Chapter 11 Frequency Response

• 11.1 Fundamental Concepts

• 11.2 High-Frequency Models of Transistors
• 11.3 Analysis Procedure
• 11.4 Frequency Response of CE and CS Stages
• 11.5 Frequency Response of CB and CG Stages
• 11.6 Frequency Response of Followers
• 11.7 Frequency Response of Cascode Stage
• 11.8 Frequency Response of Differential Pairs
• 11.9 Additional Examples

CH 10 Differential Amplifiers
2 2
Chapter Outline

CH 10 Differential Amplifiers
CH 11 Frequency Response 3 3
High Frequency Roll-off of Amplifier

• As frequency of operation increases, the gain of amplifier

decreases. This chapter analyzes this problem.
CH 10 Differential Amplifiers
CH 11 Frequency Response 4 4
Example: Human Voice I

Natural Voice Telephone

System

• Natural human voice spans a frequency range from 20Hz to 20KHz,

however conventional telephone system passes frequencies from
400Hz to 3.5KHz. Therefore phone conversation differs from face-to-
face conversation.
CH 10 Differential Amplifiers
CH 11 Frequency Response 5 5
Example: Human Voice II
Path traveled by the human voice to the
voice recorder
Mouth Air Recorder

Path traveled by the human voice to the

human ear
Mouth Air Ear

Skull

➢ Since the paths are different, the results will also be different.

CH 10 Differential Amplifiers
CH 11 Frequency Response 6 6
Example: Video Signal

High Bandwidth Low Bandwidth

• Video signals without sufficient bandwidth become

fuzzy as they fail to abruptly change the contrast of
pictures from complete white into complete black.
CH 10 Differential Amplifiers
CH 11 Frequency Response 7 7
Gain Roll-off: Simple Low-pass Filter

• In this simple example, as frequency increases the impedance of

C1 decreases and the voltage divider consists of C1 and R1
attenuates Vin to a greater extent at the output.
CH 10 Differential Amplifiers
CH 11 Frequency Response 8 8
Gain Roll-off: Common Source

 1 
Vout = − g mVin  RD || 
 C L 
s

• The capacitive load, CL, is the culprit for gain roll-off since at high frequency, it
will “steal” away some signal current and shunt it to ground.
CH 10 Differential Amplifiers
CH 11 Frequency Response 9 9
Frequency Response of the CS Stage

Vout g m RD
=
Vin RD2 C L2 2 + 1

• At low frequency, the capacitor is effectively open and the gain is flat. As
frequency increases, the capacitor tends to a short and the gain starts to
decrease. A special frequency is ω=1/(RDCL), where the gain drops by 3dB.

CH 10 Differential Amplifiers
CH 11 Frequency Response 10 10
Example: Figure of Merit

1
F .O.M . =
VT VCC C L

• This metric quantifies a circuit’s gain, bandwidth, and

power dissipation. In the bipolar case, low
temperature, supply, and load capacitance mark a
superior figure of merit.
CH 10 Differential Amplifiers
CH 11 Frequency Response 11 11
Example: Relationship between Frequency
Response and Step Response

1  −t 
H ( s = j ) = Vout ( t ) = V0 1 − exp  u (t )
R12C12 2 + 1  R1C1 

➢ The relationship is such that as R1C1 increases, the bandwidth drops

and the step response becomes slower.
CH 10 Differential Amplifiers
CH 11 Frequency Response 12 12
Bode Plot
 s  s 
1 + 1 +  
  z1   z 2 
H ( s ) = A0
 s  s 
1 + 1 + 
    
 p1  p2 

• When we hit a zero, ωzj, the Bode magnitude rises with a slope of +20dB/dec.
• When we hit a pole, ωpj, the Bode magnitude falls with a slope of -20dB/dec

CH 10 Differential Amplifiers
CH 11 Frequency Response 13 13
Example: Bode Plot

1
 p1 =
RD C L

• The circuit only has one pole (no zero) at 1/(RDCL), so

the slope drops from 0 to -20dB/dec as we pass ωp1.
CH 10 Differential Amplifiers
CH 11 Frequency Response 14 14
Pole Identification Example I

1
 p1 =
1  p2 =
RS Cin RD C L

Vout g m RD
=
Vin (1 +  2
 p21 )(1 +  2  p2 2 )
CH 10 Differential Amplifiers
CH 11 Frequency Response 15 15
Pole Identification Example II

1
 p1 = 1
 1   p2 =
 RS || Cin RD C L
 gm 
CH 10 Differential Amplifiers
CH 11 Frequency Response 16 16
Circuit with Floating Capacitor

• The pole of a circuit is computed by finding the effective resistance and

capacitance from a node to GROUND.
• The circuit above creates a problem since neither terminal of CF is grounded.

CH 10 Differential Amplifiers
CH 11 Frequency Response 17 17
Miller’s Theorem

ZF ZF
Z1 = Z2 =
1 − Av 1 − 1 / Av
• If Av is the gain from node 1 to 2, then a floating impedance
ZF can be converted to two grounded impedances Z1 and Z2.
CH 10 Differential Amplifiers
CH 11 Frequency Response 18 18
Miller Multiplication

• With Miller’s theorem, we can separate the floating capacitor.

However, the input capacitor is larger than the original floating
capacitor. We call this Miller multiplication.
CH 10 Differential Amplifiers
CH 11 Frequency Response 19 19
Example: Miller Theorem

1
1 out =
in =  1 
RS (1 + g m RD )C F RD 1 + C F
 g m RD 

CH 10 Differential Amplifiers
CH 11 Frequency Response 20 20
High-Pass Filter Response

Vout R1C1
=
Vin R12C1212 + 1

➢ The voltage division between a resistor and a capacitor can

be configured such that the gain at low frequency is
reduced.
CH 10 Differential Amplifiers
CH 11 Frequency Response 21 21
Example: Audio Amplifier

Ci = 79.6nF CL = 39.8nF
Ri = 100K
g m = 1 / 200
➢ In order to successfully pass audio band frequencies (20
Hz-20 KHz), large input and output capacitances are
needed.
CH 10 Differential Amplifiers
CH 11 Frequency Response 22 22
Capacitive Coupling vs. Direct Coupling

Capacitive Coupling Direct Coupling

• Capacitive coupling, also known as AC coupling, passes AC signals from Y to X

while blocking DC contents.
• This technique allows independent bias conditions between stages. Direct
coupling does not.
CH 10 Differential Amplifiers
CH 11 Frequency Response 23 23
Typical Frequency Response

Lower Corner Upper Corner

CH 10 Differential Amplifiers
CH 11 Frequency Response 24 24
High-Frequency Bipolar Model

C = Cb + C je

• At high frequency, capacitive effects come into play. Cb

represents the base charge, whereas C and Cje are the
junction capacitances.
CH 10 Differential Amplifiers
CH 11 Frequency Response 25 25
High-Frequency Model of Integrated Bipolar
Transistor

• Since an integrated bipolar circuit is fabricated on top of a substrate, another

junction capacitance exists between the collector and substrate, namely CCS.

CH 10 Differential Amplifiers
CH 11 Frequency Response 26 26
Example: Capacitance Identification

CH 10 Differential Amplifiers
CH 11 Frequency Response 27 27
MOS Intrinsic Capacitances

• For a MOS, there exist oxide capacitance from gate to channel,

junction capacitances from source/drain to substrate, and
overlap capacitance from gate to source/drain.
CH 10 Differential Amplifiers
CH 11 Frequency Response 28 28
Gate Oxide Capacitance Partition and Full
Model

• The gate oxide capacitance is often partitioned

between source and drain. In saturation, C2 ~ Cgate,
and C1 ~ 0. They are in parallel with the overlap
capacitance to form CGS and CGD.
CH 10 Differential Amplifiers
CH 11 Frequency Response 29 29
Example: Capacitance Identification

CH 10 Differential Amplifiers
CH 11 Frequency Response 30 30
Transit Frequency

gm gm
2f T = 2f T =
CGS C

• Transit frequency, fT, is defined as the frequency where

the current gain from input to output drops to 1.
CH 10 Differential Amplifiers
CH 11 Frequency Response 31 31
Example: Transit Frequency Calculation

3 n
2fT = 2
(VGS − VTH )
2L

L = 65nm
VGS − VTH = 100mV
 n = 400cm 2 /(V .s)
fT = 226GHz
CH 10 Differential Amplifiers
CH 11 Frequency Response 32 32
Analysis Summary
• The frequency response refers to the magnitude of
the transfer function.
• Bode’s approximation simplifies the plotting of the
frequency response if poles and zeros are known.
• In general, it is possible to associate a pole with
each node in the signal path.
• Miller’s theorem helps to decompose floating
capacitors into grounded elements.
• Bipolar and MOS devices exhibit various
capacitances that limit the speed of circuits.

CH 10 Differential Amplifiers
CH 11 Frequency Response 33 33
High Frequency Circuit Analysis Procedure
• Determine which capacitor impact the low-frequency
region of the response and calculate the low-
frequency pole (neglect transistor capacitance).
• Calculate the midband gain by replacing the capacitors
with short circuits (neglect transistor capacitance).
• Include transistor capacitances.
• Merge capacitors connected to AC grounds and omit
those that play no role in the circuit.
• Determine the high-frequency poles and zeros.
• Plot the frequency response using Bode’s rules or
exact analysis.

CH 10 Differential Amplifiers
CH 11 Frequency Response 34 34
Frequency Response of CS Stage
with Bypassed Degeneration

− g m RD (RS Cb s + 1)
Vout
(s ) =
VX RS Cb s + g m RS + 1

➢ In order to increase the midband gain, a capacitor Cb is

placed in parallel with Rs.
➢ The pole frequency must be well below the lowest signal
frequency to avoid the effect of degeneration.
CH 10 Differential Amplifiers
CH 11 Frequency Response 35 35
Unified Model for CE and CS Stages

CH 10 Differential Amplifiers
CH 11 Frequency Response 36 36
Unified Model Using Miller’s Theorem

CH 10 Differential Amplifiers
CH 11 Frequency Response 37 37
Example: CE Stage
RS = 200
I C = 1mA
 = 100
C = 100 fF
C = 20 fF
CCS = 30 fF

 p ,in = 2  (516MHz )
 p ,out = 2  (1.59GHz )

➢ The input pole is the bottleneck for speed.

CH 10 Differential Amplifiers
CH 11 Frequency Response 38 38
Example: Half Width CS Stage

W  2X

1
 p ,in =
C  g R C 
RS  in + 1 + m L  XY 
 2  2  2 
1
 p ,out =
 Cout  2  C XY 
RL  + 1 +  
 2  g m L 
R 2 
CH 10 Differential Amplifiers
CH 11 Frequency Response 39 39
Direct Analysis of CE and CS Stages
gm
|  z |=
C XY
1
|  p1 |=
(1 + g m RL )C XY RThev + RThev Cin + RL (C XY + Cout )
(1 + g m RL )C XY RThev + RThev Cin + RL (C XY + Cout )
|  p 2 |=
RThev RL (Cin C XY + Cout C XY + Cin Cout )

• Direct analysis yields different pole locations and an extra zero.

CH 10 Differential Amplifiers
CH 11 Frequency Response 40 40
Example: CE and CS Direct Analysis

1
 p1 
1 + g m1 (rO1 || rO 2 )C XY RS + RS Cin + (rO1 || rO 2 )(C XY + Cout )
 p2 
1 + g m1 (rO1 || rO 2 )C XY RS + RS Cin + (rO1 || rO 2 )(C XY + Cout )
RS (rO1 || rO 2 )(Cin C XY +Cout C XY + Cin Cout )
CH 10 Differential Amplifiers
CH 11 Frequency Response 41 41
Example: Comparison Between Different
Methods

RS = 200
CGS = 250 fF
CGD = 80 fF
C DB = 100 fF
g m = (150 )
−1

 =0
RL = 2 K

Miller’s Exact Dominant Pole

 p ,in = 2  (571MHz )  p ,in = 2  (264MHz )  p ,in = 2  (249MHz )
 p ,out = 2  (428MHz )
CH 10 Differential Amplifiers  p ,out = 2  (4.53GHz )  p ,out = 2  (4.79GHz )
42
CH 11 Frequency Response 42
Input Impedance of CE and CS Stages

1 1
Z in  || r Z in 
C + (1 + g m RC )C s CGS + (1 + g m RD )CGD s
CH 10 Differential Amplifiers
CH 11 Frequency Response 43 43
Low Frequency Response of CB and CG Stages

Vout
(s ) = g m RC Ci s
Vin (1 + g m RS )Ci s + g m
➢ As with CE and CS stages, the use of capacitive coupling
leads to low-frequency roll-off in CB and CG stages
(although a CB stage is shown above, a CG stage is
similar).
CH 10 Differential Amplifiers
CH 11 Frequency Response 44 44
Frequency Response of CB Stage
1
 p, X =
 1 
 RS || C X
 gm 
C X = C

1
 p ,Y =
RL CY
rO = 
CY = C  + CCS

CH 10 Differential Amplifiers
CH 11 Frequency Response 45 45
Frequency Response of CG Stage 1
 p , Xr = = 
O  1 
 RS || C X
 gm 
C X = CGS + C SB

1
 p ,Y =
RL CY
rO = 
CY = CGD + C DB

• Similar to a CB stage, the input pole is on the order of

fT, so rarely a speed bottleneck.
CH 10 Differential Amplifiers
CH 11 Frequency Response 46 46
Example: CG Stage Pole Identification

1 1
 p, X =  p ,Y =
 1  1
(C DB1 + CGD1 + CGS 2 + C DB 2 )
 RS || (C SB1 + CGD1 ) g m2
 g m1 
CH 10 Differential Amplifiers
CH 11 Frequency Response 47 47
Example: Frequency Response of CG Stage

RS = 200
CGS = 250 fF
CGD = 80 fF
C DB = 100 fF
g m = (150 )
−1
 p , X = 2  (5.31GHz )
 =0
 p ,Y = 2  (442MHz )
R = 2 K
d
CH 10 Differential Amplifiers
48
CH 11 Frequency Response 48
Emitter and Source Followers

• The following will discuss the frequency response of emitter and source
followers using direct analysis.
• Emitter follower is treated first and source follower is derived easily by
allowing r to go to infinity.
CH 10 Differential Amplifiers
CH 11 Frequency Response 49 49
Direct Analysis of Emitter Follower

C a=
RS
(C C + C C L + C C L )
1+ s gm
Vout gm
= 2 C  RS  CL
Vin as + bs + 1 b = RS C  + + 1 + 
gm  r  gm
CH 10 Differential Amplifiers
CH 11 Frequency Response 50 50
Direct Analysis of Source Follower Stage

RS
1+
CGS
s a= (CGD CGS + CGD C SB + CGS C SB )
gm
Vout gm
= 2 CGD + C SB
Vin as + bs + 1 b = RS CGD +
gm
CH 10 Differential Amplifiers
CH 11 Frequency Response 51 51
Example: Frequency Response of Source
Follower

RS = 200
C L = 100 fF
CGS = 250 fF
CGD = 80 fF
C DB = 100 fF  p1 = 2 − 1.79GHz + j (2.57GHz )
g m = (150 )
−1

 p 2 = 2 − 1.79GHz − j (2.57GHz )
 =0
CH 10 Differential Amplifiers
CH 11 Frequency Response 52 52
Example: Source Follower

CGS
1+ s
Vout gm
= 2
Vin as + bs + 1

RS
a= CGD1CGS1 + (CGD1 + CGS1 )(C SB1 + CGD 2 + C DB 2 )
g m1
CGD1 + C SB1 +C GD 2 +C DB 2
b = RS CGD1 +
g m1
CH 10 Differential Amplifiers
CH 11 Frequency Response 53 53
Input Capacitance of Emitter/Source Follower

rO = 

C / CGS
Cin = C  / CGD +
1 + g m RL
CH 10 Differential Amplifiers
CH 11 Frequency Response 54 54
Example: Source Follower Input Capacitance

1
Cin = CGD1 + CGS 1
1 + g m1 (rO1 || rO 2 )
CH 10 Differential Amplifiers
CH 11 Frequency Response 55 55
Output Impedance of Emitter Follower

V X RS r C s + r + RS
=
IX r C s +  + 1
CH 10 Differential Amplifiers
CH 11 Frequency Response 56 56
Output Impedance of Source Follower

V X RS CGS s + 1
=
I X CGS s + g m
CH 10 Differential Amplifiers
CH 11 Frequency Response 57 57
Active Inductor

• The plot above shows the output impedance of emitter

and source followers. Since a follower’s primary duty is to
lower the driving impedance (RS>1/gm), the “active
inductor” characteristic on the right is usually observed.
CH 10 Differential Amplifiers
CH 11 Frequency Response 58 58
Example: Output Impedance
rO = 

V X (rO1 || rO 2 )CGS 3 s + 1
=
IX CGS 3 s + g m3
CH 10 Differential Amplifiers
CH 11 Frequency Response 59 59
Frequency Response of Cascode Stage

− g m1
Av , XY =  −1 C x  2C XY
g m2
• For cascode stages, there are three poles and Miller
multiplication is smaller than in the CE/CS stage.
CH 10 Differential Amplifiers
CH 11 Frequency Response 60 60
Poles of Bipolar Cascode 1
1
 p, X =  p ,Y =
(RS || r 1 )(C 1 + 2C 1 ) 1
(CCS1 + C 2 + 2C1 )
g m2

1
 p ,out =
CH 10 Differential Amplifiers
CH 11 Frequency Response RL61(CCS 2 + C  2 ) 61
Poles of MOS Cascode
1
 p, X = 1
  g m1    p ,out =
RS CGS 1 + 1 + CGD1  RL (C DB 2 + CGD 2 )
  g m2  

1
 p ,Y =
1   g m2  
C DB1 + CGS 2 + 1 + g CGD1 
g m2   m1  
CH 10 Differential Amplifiers
CH 11 Frequency Response 62 62
Example: Frequency Response of Cascode

RS = 200
CGS = 250 fF
CGD = 80 fF
C DB = 100 fF
 p , X = 2  (1.95GHz )
g m = (150 )
−1

 =0  p ,Y = 2  (1.73GHz )
R = 2 K
L
CH 10 Differential Amplifiers  p ,out = 2  (442MHz )
CH 11 Frequency Response 63 63
MOS Cascode Example
1
 p, X = 1
  g m1    p ,out =
RS CGS 1 + 1 + CGD1  RL (C DB 2 + CGD 2 )
  g m2  

1
 p ,Y =
1   g m2  
CH 10 Differential Amplifiers C DB1 + CGS 2 + 1 +64 CGD1 + CGD 3 + C DB 3 
 
CH 11 Frequency Response
g m2  g m1 
64
I/O Impedance of Bipolar Cascode

1 1
Z in = r 1 || = RL ||
(C 1 + 2C1 )s (C 2 + CCS 2 )s
Z out
CH 10 Differential Amplifiers
CH 11 Frequency Response 65 65
I/O Impedance of MOS Cascode

1
Z in = Z out = RL ||
1
  g m1   (CGD 2 + C DB 2 )s
CGS 1 + 1 + g CGD1  s
  m2  
CH 10 Differential Amplifiers
CH 11 Frequency Response 66 66
 Bipolar Differential Pair Frequency Response

Half Circuit

• Since bipolar differential pair can be analyzed using half-

circuit, its transfer function, I/O impedances, locations of
poles/zeros are the same as that of the half circuit’s.
CH 10 Differential Amplifiers
CH 11 Frequency Response 67 67
MOS Differential Pair Frequency Response

Half Circuit

• Since MOS differential pair can be analyzed using half-

circuit, its transfer function, I/O impedances, locations
of poles/zeros are the same as that of the half circuit’s.
CH 10 Differential Amplifiers
CH 11 Frequency Response 68 68
Example: MOS Differential Pair
1
 p, X =
RS [CGS 1 + (1 + g m1 / g m 3 )CGD1 ]
1
 p ,Y =
1   g m3  
C DB1 + CGS 3 + 1 + g CGD1 
g m3   m1  
1
 p ,out =
RL (C DB 3 + CGD 3 )

CH 10 Differential Amplifiers
CH 11 Frequency Response 69 69
Common Mode Frequency Response

Vout g m RD (RSS CSS + 1)

=
VCM RSS CSS s + 2 g m RSS + 1

➢ Css will lower the total impedance between point P to

ground at high frequency, leading to higher CM gain which
degrades the CM rejection ratio.
CH 10 Differential Amplifiers
70
CH 11 Frequency Response 70
Tail Node Capacitance Contribution

➢ Source-Body Capacitance of
M1, M2 and M3
➢ Gate-Drain Capacitance of M3

CH 10 Differential Amplifiers
CH 11 Frequency Response 71 71
Example: Capacitive Coupling

Rin 2 = RB 2 || r 2 + ( + 1)RE 

= 2  (542 Hz )
1
=   (22.9 Hz )
1
 L1 = L 2 =
(r 1 || RB1 )C1 (RC + Rin2 )C2
CH 10 Differential Amplifiers
72
CH 11 Frequency Response 72
Example: IC Amplifier – Low Frequency
Design
RF
Rin 2 =
1 − Av 2

g m1 RS1 + 1
 L1 = = 2  (42.4MHz )
RS1C1

= 2  (6.92 MHz )
1
L 2 =
(RD1 + Rin2 )C2

CH 10 Differential Amplifiers
CH 11 Frequency Response 73 73
Example: IC Amplifier – Midband Design

= − g m1 (RD1 || Rin 2 ) = −3.77

vX
vin

CH 10 Differential Amplifiers
74
CH 11 Frequency Response 74
Example: IC Amplifier – High Frequency
Design

 p1 = 2  (308 MHz )
 p 2 = 2  (2.15 GHz )
1
 p3 =
RL 2 (1.15CGD 2 + C DB 2 )
= 2  (1.21 GHz )
CH 10 Differential Amplifiers
75
CH 11 Frequency Response 75