Department of Veterinary Public Health & Preventive Medicine

Lecture note: Veterinary Epidemiology (VPP 5103)

Topic: Sampling

Definition of terms
Population: Population means aggregate of all possible units. In other words, it means all members that
meet a set of specifications or a specified criterion. For example, the population of the Nigeria is defined
as all people residing in Nigeria. A single member of any given population is referred to as an element.
However, when only some elements are selected from a population, we refer to that as a sample; when all
elements are included, we call it a census.

Sampling frame: The sample frame represents those individuals who have a chance to be included among
those selected in a sample selection procedure.

Basic concepts of sampling

Essentially, sampling consists of obtaining information from only a portion of a large group or population
so as to make inference about the whole population. The sole objective of sampling is therefore to obtain
a sample which will represent the population and reproduce the important characteristics of the
population under study as closely as possible. The principal advantages of sampling as compared to
complete enumeration of the population (census) are reduced cost, greater speed, greater scope and
improved accuracy.

Sampling techniques
Sampling is the method of selecting a representative subset of the population called sample. Sampling
makes research more accurate and economical. It’s the sampling method which actually determines the
generalizability of the research findings. In simple words, the process of choosing a sample of the
population to study is called sampling.
There are mainly two types of sampling techniques; probability sampling and non-probability sampling.

1. Probability Sampling
In probability sampling, each sample has an equal chance of being selected. We can say, a probability
sample is one in which each element of the population has a known non-zero probability of selection.
This method of sampling gives the probability that our sample is representative of a population.

a. Simple Random Sampling

Simple random sampling is a completely random method of selecting a sample in which each element and
each combination of elements in the population have an equal probability of being selected as a part of
the sample. Being one of the simplest forms of random sampling, this method is a fair way to select a
sample. As each member of the population has an equal probability of being selected, simple random
sampling is the best-known probability sample. E.g. tossing a coin, throwing a dice, lottery method, and
blindfolded method.
b. Systematic Random Sampling
Systematic sampling is an improvement over the simple random sampling. This method requires the
complete information about the population. In this sampling method, we select one unit from the
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sampling frame at the start and subsequent units are drawn based on a stipulated interval. In other words,
systematic sampling being a very easy method to do, you actually choose every “nth” participant from a
complete list. Even though each element has an equal probability of selection, but unlike as in simple
random sampling, a combination of elements has different probabilities in systematic random sampling.

c. Stratified Random Sampling

In this method, the population elements are divided into strata on the basis of some characteristics and
from each of these smaller homogeneous groups are drawn at random for a predetermined number of
units. In the case of stratified sampling, there is an increase in the accuracy of the result if each stratum is
more homogenous within and heterogeneous between each other.

d. Cluster Sampling
Cluster sampling is one of the efficient methods of random sampling in which the population is first
divided into clusters, and then a sample is selected from the clusters randomly. With cluster sampling, the
researcher divides the population into separate groups, called clusters. Then, a simple random sample of
clusters is selected from the population. The researcher conducts his analysis on data from the sampled
clusters. The method is mostly feasible in case of diverse population spread over different areas.

e. Multi-Stage Sampling
To draw the sample, this method actually uses a combination of various techniques. In this method, the
population is divided into groups at various levels. A group within a group, within a group and so on. The
sample is finally drawn from the smallest group among all the groups.

2. Non-probability Sampling
Unlike probability sampling method, non-probability sampling technique uses non-randomized methods
to draw the sample. Non-probability sampling method mostly involves judgment. Instead of
randomization, participants are selected because they are easy to access. Even though in certain cases,
non-probability sampling is a useful and convenient method of selecting a sample, the method is
appropriate and the only method available in certain cases.
One of the major shortcomings of the non-probability sampling is that the findings established through
this method lack generalizability. Even though findings obtained through this method apply mostly to the
group studied, it may be wrong to extend these findings beyond that particular sample. This method of
sampling is considered less expensive, less complicated and easy to apply as compared to its counterpart.

a. Convenience Sampling
In this type of sampling, researchers prefer participants as per their own convenience. In convenience
sampling, subjects who are readily accessible or available to the researcher are selected. For example, you
will choose your classmates and friends for the study as per your convenience. In other words, in this type
of non-probability sampling method, whoever meets the researcher qualifies to be the part of your sample.

b. Purposive Sampling
In this type of sampling, the researcher chooses the participants as per his/her own judgment, keeping
back in mind the purpose of the study. It uses the judgment of an expert in selecting cases or it selects
cases with a specific purpose in mind. This type of sampling is used in exploratory research or in field

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research. Purposive sampling is somewhat less costly, more readily accessible, more convenient and
select only those individual that are relevant to the research design.

Sample Size
Traditionally, the size of the sample depends on various factors, including population variability,
statistical issues, economic factors, availability of participants, and the importance of the problem.
In inferential statistics, the sample size required depends on how big a difference between two groups you
want to be able to detect. With large sample sizes, small differences can be detected. On the other hand,
the smaller the sample size, the larger must be the population differences to achieve statistical
significance. In other words, other things being equal, the greater the sample size, the less is the
probability of drawing a conclusion that is in error. In carefully conducted survey research, the sample
size determines how closely the sample values approximate the population values. Assuming valid
sampling procedures, the larger the sample, the more closely (on average) will the sample values
approximate the population values. Similarly, the larger the sample, the more confident we can be that it
accurately reflects what exists in the population, but large samples can be extremely expensive and time
consuming. A small sample is less expensive and time consuming, but it is not as accurate. Therefore, in
situations requiring minimal error and maximum accuracy of prediction of population values, large
samples will be required. In cases where more error can be tolerated, small samples will do.

Sample size determination

The Cochran formula allows you to calculate an ideal sample size given a desired level of precision,
desired confidence level, and the estimated proportion of the attribute present in the population. This
formula is considered especially appropriate in situations with large populations.

Where: e is the desired level of precision (i.e. the margin of error), p is the (estimated) proportion of the
population which has the attribute in question, and q is 1 – p while the z-value is 1.96.

Example
Suppose we are doing a study on the inhabitants of a large town, and want to find out how many
households serve breakfast in the mornings. We don’t have much information on the subject to begin
with, so we’re going to assume that half of the families serve breakfast: this gives us maximum
variability. So p = 0.5. At 95% confidence, Z values is equal 1.96.
Therefore,
((1.96)2 (0.5) (0.5)) / (0.05)2 = 385.
So a random sample of 385 households in our target population should be enough to give us the
confidence levels we need.

Questionnaires
A questionnaire is a group or sequence of questions designed to elicit information from an informant or
respondent when asked by an interviewer or completed unaided by the respondent. When an interviewer
is involved, the questionnaire is sometimes referred to as an interview. Questionnaires are usually used

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for collecting data from the respondents through a series of questions and other prompts set by the
individual/organization conducting such surveys. They are not necessarily statistical data, but they do act
as an effective alternative for surveys, since they are cheap and can be widely used to reach within people
in a short period of time. These are usually used to get a standardized answer rather than a specific answer
seen in other questionnaire types of statistical data collection.

Structure of questionnaires
1. Unstructured questionnaire
An unstructured questionnaire is an instrument or guide used by an interviewer who asks questions about
a particular topic or issue. Although a question guide is provided for the interviewer to direct the
interview, the specific questions and the sequence in which they are asked are not precisely pre-
determined in advance. They entail questions that allow the target audience to voice their feelings
and notions freely, hence they are also called open-ended questionnaires. Open-ended questions
placed at the end of a questionnaire tend to draw accurate feedback and suggestions from
respondents as well.

2. Structured questionnaire
A structured questionnaire, on the other hand, is one in which the questions asked are precisely decided in
advance. When used as an interviewing method, the questions are asked exactly as they are written, in
the same sequence, using the same style, for all interviews. Questions which have multiple options as
answers and allow respondents to select a single option from amongst them are called closed-
ended questionnaires. This type of questionnaire is especially useful when conducting
preliminary analysis. As a fixed answer set is provided, these are ideal for calculation of
statistical information and percentages of various types. Closed-ended questions help to arrive at
opinions about a topic in a more efficient manner.

Types of questionnaires
Computer questionnaire
Respondents are asked to answer the questionnaire which is sent by mail. The advantages of the computer
questionnaires include their inexpensive price, time-efficiency, and respondents do not feel pressured,
therefore can answer when they have time, giving more accurate answers. However, the main
shortcoming of the mail questionnaires is that sometimes respondents do not bother answering them and
they can just ignore the questionnaire.

Telephone questionnaire
Researcher may choose to call potential respondents with the aim of getting them to answer the
questionnaire. The advantage of the telephone questionnaire is that, it can be completed during the short
amount of time. The main disadvantage of the phone questionnaire is that it is expensive most of the time.
Moreover, most people do not feel comfortable to answer many questions asked through the phone and it
is difficult to get sample group to answer questionnaire over the phone.

In-house survey
This type of questionnaire involves the researcher visiting respondents in their houses or workplaces. The
advantage of in-house survey is that more focus towards the questions can be gained from respondents.
However, in-house surveys also have a range of disadvantages which include being time consuming,
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more expensive and respondents may not wish to have the researcher in their houses or workplaces for
various reasons.

Mail Questionnaire
This sort of questionnaires involve the researcher to send the questionnaire list to respondents through
post, often attaching pre-paid envelope. Mail questionnaires have an advantage of providing more
accurate answer, because respondents can answer the questionnaire in their spare time. The disadvantages
associated with mail questionnaires include them being expensive, time consuming and sometimes they
end up in the bin put by respondents.

Testing questionnaires
As with all applied qualitative methods, it is important to pilot test the questionnaire and the field
procedures. This involves trying out the prepared questionnaire in a group and an environment similar to
that expected in the actual study situation. It affords interviewers the opportunity to practice all the
activities that they are expected to carry out in the field. Functionally, pilot tests serve to; assist
interviewers in becoming familiar with the questionnaire; help improve and sharpen interviewing
skills; afford a means of checking, revising, and finalizing the questionnaire by improving the
clarity and order of questions and removing ambiguous and unnecessary questions; enable the
investigator to learn about possible problems that lie ahead, thereby providing an opportunity to
make changes in the study organization before embarking on the field work.
Finally, after the pilot test, revision of the questionnaire and the guidelines for the actual field work can
be done. This review should take into account all issues related to the successful administration of the
questionnaire. These will include the; interviewer's approach to respondents; target response rates; what
to do about partial or irrelevant responses; mistakes in following instructions on the questionnaires; time
required for completing the interview.
Before printing the final questionnaire, have it thoroughly proof read to correct any hidden mistakes.