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13 views7 pagesLecture Note III
Uploaded by
Odunayo AkinladeCopyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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/ 7
CHAPTER
Single-Stage Amplifiers
Amplification is an essential function in most analog (and many digital) circuits. We amplify an analog
or digital signal because it may be too small to drive a load, overcome the noise of a subsequent stage,
or provide logical levels (o a digital circuit. Amplification also plays a critical role in feedback systems
(Chapter 8).
In this chapter, we study the low-frequency behavior of single-stage CMOS amplifiers. Analyzing
both the large-signal and the small-signal characteristics of each circuit, we develop intuitive techniques
and models that prove useful in understanding more complex systems. An important part of a designer's
job is to use proper approximations so as to create a simple mental picture of a complicated cigcut. The
intuition thus gained makes it possible to formulate the behavior of most citcuits by inspection rather
than by lengthy calculations.
Following a brief review of basic concepts, we describe in this chapter four types of amplifiers:
common-source and common-gate topologies, source followers, and cascode configurations. In each
case, we begin with a simple model and gradually add second-order phenomena such as channel-length
modulation and body effect.
3.1 m Applications
Do you carry an amplifier? In all iketinood, yes. Your mobile phone, laptop, and digital camera al
incorporate various types of amplifies. The receiver in your phone must sense and amplify smal signals
received by the antensa thus requiring a “low-noise” amplifier (LNA) atthe frontend (Fig. 3.1). As the
signal travels down the receive chain, st must be further amplified by additional stages so as to reach an
acceptably high level. This proves dificult because, in addition tothe small desied signal, the antenna
picks up other strong signals ("interferers") that are transmitted by various ther users in the same vicinity
‘Your one's ansmiter, oo, employs amplifiers: to amplify te signal generated by the microphone and,
eventually, the signal delivered to the antenna. The “power amplifier” (PA) necessary for such delivery
dra the most energy from the battery and sill presents interesting challenges
3.2 m General Considerations
‘An ideal amplifier generates an output, (7, that is a linear replica ofthe input, x(1):
y= ax) 60)
45 48
Chap. 3 Single-Stage Ampitiers
Desired p Interferer
‘Signal
Receiver
INA ‘Amplifying Stages
nee — [> farccnene} >>
i
PA Mike
— Lin
Power
Dissipation
Input/Output 4 supply
Impedance Voltage
Voltage
eed ae
Sp ‘Swings Figure 3.3 Analog design octagon.
Table 3.1__Ammpiiier categories.
Common-Souree Stage Source Follower Commor-Gate Stage __Cassode
Win Resistive Load With Resistive Bas Wh Resse Load lscople
Wir Diode-Connected Load With Curren Source Blas With Current Source Load Folded
With Current Source Load
Wit Active Loa
With Source Degeneration
3.3 m Common-Source Stage
3.3.1 Common-Source Stage with Resistive Load
By virtue of ts transconductance, a MOSFET converts changes ints gate-source voltage to a small-signal
drain current, which can pass through a resistor to generate an output voltage. Showa in Fig. 3.4(a), the
common-source stage performs such an operation. We study both the large-signal and the small-signal
behavior ofthe circuit, Note thatthe input impedance of the circuit is very high at low frequencies,
Ifthe input voltage increases from zero, Mj is off and Vou, = Von [Fig. 3.4(b)]. As Vis approaches
Vii, Mi begins (o turn on, drawing current from Rp and lowering Vey. Transistor My turns on in
saturation regardless of the values of Vpy and Rp (Why), and we have
7 1 ow, 2
Vous = Vow ~ Rotman Vie Vou 6s)
where channel-length modulation is neglected. With further increase in Viy, Vous drops more, and the tran-
sistor continues to operate in saturation until Vj, exceeds Vea by Vr [point A in Fig. 3.4(6)] Atthis point,
tow >
Vina — Vr = Vow — Ros teCon-WMin — Vew 3.
finn — Vw = Vow ~ RozHteCox gin — Vr) G4)
from which Visi — Vrw and hence Vou can be calculated
For Vig > Vins, Mi is inthe triode region:
Vou = i W ov, — Vout —
Vou = Veo — RosHtxCoxre [2 — Ver) Vo 65)
‘The common souree topology is dete as receiving the input atthe gate and producing the ouput atthe drain 48 Chap. 3 Single-Stage Ampitiers
Yoo Vou w
R Veo| 4 ah
Vout j
Yori .
TV Vint Yin
@ ”
Yoo
ko — oat
Von YoCy “Dont SRo
C @
Figure 3.4. (a) Common-source stage, (6) input-output characteristic, (¢) equivalent circuit inthe deep tiode
region, and (d) small-signal model forthe saturation region,
If Vig is high enough to drive My into the deep tiode region, Vou. << 2(Viy — Vr. and, from the
equivalent circuit of Fig. 3.4(0),
R,
Vos = Veo qe 36
Ron + Ro co
Yoo
a 6
Vo Hau
Roy Vin = Vr)
Since the transconductance drops in the triode region, we usually ensure that Voy > Vig — Vrw. and
hence the current operates to the lel of point A in Fig. .4(b), Using (3.3) a the input-output characteristic
and viewing its slope as the small-signal gain, we have
Gs)
w
On — Ven 39)
Tie Von) G9)
G.10)
“This result can be dircetly derived from the observation that Mf converts an input voltage change A Vig
toa drain current change gAViq, and hence an output voltage change —@y,RpAViy. The small-signal
model of Fig. 3.4(d) yields the same result: Viyy = —@.Vi Rp = —8mVinRo. Note that, as mentioned in
Chapter 2, Vin. Vi, and Voge in this figure denote small-signal quantities
Even though derived for small-signal operation, the equation A. = —gmRp predicts certain effects
if the circuit senses a large signal swing. Since gq itself varies with the input signal according to Sec.3.3 Common-Source Stage
Bm = HnCox(W/L)(Vos — Vein), the gain of the circuit changes substantially if the signal is large. In
other words. ifthe gain ofthe cicuit varies significantly withthe signal swing, then the cxcuit operates in
the large-signal mode. The dependence ofthe gain upon the signal level leads to nonlinearity (Chapter 14).
usually an undesirable effect.
A key result here is that to minimize the nonlinearity, the gain equation must be a weak function of
signal-dependent parameters such as g,,. We present several examples ofthis concept in this chapter and,
in Chapter 14
> Example3.1
‘Sketch the dain curent and transconductance of Min Fig. 3.4(a) asa function ofthe input voltage
Solution
‘The drain current bec
Vop/Ro if Ron < Ro [Fig. 35a]. Since in satwration, fm = gCou (W/L) Vin —
Vii), the transconductance begine (0 rise for Vin > Ver. In the triode region,
Bm = nCox W/L)Vps. falling as Vin exe
nes signilcant for Vin > Vr, eventually approaching eee
49
How does the CS stage behave in
nanometer technologies? The figure
es Vint OF. 3.50) Starting Wit epee ee eee Tet ae
Bq, (35), the reader can show that, acteristic for W/L = 2 um/40 nm,
Ro = kit, and Vop = 1 V. We observe
Vows tin CaxdW/L) Ro Vows |, that he circuit provides a gain of about
SEATED Teg SV CHD Bintreinputrange oto. Vto0.6V. The
'n sD Ro Win = Vr ‘output swings imitedio about 0.3 V-0.8
Vor the gain not to drop signiicanty.
which reaches a maximum if Vour = Vin — Vr (point A.
oh -
Yop
Vin Vin Vint
@ ®
Figure 3.5
> Example3.2
ACS stages driven by a sinusoid, Viy = Vi cos.ayt + Vp, where Vo is the bias value and Vis large encugh to drive
the tiode repions. Sketch the gy ofthe Wansistor as a function of time,
str inte the off an
Solution
‘etus fist sketch he cutptvoage Fg. 3.6 noting that when Vin = Vs + Vo, Vu is Tow, sin the triode epon,
And fy assumes a smal Vale, As Vip falls and Voy andy Hise, My enters saturation at? =f (WED Vig —
rip) ad fy taches its maxiznu (by) As Vp falls fre. so dopa i AL! =f, fg aches 20
‘We observe that (a) since the voltage gain is approximately equal fog Rp. it experiences the saz vasiation
5 he fe, a4 (b) gy vas peiodially
"We even express gu ata Fuse erie in more advanced courses 50
Chap. 3 Single-Stage Ampitiers
ca 7%
Figure 2.6
a
How do we maximize the voltage gain of a common-source stage? Writing (3.10) as
5 Veo
Aga) 2ta Cor eo 3.12
aC L Ip oe)
where Viv denotes the voltage drop across Rp, we have
Wap
Bena AE 3.13)
0 G13)
Thus, the magnitude of A, canbe increased by increasing W/L or Vp ordecteasing Ip ifother parameters
are constant. Itis important to understand the tade-ofls resulting from this equation. A larger device size
leads to greater device capacitances, and a higher Van limits the maximum voltage swings. For example,
if Von — Van = Vie — Vr. then M; is at the edge ofthe trode region, allowing only very small swings at
the output (and input). If Ve remains constant and Jp is reduced, then Rp must increase, thereby leading
to a greater time constant atthe output node. In other words, as noted in the analog design octagon, the
circuit exhibits trade-offs between gain, bandwidth, and voltage swings. Lower supply voltages further
Lighten these trade-offs,
For large values of Rp. the effect of channel-Length modulation in M, becomes significant. Modifying
8.3) to include this effect,
Low
05 HCoep (Vin —
Vou = Vou = fen + Vout) Gu)
we have
Vou,
Win
Wy i
= Rote Cox Win — Ven + 2Vour)
Vou
Vin
=k
*pinCox Win — Ve)"
HnCox Vie = Vee
3 G.15) Sec.3.3 Common-Source Stage 51
We recognize that (1/2)ttyCox(W/L)(Vin =
fryyth = Ir and
Ro
Av = Rota ~ 22.4, 616
Ths
A roR a
8 RS ‘
The small-signal model of Fig. 3.7 gives the same result with much less effort. That is, since
BmVi(rolRD) = —Vou and Vi, = Vig, We have Vous / Vie = —m (roll).
Figure 3.7 Small-signal model o
CS stage including the transistor output
> Example3.3,
‘Assuming that My in Fig 3.8 is biased in saturation, calculate the small-signal voltage gain of the circuit,
= Figure 3.8
Solution
Since J introduces an infinite impedance (Ry = cc), the gain is
ied by the output resistance of My
into G8)
Called the “inttinsic gain” of a transistor, this quantity represents the maximum voltage gai that can be achieved
using a single device. In today’s CMOS technology, go of short-channel devices is between roughly $ and 10.
We usually assume 1/5m