2
2 mol of O2
➢mCO2 = 0.0171 g
 PERCENTAGE YIELD

• Theoretical yield is the amount of product obtained from a chemical

reaction assuming that the reaction goes to completion (use stoichiometry).

• Many reactions do not go to completion- the reactants are not all

converted to products.

• Actual yield is the amount of product that is formed during the reaction
under a set of experimental conditions.

actual yield of product

Percentage yield = x 100
theoretical yield of product
 EXAMPLE
• 15.6 g of C6H6 (MM= 78.1 g mol-1)is mixed with excess nitric acid. 18.0 g of
nitrobenzene (C6H5NO2 mm= 123.1 g mol-1) is obtained. Determine the
percentage yield.

C6H6 + HNO3 → C6H5NO2 + H2O

➢Calculate theoretical yield:

15.6 g
n (C6H6) = = 0.2 mol
78.1 g mol−1

n (C6H5NO2) = 0.2 mol

 EXAMPLE
• 15.6 g of C6H6 (MM= 78.1 g mol-1)is mixed with excess nitric acid. 18.0 g of
nitrobenzene (C6H5NO2 mm= 123.1 g mol-1) is obtained. Determine the
percentage yield.

➢Calculate theoretical yield:

m (C6H5NO2) = (0.2 mol x 123.1 g mol-1) = 24.6 g

18.0 g
Percentage yield = x100 = 73.2 %
24.6 g