LYCEUM NORTHWESTERN UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF RADIOLOGIC TECHNOLOGY

TAPUAC DISTRICT, DAGUPAN CITY 2400, PH
radtech@lyceum.edu.ph
RT 10:
IMAGING EQUIPMENT AND MAINTENANCE and transformers, as well as other devices
you’ve probably encountered in daily life.
TOPICS FOR FINALS: • Magnets exert a force on each other and on
• MAGNETISM certain metals (iron and certain types of steel for
o TYPES OF MAGNETS instance): this force is called the magnetic force.
o MAGNETIC STATES OF MATTER What you may not know, however, is that
o MAGNETIC LAWS magnetism has its source in electric charge.
• ELECTROMAGNETISM • Fundamental property of matter
o INTRODUCTION TO • All matter is magnetic to some degree, even
ELECTROMAGNETISM subatomic particle has magnetic properties.
o ELECTROMAGENETIC INDUCTION • Field effect is associated with certain types of
• TRANSFORMERS materials.
o TYPES OF TRANSFORMERS • Similar in many ways to electric field but its
o CLASSIFICATION OF MUTUAL manifestations are different.
INDUCTION TRANSFORMERS • Ability of a material to attract iron.
o CONSTRUCTION OF TRANSFORMER • Any charged particle in motion will create a
o AUTOTRANSFORMER LAW magnetic field.
o HIGH VOLTAGE TRANSFORMER • The magnetic field is always perpendicular to
• XRAY CIRCUITRY the motion of the charged particle.
o LOW VOLTAGE CIRCUITRY • The lines of a magnetic field are always in
o FILAMENT CIRCUITRY closed loops.
o HIGH VOLATAGE CIRCUITY • A magnet is said to be bipolar/dipolar.
o VOLATAGE RECTIFICATION
o TYPES OF RECTIFICATION USED IN
RADIOLOGY
o SINGLE PHASE POWER
o THREE PHASE POWER
o VOLTAGE RIPPLE
o HIGH FREQUENCY GENERATORS
• XRAY CONTROL PANEL
o MA AND TIME OR MAS
o KVP TYPES OF MAGNETS
o FOCAL SPOT • Naturally Occurring Magnets
o LINE VOLTAGE COMPENSATION • ex: Earth
o AUTOMATIC EXPOSURE CONTROL • Artificially Induced Permanent Magnets
• RADIOGRAPHIC EQUIPMENT • available in many sizes and shapes but
o THE XRAY TUBE principally as a bar or horseshoe-shaped
o IMAGE INTENSIFIED FLUOROSCOPY magnets, usually made up of iron.
AND OTHER EQUIPMENTS • ex: compass
• Electromagnets
MAGENTISM • consist of wire wrapped around an iron
• No discussion of electric circuit would be core
complete without an introduction to magnetism, • magnets that run through electricity
a phenomenon that underlies a variety of circuit
devices such as inductors. MAGNETIC STATES OF MATTER
• Nonmagnetic/Diamagnetic
• unaffected by a magnetic field
• ex: zinc, bismuth, sodium chloride, gold
• Paramagnetic
• weakly attracted to both poles of a
magnetic field
 • ex: wood, aluminum, platinum, oxygen
• Ferromagnetic
• can be strongly magnetized
• ex: iron, steel, cobalt, nickel

ELECTROMAGNETISM
Electromagnetism is a branch of physics that
deals with the study of the relationship between electric
fields, magnetic fields, and their interactions. It
combines two important phenomena: electricity and
magnetism, which were initially studied as separate
entities until the 19th century when their fundamental
connection was discovered.

MAGNETIC LAWS Electricity involves the flow of electric charges,

• Dipole typically carried by electrons. When charges are in
• dividing a magnet into smaller pieces motion, they create a magnetic field around them. On
will only create smaller magnets with 2 the other hand, magnetism refers to the behavior of
poles magnets and magnetic materials, which exhibit
attractive and repulsive forces.
Until the 19th Century, electricity and magnetism
were viewed as separate effects.
The development of methods for producing a stable
source of flow of electric charges stimulated
investigations of both electricity and magnetism
Electromagnetism – fundamental interaction
between magnetic field and motion of electric charge.
Electromagnetic – object that acts like a magnet, but its
magnet force is created and controlled by electricity.
The key concept in electromagnetism is that a
• Attraction/Repulsion changing electric field produces a magnetic field, and a
• like magnetic poles repel, unlike changing magnetic field induces an electric field. This
magnetic poles attract relationship is described by Maxwell's equations, a set of
fundamental equations that unify electric and magnetic
phenomena. These equations were formulated by James
Clerk Maxwell in the 19th century and form the
foundation of classical electromagnetism.

Some of the key phenomena and principles in

electromagnetism include:

• Induction Coulomb's Law: Describes the force between electric

• some materials can be magnetic charges and states that like charges repel each other,
through induction while opposite charges attract each other.
• Induction in magnetism refers to the
process of generating an electric current Ampère's Law: Relates the magnetic field around a
or electromotive force (EMF) in a closed loop to the electric current passing through the
conductor when it is exposed to a loop.
changing magnetic field. This
phenomenon is known as Faraday's Law of Electromagnetic Induction:
electromagnetic induction and was first Describes how a changing magnetic field induces an
discovered by Michael Faraday in the electromotive force (EMF) and an electric current in a
early 19th century. conductor.
 • credited with the discovery of induction
Gauss's Law for Electricity and Magnetism: Relates in 1831
the electric flux and magnetic flux to the charges and • first dynamo in 1837
currents producing them. • an electric current is induced in a circuit
if some parts of that circuit are in
Maxwell's Equations: A set of four equations that changing magnetic field
unify the laws of electricity and magnetism, describing (electromagnetic induction)
how electric and magnetic fields interact and propagate.
ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION
Electromagnetism has numerous applications in various According to Faraday's law of electromagnetic
fields, including electrical power generation, induction, the induced electromotive force (emf) in a
transmission, and distribution, electronics, circuit is directly proportional to the rate of change of
telecommunications, electromagnetic radiation (such as the magnetic field through the circuit.
light and radio waves), and medical imaging (such as So… Electromagnetic induction is the process by
MRI). It is a fundamental theory that forms the basis for which an electrical current is generated in a conductor
understanding the behavior of electric and magnetic when it is exposed to a changing magnetic field.
fields and their applications in modern technology. The process of electromagnetic induction can be
explained by Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction.
Luigi Galvani (Italian Anatomist) According to this law, the magnitude of the induced
• dissected frog leg twitched when touched by 2 EMF is DIRECTLY PROPORTIONAL to the rate of
different metals change of magnetic flux through a closed loop of
• Alessandro Volta (Italian Physicist) wire. Magnetic flux refers to the total number of
• questioned whether an electric current might be magnetic field lines passing through a given area.
produced when 2 different metals are brought When there is a change in the magnetic field
into contact strength or a relative motion between a conductor and a
• Voltaic Pile magnetic field, the magnetic flux through the conductor
• stacks of zinc-copper plates changes. This change in magnetic flux induces an EMF
• each zinc-copper sandwich is called “cell” of the in the conductor, which then causes an electric
battery current to flow if the circuit is closed.
• precursor of modern battery The induced EMF creates an electric field
• considered as the 1st wet cell battery within the conductor, which leads to the movement of
• Hans Oersted (Danish Physicist) free electrons in the material. These moving electrons
o discovered that electric currents create constitute an electric current. The direction of the
magnetic field induced current is governed by Lenz's law, which
o fashioned a long wire, supported near a states that the induced current will flow in such a
free rotating magnetic compass pointed direction as to oppose the change in magnetic
north as expected field that produced it.
o when a current was passed through the The magnitude of the induced EMF depends
wire, however, the compass needle on the rate at which the magnetic field changes or the
swung to point straight to the wire rate at which the conductor moves relative to the
o He therefore conclude that: magnetic field. A FASTER RATE OF CHANGE OR
▪ Any charged particle in motion MOTION PRODUCES A LARGER INDUCED EMF.
induces a magnetic field Additionally, the strength of the magnetic field and the
number of turns in the conductor also affect the
magnitude of the induced EMF.

▪ Any charged particle at rest

induces no magnetic field. TRANSFORMERS
• Michael Faraday Transformers in radiology are electrical devices
that step up the voltage from the regular supply voltage
to the high voltage required for X-ray production in X- The autotransformer operates based on the principle
ray machines. They play a crucial role in powering the X- of electromagnetic induction, similar to a conventional
ray tubes and ensuring safe and efficient operation of transformer. When an alternating current (AC) flows
the imaging equipment. through the winding, it creates a magnetic field around
A transformer is an electrical device that the coil. This changing magnetic field induces a voltage
transfers electrical energy between two or more circuits in the winding, which can be tapped at different points
through electromagnetic induction. It consists of two or to provide the desired output voltage.
more coils of wire, known as windings, that are wound Autotransformers find various applications, including
around a common magnetic core. The primary winding voltage regulation, voltage conversion, and power
is connected to the input voltage source, while the distribution systems. They are commonly used in
secondary winding is connected to the load. electrical grids, industrial power systems, and some
The main purpose of a transformer in radiology electronic devices where voltage transformation is
is to step up the voltage from the regular supply voltage required.
(e.g., 120 or 240 volts) to the high voltage required for
X-ray production. This high voltage is typically in the
range of thousands of volts and is necessary to
accelerate electrons and generate X-rays in the X-ray
tube.

• MUTUAL INDUCTION TRANSFORMERS

• a change in voltage/current in the
secondary coil is cause by a change in
voltage/current in the primary coil
• Either step up/step down.

The transformer operates based on the principle

of electromagnetic induction. When an alternating
current (AC) flows through the primary winding, it
creates a changing magnetic field around the winding.
This changing magnetic field induces an electromotive
force (EMF) in the secondary winding. The ratio of the
number of turns in the primary winding to the number of
turns in the secondary winding determines the voltage
transformation ratio.
CLASSIFICATION OF MUTUAL INDUCTION
By stepping up the voltage, the transformer
TRANSFORMER
allows the X-ray machine to generate the necessary
• Step-up Transformer
high-energy X-rays for imaging. Additionally,
• used to increase the incident
transformers also provide isolation between the primary
voltage
and secondary circuits, ensuring electrical safety for the
• number of turns in the
operators and patients.
secondary coil is larger than the
number of turns in the primary
TYPES OF TRANSFORMERS
coil
• SELF INDUCTION (AUTOTRANSFORMER)
• the output voltage is higher
An autotransformer is a type of electrical
than the input voltage
transformer that consists of a single winding or coil of
wire, as opposed to the separate primary and secondary
windings found in a traditional transformer. It is a
variation of the conventional transformer design.
In an autotransformer, a portion of the winding acts
as both the primary and secondary winding. The coil is
tapped at different points along its length to provide
different voltage levels. One end of the winding is • Step-down Transformer
connected to the input voltage source, while the other • used to decrease the incident
end is connected to the load. voltage
 • number of turns in the primary most advance type of transformer used as a
coil is larger than the number of commercial or power transformer. More efficient than 3
turns in the secondary coil transformers, most currently used transformer.
• the output voltage is lower than
the input voltage

Autotransformer
sometimes called auto-step down transformer
an electrical transformer with one winding.

AUTOTRANSFORMER LAW
The autotransformer law, also known as the
5 Construction of Transformer (Main Types) VOLTAGE TRANSFORMATION LAW, describes the
Air-Core Transformer relationship between the input voltage and output voltage
consists simply of 2 insulated coils lying side by in an autotransformer. An autotransformer is a type of
side electrical transformer that has a single winding with one
or more taps, allowing for variable voltage output.
According to the autotransformer law, the ratio of
the secondary voltage (Vs) to the primary voltage (Vp) is
equal to the ratio of the number of turns on the secondary
side (Ns) to the number of turns on the primary side (Np).
Mathematically, it can be expressed as:
𝑣𝑠 𝑁𝑠
=
𝑣𝑃 𝑁𝑃
Open Core Transformer
Where:
an iron core is inserted into a coil of wire
Vp: primary voltage
carrying an electric current
Vs: secondary voltage
Np: number of winding enclosed in the primary
connection
Ns: number of windings enclosed by secondary
connection
SAMPLE PROBLEM:
1. If an autotransformer is supplied with 220V to the
Closed-Core Transformer primary connection AA’ and encloses a 500
type of iron core that provide continuous path winding, What is the secondary voltage across
for the magnetic flux, so that a small fraction of the the following secondary connections BB’: 500
magnetic energy is lost by leakage. Built about a square windings, CB’: 700 windings and DB’: 200
of core of a ferromagnetic material. windings.
SOLUTION:
GIVEN:
Vp: 220v
Np: 500 windings
Vs: ?
Ns: 1. 500, 2. 700 3. 200 windings.
𝑣𝑠 𝑁𝑠
=
𝑣𝑃 𝑁𝑃

𝑣𝑠 500
= 220
500
Shell-Type Transformer =220(1)
= 220 volts
Using the same process of getting the Vs across the LOW VOLTAGE CIRCUIT
transformer we can get the corresponding Vs It is the subcircuit between the alternating
respectively. current (AC) power supply (1) and the primary (input)
ANSWER: side of the high-voltage (step-up) transformer (7).
1. Vs in secondary connection with 500 If you trace this circuit beginning at the AC power
windings is 220 volts supply, you will note that current flows through several
2. Vs in secondary connection with 700 devices before reaching the primary side of the step-up
windings is 220 volts 308 volts transformer.
3. Vs in secondary connection with 200 From the transformer, it returns to the power
windings is 220 volts 88 volts source, forming an enclosed loop. With the exception of
the step-up transformer, all of the devices in this
HIGH VOLATAGE TRANSFORMER subcircuit are actually located within the control console.
A high voltage transformer is an electrical device The control console is the unit where the operator sets all
that is designed to handle and manipulate high voltage of the exposure techniques, such as kilovolts peak (kVp),
levels. It is a type of transformer that is specifically built milliamperes (mA), and exposure time. They include the
to operate at elevated voltage ranges, typically beyond main switch (2), autotransformer (3), kVp selectors (4),
the standard line voltages found in residential and exposure switch (5), and exposure timer (6).
commercial settings. The AC power supply (1) is wired into the
The primary purpose of a high building, providing electric power from the local power
voltage transformer is to either step up or step down the company. Most outpatient facilities have a 220-V power
voltage to meet the requirements of specific electrical supply going into the x-ray room. Hospitals with more
systems or applications. High voltage transformers are powerful equipment may have a larger supply. The main
commonly used in power transmission and distribution switch (2) controls the power to the control console. Many
systems, industrial processes, scientific research, and of the components in this circuit operate at the standard
specialized equipment. 120 volts.
These transformers are capable Although the power supply may be rated at 220
of handling voltage levels significantly higher than the V, the actual voltage can vary as much as ±5%,
standard line voltages. The voltage levels involved can depending on the demand for power in the building or the
range from a few kilovolts (kV) to several hundreds of neighborhood. Small variations in the incoming line
kilovolts or even megavolts (MV). voltage may cause large variations in the kVp to the x-ray
High voltage transformers are tube. For this reason, the incoming voltage is monitored
constructed similarly to standard transformers, consisting and stabilized by a voltage compensator.
of primary and secondary windings wound around a The exposure switch (5) closes the circuit,
common magnetic core. However, due to the higher allowing electric current to flow through the primary side
voltage levels, they require additional insulation and of the step-up transformer. When this occurs, current is
safety precautions. These transformers are typically induced to flow through the secondary side of the
larger in size, have robust insulation systems, and include transformer, creating voltage across the x-ray tube. As
enhanced safety features to ensure proper electrical discussed earlier, this voltage causes the electron stream
isolation and prevent breakdowns or electrical discharges. to flow across the tube, producing x-rays. The exposure
High voltage transformers play a timer (6) is a device that terminates the exposure and is
critical role in electrical systems that require voltage set by the operator on the control console.
transformation or transmission at elevated levels. They
are used in power substations to step up voltage for
efficient long-distance transmission, as well as in
applications like power generation, high-energy physics
research, X-ray machines, and particle accelerators.

XRAY CIRCUITRY
FILAMENT CIRCUITRY filament current increases, the filament becomes hotter,
The filament circuit of an X-ray tube is responsible and more ELECTRONS are released by the process
for heating the filament, also known as the cathode, to known as “THERMIONIC EMMISION. Filaments normally
emit electrons. These electrons are then accelerated operate at currents 1 to 6 amperes.
towards the anode to produce X-rays. Space charge effect
COMPONENTS OF FILAMENT CIRCUITRY In radiology, the space charge effect can have
Filament: The filament is a coil or wire made of tungsten implications for X-ray tubes and the generation of X-rays
or another high melting point material. It is designed to for imaging purposes.
have a high resistance and is located within a cathode During the operation of an X-ray tube, electrons
assembly. are emitted from the cathode (filament) and accelerated
Filament Transformer: The filament transformer is towards the anode. As the electron beam travels through
used to step down the voltage from the power supply to the vacuum within the tube, it can encounter the space
the required filament voltage. It ensures that the filament charge effect.
receives the correct voltage to achieve the desired The space charge effect in an X-ray tube occurs
electron emission. when the DENSITY of electrons within the electron beam
Filament Current Control: The filament current control becomes SUFFICIENTLY HIGH. This accumulation of
component, often a variable resistor or a potentiometer, electrons creates a NEGATIVE ELECTRIC FIELD that can
is used to regulate the current flowing through the affect the TRAJECTORY AND BEHAVIOR OF SUBSEQUENT
filament. This control is important to maintain a constant ELECTRONS WITHIN THE BEAM.
and optimal filament temperature.
Filament Switch: The filament switch is used to turn the HIGH-VOLTAGE CIRCUITRY
filament current on and off. It is typically a mechanical or The high-voltage circuit begins and ends with the
electronic switch that allows the user to control the X-ray secondary side of the step-up transformer (8). It includes
tube's operation. the x-ray tube (14) and the rectifier unit (15). Current
flows in this circuit only during an exposure. This is a
dangerous circuit due to the very high voltage. The high-
voltage cables going to the x-ray tube are very thick due
to their high insulation requirement.
The step-up transformer is also referred to as the
high-voltage or high-tension transformer. It increases the
incoming voltage by the value of the transformer ratio.
This transformer has a very high ratio of at least 500:1.
For example, if the primary side of the step-up
transformer receives 180 V from the autotransformer, and
the ratio is 500 : 1, the voltage induced on the secondary
side will be 90,000 V, or 90 kVp.
FILAMENT CIRCUITRY The primary purpose of the high-voltage circuit is to
supply the x-ray tube with voltage high enough to create
The primary side of this circuit begins and ends with x-rays.
the contacts on the autotransformer (9). Current in this
circuit flows from the autotransformer, through the mA
selector (10) and the primary side of the step-down
transformer (11), and back to the autotransformer. The
secondary side begins and ends with the secondary side
of the step-down transformer (12) conducting current
through the x-ray tube filament (13). The step-down
transformer reduces the voltage on the secondary side,
providing an appropriate current to heat the filament.
The mA selector (10) controls amperage in the
filament circuit. Since the current through this circuit
controls filament heat, this setting determines the
number of available electrons at the x-ray tube filament
and thus determines the mA in the high-voltage circuit
that includes the x-ray tube.
The filament temperature is in turn controlled by
filament current, which is measured in amperes. As the HIGH VOLTAGE CIRCUITRY
DC OR AC FOR XRAY TUBE? X-ray machines require a high voltage,
Using an AC X-ray machine could probably be the typically in the range of thousands of volts, to
cheapest way to produce X-rays, which uses the accelerate electrons and generate X-rays. However,
alternating current from the electricity provider to power the electrical supply from the power grid is typically
the X-ray tube head. This alternating current changes its
in the form of AC voltage, where the direction of
direction about 50 times/second in the wires. Moreover,
the intensity increases and decreases about 120
current flow periodically changes. To ensure the
times/second as well. The effect of using this current is desired electron flow in the X-ray tube, AC voltage
to produce X-rays that turn on and off sixty times each needs to be converted to DC voltage through
second. Further, the X-rays that are produced, each rectification.
begin too weak to use and grow to proper strength The voltage rectification process involves
before they decrease again to being too weak. the use of a rectifier, which is a device that allows
A DC X-ray machine uses direct electric current to current to flow in only one direction
power the X-ray tube head. These constant potential
(DC) machines, neither change direction nor the
intensity making it a steady supply of power. This
facilitates production of smooth and consistent X-rays. SYMBOL OF RECTIFIER DIODE

TYPES OF RECTIFICATION USED IN RADIOLOGY

1. Half-Wave Rectification: In half-wave
rectification, a single diode is used as the
rectifier. The diode allows the current to flow
only when the AC voltage iAs positive,
effectively cutting off the negative portion of the
waveform. This results in a pulsed or
intermittent DC voltage output. While simple in
Another consideration occurs at very low exposure design, half-wave rectification is less efficient
times used in digital radiography. AC units may not and generates a DC output with significant
provide exposures as consistent as constant potential ripple or fluctuation.
units at these very short exposure times. This property
can be illustrated using an example exposure time of
0.04 seconds (which is a very low setting). As stated
above, alternating current produces a sinusoidal
waveform and X-rays are generated only in the
“positive” portion of the waves. A 0.04 second exposure
time would cover two and one half 1/60th second 2. Full-Wave Rectification: Full-wave rectification
alternating current waveforms. Depending on at what provides a continuous and smoother DC voltage
point in the waveform the exposure was initiated, as few output. It utilizes a bridge rectifier circuit
as two or as many as three “usable” portions of the consisting of four diodes. The arrangement
waves would be captured (at least some, and perhaps allows current to flow through the load (in this
all AC units have no control over which segment of the case, the X-ray tube) during both the positive
waveform an exposure is initiated). At these very low and negative half-cycles of the AC waveform.
exposure settings, this could result in a 1/3 difference in The diodes effectively convert the negative half-
exposure for the same 0.04 second timer setting (see cycles to positive, resulting in a more constant
diagram above). DC voltage output with reduced ripple.

VOLTAGE RECTIFICATION
Voltage rectification in radiology refers to
the process of converting alternating current (AC)
voltage into direct current (DC) voltage for the
operation of X-ray machines. The rectification is
necessary to ensure a steady and unidirectional
flow of current through the X-ray tube, which is
essential for reliable X-ray production.
SINGLE PHASE POWER ray beam. For example, if the average intensity is 100 mA
(milliamperes) and the ripple is 10%, it means that the
intensity can vary between 90 mA and 110 mA during
each X-ray exposure.

Single-phase power is an alternating current

(AC) electrical power supply that consists of a single
sinusoidal waveform. It is commonly used in residential
and small commercial applications where the power
demands are relatively lower compared to industrial Implications of presence of ripple in the X-ray
settings. beam
1. Image Quality: Ripple can contribute to image
THREE PHASE POWER noise or graininess. Fluctuations in X-ray intensity
can affect the overall image contrast and result in
a less clear or more noisy image.
2. Exposure Consistency: Ripple can lead to
inconsistent exposure levels, causing variations in
image brightness and potentially impacting the
accuracy and consistency of the diagnostic
information obtained from the X-ray images.
3. Dose Management: Ripple can affect the
delivered radiation dose to the patient. Variations
in X-ray intensity may result in underexposure or
overexposure, potentially impacting image
Three-phase power is an electrical power quality and patient safety.
distribution system that utilizes three alternating current
(AC) sinusoidal waveforms, each with a phase difference XRAY CONTROL PANEL
of 120 degrees from one another. The console or control panel is the part of
Three-phase power is also utilized in radiology for the machine that the operator controls the
various applications, including the operation of X-ray operation of the x-ray machine.
machines and other imaging equipment. Here's how All machine console are a little different but
three-phase power is relevant in radiology:
there are always similarities. The console is where
1. Power Supply for Imaging Systems
2. X-ray Tube Operation we control x-ray tube current and voltage.
3. High-Voltage Transformers
Console will have controls for:
VOLTAGE RIPPLE mA and time or mAs
Ripple refers to the presence of fluctuation or kVp
variation in the intensity of the X-ray beam produced by focal spot
an X-ray machine. It is also known as voltage ripple or line voltage compensation
mAs ripple. automatic exposure control
When X-rays are generated, a stable and
consistent X-ray beam is desired for accurate and high-
LINE COMPENSATION
quality imaging. However, due to various factors in the X-
ray machine's power supply and circuitry, there can be • At the bottom left is the control for line
small fluctuations in the X-ray tube's operating voltage compensation.
parameters, such as the voltage or current. These • Most machine are designed to operate at
fluctuations result in variations in the X-ray beam's 220 volts while some will work with 110
intensity, leading to ripple. volts or 440 volts.
The ripple in radiology is typically expressed as a
percentage or a fraction of the average intensity of the X-
 • The power company often cannot provide • The filament normally operates at currents
exactly 220 volts at all times. between 3 and 6 A.
• More modern units automatically adjusts for • The tube current is controlled through a
the incoming power so a meter is not separate circuit called the filament circuit.
provided. • Voltage is provided by taps of the
• Often over looked by the operator. autotransformer. This voltage is reduced
• Results in improper exposure. with precise resisters to a value
corresponding to the mA stations available.
• The voltage is then delivered to the filament
transformer. The filament transformer
lowers the voltage so it is called a step
down transformer.

RADIOGRAPHIC EQUIPMENT

XRAY TUBE:

kVp ADJUSTMENT
• Most consoles will have one or two knobs
that change the taps on the
autotransformer for major and minor kVp.
• Modern units have a LED readout of kVp.
• Setting the desired kVp will determine the
voltage applied to the step-up transformer
in the high voltage section of the machine.
• If a meter is provided, it is placed across An X-ray tube is a specialized device used in
the output terminals of the autotransformer radiography and diagnostic imaging to produce X-rays.
and therefore it reads voltage and not kVp. It consists of a vacuum-sealed glass or metal enclosure
The scale will read in kVp. that houses two main components: the cathode and the
anode. The cathode emits a focused electron beam
when heated, while the anode serves as the target for
the electron beam and generates X-rays when
bombarded by high-speed electrons.
When an electric potential is applied across the
X-ray tube, the cathode emits electrons through a
process called thermionic emission. The electrons are
accelerated towards the anode by a high voltage,
typically ranging from tens to hundreds of kilovolts. As
the electrons strike the anode, they undergo a rapid
deceleration, releasing energy in the form of X-rays. The
X-rays are then directed towards the patient's body,
mA CONTROL creating an image that can be captured on X-ray film or
• The tube current, the number of electrons detected by digital imaging systems.
crossing from the cathode to anode per X-ray tubes are designed to handle high power
second is measured in milliamperes (mA). and heat generated during the X-ray production process.
• The quantity of electrons is determined by They require cooling systems to dissipate the heat and
filament temperature. prevent damage. X-ray tubes come in various sizes and
configurations, depending on the specific imaging
requirements and applications. They are a vital
component of X-ray machines, CT scanners, and other Target
medical imaging equipment, enabling the generation of • The target is the area on the anode that is
diagnostic images used in medical diagnosis and bombarded by the electrons from the cathode. When
treatment planning. the high-speed electrons collide with the target material,
PARTS OF THE XRAY TUBE ASSEMBLY X-rays are produced through a process called
bremsstrahlung radiation. The target material choice
Anode: The anode is the positive electrode of the X-ray depends on factors like desired X-ray energy, heat
tube. tolerance, and efficiency.
It consists of two main types: • Guide Coil
Stationary Anode: In some X-ray tubes, the • For the electrical power to reach the stator and
anode is stationary. It is made of a solid piece of metal, rotor the wires are passed through an insulating flexible
typically tungsten, which has a high melting point to coiled material known as the guide coil. The basic
withstand the heat generated during X-ray production. function of the Guide Coil is to enable the electrical
However, stationary anodes can only handle low power connection to navigate the irregular shapes of the X-ray
levels due to the heat limitations. tube and to insulate other components that come in
Rotating Anode: Most modern X-ray tubes use a contact with these connecting elements.
rotating anode. It consists of a disc-shaped target made
of tungsten or tungsten-rhenium alloy. The anode
rotates rapidly during exposure to distribute the heat
generated and prevent damage to the target.

STATIONARY AND ROTATING ANODES Focus Coil

• The focus coil is an accessory for the focusing
Cathode X-ray Tube (X-ray Tube Filament) cup and it assists in ensuring that the focus cup is able
Cathode: The cathode is the negative electrode to accurately direct the electrons from the cathode to a
of the X-ray tube. It consists of two main components: predetermined point of the anode. While the
Filament: The filament is a coil made of tungsten wire. predetermined point of the Anode also known as the
When heated, it emits electrons through a process called focal point redirects the radiation to the test sample, a
thermionic emission. breakdown of the focus coil can reduce the efficiency of
the focus cup from pointing the radiation to the focal
point on the Anode.

X-ray Tube Housing

• Generally, X-ray tube components are
categorized as either internal components or external
components. However, the external component is
usually the housing that keeps the internal components
Focusing Cup: The focusing cup surrounds the contained within the tube simply because the radiation
filament and is negatively charged. It focuses the produced travels in different directions within the X-ray
emitted electrons into a narrow beam before they reach tube. The X-ray tube housing is a metal container
the anode. shielding the radiation produced within the x-ray tube
from leaking out.
• Additionally, the lead lining within the housing
ensures that there is no possibility of any radiation
exposure both to the operator as well as others around
the machine. Most importantly, because of the high
voltage required to produce the X-ray radiation the
housing acts like an insulation wall to prevent the
occurrence of an electric shock to the operator.
 • The rotor and the Anode disc are rigidly
connected through the Anode disc. However, while the
Anode disc is made of molybdenum the rotor is made of
copper since it does not receive any radiation to its
body. The presence of a high-strength ball bearing in
the rotor makes the rotation easy and smooth.

XRAY TUBE HOUSING

X-ray Tube Glass Envelope

• The glass envelope is an essential vacuum-filled
part of the X-ray tube housing, and it contains the
components necessary to produce the X-ray energy.
Usually, these components consist of the anode,
cathode, filament coils, focus cup, and focus coil. Also,
the glass envelope is made with Pyrex glass which is
suitable for withstanding the enormous heat generated
in the radiation production process.
• However, the production of the radiation
generates immense heat that can cause the tungsten
material used for anode to evaporate causing some
deposits on the glass ware. Subsequently, these Induction Stator
deposits begin to buildup and can become a hindrance • While the Anode is complementary to the
to the production and appropriate projection of the Cathode, the Rotor and Induction Stator seem to share
radiation over time. this relationship also. The Induction Stator is an electric
motor that serves as the enabler for the Rotor to rotate
at sometimes very high speeds as it provides the electric
power needed for this activity. Mostly, the stator uses an
induction method which also uses a set of coils to induce
a strong magnetic field to produce the electric energy
needed for the rotation hence the name induction stator.

Cooling Dielectric Oil

• During the X-ray machine operations, the rotor
and the Anode disc can rotate at up to 3,200 rpm
speeds generating excessive heat in the process.
Likewise, the heat is further intensified when the
radiation from the filament hits the rotating Anode disc
sometimes reaching extreme levels of heat. Dissipating
this heat becomes very important to keep the machine
working in optimum condition. Hence, cooling oil is
Rotor provided to dissipate this heat. But that’s not all. The
• The rotor is a very key part of the X-ray tube in cooling oil also serves as an insulation medium to
that it holds the anode disc in place before, during, and prevent electric shocks since both cathode and anode
after any X-ray operation. The Anode disc can rotate at are electrically charged.
very speeds depending on the size of the sample under
examination and the intensity of the radiation required.
Therefore, the rotor ensures that during these high- Tube Window
speed operations the disc is well-supported, and it • Inside the glass envelope of the X-ray tube
rotates according to the speed set. housing is an important opening that is not more than
5cm wide called the X-ray tube window. The importance
of this tube window cannot be overemphasized as it automatic exposure control (AEC) system is a tool
remains the only opening through which any radiation available on most modern radiographic units to assist the
generated can leave the glass envelope. It also makes radiographer.
sure that almost all the electron beam needed to reach Automatic exposure control (AEC) systems are
the sample under inspection gets there. designed to adjust the kilovoltage, milliamperage, or
• However, a minute part of the radiation will not exposure time in order to obtain an image of diagnostic
leave the glass envelope and will end up being absorbed quality, be it for radiography or fluoroscopy. These
by the glass housing and eventually reduce the systems sense the amount of radiation immediately in
efficiency of the glass tube. But the good news is that front of the image receptor and adjust the dose or dose
the glass material can be replaced to restore the glass rate to the patient in order to assure sufficient photons
envelope’s efficiency. are reaching the image receptor. However, these systems
can also result in high patient doses, especially with digital
IMAGE INTENSIFIED FLUOROSCOPY AND OTHER image receptors.
EQUIPMENTS Automatic Exposure Control (AEC) is an x-ray
exposure termination device. A medical radiography x-ray
MOBILE RADIOGRAPHIC EQUIPMENTS exposure is always initiated by a human operator but an
• These units are used for radiographic imaging of AEC detector system may be used to terminate the
patients who cannot be moved to the radiology exposure when a predetermined amount of radiation has
department and who are in areas—such as intensive and been received. The intention of AEC is to provide
critical care units or operating and emergency rooms— consistent x-ray image exposure, whether to film, a digital
that lack standard, fixed radiographic equipment. detector or a CT scanner. AEC systems may also
Medical applications can include general radiography and automatically set exposure factors such as the x-ray tube
orthopedic, pediatric, skeletal, and abdominal imaging. current and voltage.
• Mobile radiographic units consist of a wheeled AEC systems work on different principles,
cart that transports an x-ray generator (line- or battery- primarily based on the design goals of the manufacturer.
powered transformer), an x-ray tube and moveable Some systems may preferentially adjust the exposure
tubestand, collimators, and a filmcassette or flat-panel time or tube current, while others may preferentially
detector storage drawer. Battery-powered units also adjust the kilovoltage. Some systems insert extra filtration
contain a battery and charging system, and selfpropelled (typically a copper filter) into the beam to filter out
units contain a motor drive. additional soft radiation thereby reducing patient dose.
AEC systems may not produce the same image quality,
Operating steps: e.g., film density, over the typical range of thicknesses
• The patient is prepped and provided some form encountered in the clinical setting. Consequently, a part
of radiation shielding. of a good quality control program will be to test image
• The unit is positioned around the patient, who is quality and patient dose over a typical range of patient
asked to remain motionless while the image is being thicknesses.
taken. AEC systems may also be known by other names
• The operator takes the image by activating the including automatic dose control (ADC), automatic dose
x-ray beam using an exposure switch. rate control (ADRC) and automatic brightness control
• The operator repositions the patient or unit if (ABC).
needed. Multiple images may be taken.
Principle of Automatic Exposure Control Operation
Once a predetermined amount of radiation is
transmitted through a patient, the x-ray exposure is
terminated. This determines the exposure time and
therefore the total amount of radiation exposure to the
image receptor.

Phototimers
uses a fluorescent screen and device that
AUTOMATIC EXPOSURE CONTROL converts light into electricity (PM tube)
The radiographer is tasked with selecting considered exit-type devices (radiation must exit first the
exposure factor techniques to produce quality image receptor before being measured by the detector)
radiographs for a wide variety of equipment and patients. light paddles (coated with fluorescent material), serve as
When combined with patients of various sizes and with detectors, and the radiation interacts with paddles,
various pathologic conditions, the selection of proper
exposure factors becomes a formidable task. An
producing visible light and is transmitted to remote PM was that it allowed for dynamic radiographic
tube examination. That is, the inner workings of the human
the timer is tripped and radiographic exposure is body could be viewed in real time.
terminated In the 1950s the image intensifier was
largely replaced with ionization chamber introduced into the fluoroscopic system. The image
intensifier improved the process in two ways. First, it
brightened the image significantly, eliminating the need
to dark-adapt and improving the details that could be
seen. Second, it allowed for a means of indirectly
viewing the fluoroscopic image, first by mirror optics and
later by television monitors, greatly reducing the
radiation dose to the fluoroscopist.
Schematic Diagram of a fluoroscopic system using an X-
ray image intensifier (XRII) and video camera.

Ionization (Ion) Chamber

• a hollow cell that contains air and is connected
to a timer circuit via an electrical wire
• considered entrance-type devices (detectors are
positioned in front of the image receptor)
• when the chamber is exposed to radiation , air
inside becomes ionized, creating an electrical charge.
This charge travels to the timer circuit and exposure
stops when sufficient charge is received.

IMAGE INTENSIFIED FLUOROSCOPY AND OTHER

EQUIPMENT Conventionally the fluoroscopic chain consists of
IMAGE INTENSIFIED FLUOROSCOPY an x-ray tube, an image intensifier, a recording system,
Shortly after Dr. Roentgen’s discovery of x-rays and a viewing system. The integration of digital
and subsequent announcement, many other scientists technology is changing parts of this system, as is
began experimenting with this new phenomenon. discussed at the end of this chapter. Here the focus is
Among them was the famed American inventor Thomas on the design and function of the image intensifier,
Edison who has notable inventions in this area was the recording, and viewing systems.
first commercially available fluoroscope in 1896, The image intensifier is an electronic vacuum
although it was not in a form we would recognize today. tube that converts the remnant beam to light, then to
His fluoroscope was a calcium tungstate screen electrons, then back to light, increasing the light
that interacted with the remnant beam, producing a very intensity in the process. It consists of five basic parts:
faint image that one viewed while standing in the path the input phosphor, photocathode, electrostatic focusing
of the x-ray beam as it exited the patient and screen. lenses, accelerating anode, and output phosphor.
The practice of standing in the direct path of the x-ray The input phosphor is made of cesium iodide and is
beam meant that the dose to the fluoroscopist was bonded to the curved surface of the tube itself. Cesium
extremely high. iodide absorbs the remnant x-ray photon energy and
Additionally, because the image was very dim, emits light in response.
the fluoroscopist had to “dark-adapt” by sitting in a The photocathode is made of cesium and
darkened room for a period or by wearing adaptation antimony compounds. These metals emit electrons in
goggles with red lenses before performing the response to light stimulus in a process called
fluoroscopic examination. However, fluoroscopy’s great photoemission. The photocathode is bonded directly to
advantage, which ensured its continued development, the input phosphor using a very thin adhesive layer.
These layers are curved so that all of the electrons DIGITAL FLUOROSCOPY
emitted from the photocathode travel the same distance A digital fluoroscopy system is commonly
to the output phosphor. designed as a conventional one in which the analog
The electrostatic focusing lenses are not really video signal is converted to and stored as digital data by
lenses at all, but are negatively charged plates along the an analog to digital converter (ADC) (DAC to print
length of the image intensifier tube. These negatively image).
charged plates repel the electron stream, focusing it on
the small output phosphor.
To set the electron stream in motion at a
constant velocity, an accelerating anode is located at the
neck of the image intensifier near the output phosphor.
This accelerating anode maintains a constant potential
of approximately 25 kV.
The output phosphor is made of silver-activated
zinc cadmium sulfide and is much smaller than the input
phosphor. It is located at the opposite end of the image DIGITAL SUBTRACTION ANGIOGRAPHY
intensifier tube, just beyond the accelerating anode. This Digital subtraction angiography requires more
layer absorbs electrons and emits light in response. complex equipment than digital radiography, specifically
because it has to manipulate a number of pulsed images
INTENSIFICATION PRINCIPLES and at the same time create a subtracted image using
The radiographer must be familiar with several the first pre contrast image as a mask.
principles and concepts associated with image
intensification. Brightness gain is one such principle.
Brightness gain is an expression of the ability of an
image intensifier tube to convert x-ray energy into light
energy and increase the brightness of the image in the
process. Traditionally, brightness gain was found by
multiplying the flux gain by the minification gain.
Flux gain has to do with the very concept of
using an image intensifier to create a brighter image by
taking a few x-ray photons and converting that energy
into many light photons. Flux gain is expressed as the
ratio of the number of light photons at the output
phosphor to the number of light photons emitted in the DENTAL X-RAY UNIT
input phosphor and represents the tube’s conversion Dental X-rays (radiographs) are images of your
efficiency. teeth that your dentist uses to evaluate your oral health.
Minification gain is an expression of the degree These X-rays are used with low levels of radiation to
to which the image is minified (made smaller) from input capture images of the interior of your teeth and gums.
phosphor to output phosphor. This characteristic makes This can help your dentist to identify problems, like
the image appear brighter because the same number of cavities, tooth decay, and impacted teeth.
electrons is being concentrated on a smaller surface
area. It is found by dividing the square of the diameter
of the input phosphor by the square of the diameter of
the output phosphor. (Generally, the input phosphors
are 15 to 30 cm and the output phosphor is usually 2.5
cm.)

CINERADIOGRAPHY
A diagnostic technique in which a camera is
used to record images of internal body structures
produced through radiography or fluoroscopy.
the making of a motion picture record of successive
imagesappearing on a fluoroscopic screen.
BONE DENSITOMETER
Bone densitometry is a test like an X-ray that quickly
and accurately measures the density of bone. It is used
primarily to detect osteopenia or osteoporosis, diseases
in which the bone's mineral and density are low and the
risk of fractures is increased.

MAMMOGRAPHIC UNIT

A mammogram is a specialized medical imaging

technique used to screen for and diagnose breast
abnormalities, particularly breast cancer. It is a low-dose
X-ray examination of the breasts that produces detailed
images called mammograms.
There are two types of mammograms: screening
mammograms and diagnostic mammograms. Screening
mammograms are performed routinely for women with
no apparent breast abnormalities, usually starting
around the age of 40 or earlier based on individual risk
factors. Diagnostic mammograms are conducted when
there are specific concerns or abnormalities detected
during a screening mammogram or a physical
examination. Diagnostic mammograms involve additional
imaging views and may include other techniques such as
ultrasound or MRI to further evaluate breast
abnormalities.
-THE END –

PREPARED BY:

DANIEL C. MONTES, RRT

INSTRUCTOR, COLLEGE OF RADIOLOGIC
TECHNOLOGY.