MAT125 ABSTRACT ALGEBRA I

III. SUBGROUPS AND NORMAL SUBGROUPS

3.1 SUBGROUPS

Definition 3.1.1 Let (G, ∗) be a group and H a nonempty subset of G. Then (H, ∗) is called a subgroup of
(G, ∗) if (H, ∗) is a group.

Theorem 3.1.2 Let (G, ∗) be a group and (H, ∗) a subgroup of (G, ∗).
i. The identity elements of (H, ∗) and (G, ∗) are the same.
ii. If h ∈ H, then the inverse of h in H and the inverse of h in G is the same.
Proof:
(i.) Let eH denote the identity of H and e denote the identity of G. Then

eH ∗ eH = eH ∗ e.

By the cancellation law, eH = e. Hence, the identity elements of G and H are the same.

(ii.) Let h ∈ H. Let h0 denote the inverse of h in H and h−1 denote the inverse of h in G. Then

h ∗ h0 = e = h0 ∗ h and h ∗ h−1 = e = h−1 ∗ h.

Thus,
h0 − h0 ∗ e = h0 ∗ (h ∗ h−1 ) = (h0 ∗ h) ∗ h−1 = e ∗ h−1 = h−1 .
Therefore, the inverse of h in H and the inverse of h in G is the same. 

Remark 3.1.3 If (G, ∗) is a group, then ({e}, ∗) and (G, ∗) are subgroups of (G, ∗). These subgroups are called
trivial.

Example 3.1.4
Consider the following list of groups.
i. ({0}, +), (Z, +), (Q, +), (R, +).
ii. ({1}, ·), (Q \ {0}, ·), (R \ {0}, ·).
Each group is the subgroup of the group listed to its right.

Notation: We would like to change our notation slightly. We shall generally use the notation G instead of
(G, ∗) for a group and we write ab for a ∗ b. We shall refer to ab as the product of a and b. This notation is
usually called multiplicative notation.

Theorem 3.1.5 (Subgroup Criterion)

Let G be a group and H a nonempty subset of G. Then H is a subgroup of G if and only if for all
a, b ∈ H, ab−1 ∈ H.

1
 Proof:
Suppose H is a subgroup of G. Then H is a group. Let a, b ∈ H. Thus, b ∈ H implies that there exists
b−1 ∈ H. Hence, ab−1 ∈ H since H is closed under the binary operation.
Conversely, suppose that for all a, b ∈ H, ab−1 ∈ H. Since H is nonempty, there exists a ∈ H. Thus, a ∈ H
implies that e = aa−1 ∈ H. This means that H contains the identity. Next, let b ∈ H. Then e, b ∈ H implies
that b−1 = eb−1 ∈ H. Hence, every element in H has an inverse in H. Finally, let a, b ∈ H. Then a, b−1 ∈ H.
This implies that ab = a(b−1 )−1 ∈ H, that is, H is closed under the binary operation. Therefore, H is a group.
Consequently, H is a subgroup of G. 

Corollary 3.1.6 Let G be a group and H be a finite nonempty subset of G. Then H is a subgroup of G if
and only if for all a, b ∈ H, ab ∈ H.

Proof:
If H is a subgroup of G, then for all a, b ∈ H, ab ∈ H.
Conversely, suppose that for all a, b ∈ H, ab ∈ H. Let h ∈ H. Then h, h2 , · · · , hn , · · · ∈ H. Thus,
{h, h2 , · · · , hn , · · · } ⊆ H. Since H is finite, the elements of {h, h2 , · · · , hn , · · · } cannot be distinct. This implies that
there exists integers r and s such that 0 ≤ r < s and hr = hs . Hence, s − r ≥ 1 and e = hs−r = hhs−r−1 ∈ H, which
means that h−1 ∈ H. Now, let a, b ∈ H. Then a, b−1 ∈ H. By hypothesis, ab−1 ∈ H. Therefore, by Theorem
3.1.5, H is a subgroup of G. 

3.2 TESTING SETS FOR SUBGROUPS

Subgroup Criterion
Let G be a group. Then H is a subgroup of G if and only if the following properties hold:

i. H is nonempty.
ii. H ⊆ G.
iii. For all all a, b ∈ H, ab−1 ∈ H.

Subgroup Criterion
Let G be a group. Then H is a subgroup of G if and only if the following properties hold:
i. H is nonempty.

ii. H ⊆ G.
iii. For all all a, b ∈ H, ab ∈ H.
iv. For all a ∈ H, a−1 ∈ H.

Corollary Let G be a group and H a finite set. Then H is a subgroup of G if and only if the following
properties hold:
i. H is nonempty.
ii. H ⊆ G.

iii. For all all a, b ∈ H, ab ∈ H.

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Example 3.2.1
Consider the group (Z, +) and the subset 5Z = {5n : n ∈ Z} of Z. Then 5Z is a subgroup of (Z, +).

Proof:
i. Since 0 ∈ Z, it follows that 5(0) ∈ 5Z. Thus, 5Z is nonempty.

ii. Let 5n ∈ 5Z. Then n ∈ Z. Thus, 5n ∈ Z. Hence, 5Z ⊆ Z.

iii. Let 5n1 , 5n2 ∈ 5Z. Then n1 , n2 ∈ Z. Thus, n1 + n2 ∈ Z. Hence, 5(n1 + n2 ) ∈ 5Z. Therefore,
5n1 + 5n2 = 5(n1 + n2 ) ∈ 5Z.
By the Subgroup Criterion, 5Z is a subgroup of (Z, +). 

Example 3.2.2
√ √ √
Let Z[ 2] = {a + b 2 : a, b ∈ Z}. Then Z[ 2] is a subgroup of (R, +).

Proof:

√ √ √
i. Since 0 ∈ Z, it follows that 0 + 0 2 ∈ Z[ 2]. Thus, Z[ 2] is nonempty.
√ √ √ √
ii. Let a + b 2 ∈ Z[ 2]. Then a, b ∈ Z. Thus, a, b ∈ R. Hence, a + b 2 ∈ R. Therefore, Z[ 2] ⊆ R.
√ √ √ √ √
iii. Let a+b 2, c+d √2 ∈ Z[ 2].√Then a, b, c, d ∈ Z. Thus,
√ a+c, √
b+d ∈ Z. Hence, (a+c)+(b+d) 2 ∈ Z[ 2].
Therefore, (a + b 2) + (c + d 2) = (a + c) + (b + d) 2 ∈ Z[ 2].
√
By the Subgroup Criterion, Z[ 2] is a subgroup of (R, +). 

Example 3.2.3
(" # )
a b
Let H = : a, b, d ∈ R, ad , 0 . Then H is a subgroup of GL(2, R).
0 d
Proof:
" #
1 0
i. Since 1, 0 ∈ R and 1 · 1 , 0, it follows that ∈ H. Thus, H is nonempty.
0 1
" #
a b
ii. Let ∈ H. Then a, b, d ∈ R and ad , 0. Thus, a, b, 0, d ∈ R and ad − b0 , 0. Hence,
0 d
" #
a b
∈ GL(2, R). Therefore, H ⊆ GL(2, R).
0 d
" # " #
a b e f
iii. Let , ∈ H. Then a, b, d, e, f, h ∈ R and, ad , 0 and eh , 0. Thus, 1e , 0 and h1 , 0.
0 d 0 h
" a f +be
# " #" #−1
a a b e f
a f +be
Hence, ae , eh , hd ∈ R and ae · hd , 0. this implies that e eh
d ∈ H. Therefore, =
0 h
0 d 0 h
a f +be
" #
a
e eh
d ∈ H.
0 h

By the Subgroup Criterion, H is a subgroup of GL(2, R). 

Example 3.2.4
√ √ √
Let Z[ 2] = {a + b 2 : a, b ∈ Z}. Then Z[ 2] is not a subgroup of (Z, +).

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 Proof: √ √ √ √ √ √
Consider 0 + 2 2 = 2 2 ∈ Z[ 2]. Then
√ √ 0, 2 ∈ Z. But 2 < Z. Thus, 0 + 2 2 = 2 2 < Z. Hence,
Z[ 2] * Z. By the Subgroup Criterion, Z[ 2] is not a subgroup of (Z, +). 

Example 3.2.5
Let H = {[0], [3], [6], [8], [9]}. Then H is not a subgroup of (Z12 , +12 ).

Proof:
Consider [3], [8] ∈ H. Then [3] +12 [8] = [11]. But [11] < H. Thus, there exist [3], [8] ∈ H such that
[3] +12 [8] < H. By Corollary 3.1.6, H is not a subgroup of (Z12 , +12 ). 

Lemma 3.2.6 Let G be a group and Z(G) = {x ∈ G | ax = xa for all a ∈ G}. Then Z(G) is an abelian subgroup
of G. Z(G) is called the center of G.

Proof:
i. Since ae = a = ea for all a ∈ G, it follows that e ∈ Z(G). Thus, Z(G) is nonempty.
ii. Let x ∈ Z(G). By the definition of Z(G), x ∈ G. Thus, Z(G) ⊆ G.
iii. Let x, y ∈ Z(G). Then ax = xa and ay = ya for all a ∈ G. Thus,

ay−1 = eay−1 = y−1 yay−1 = y−1 ayy−1 = y−1 ae = y−1 a

for all a ∈ G. Hence,

a(xy−1 ) = (ax)y−1 = (xa)y−1 = x(ay−1 ) = x(y−1 a) = (xy−1 )a

for all a ∈ G. Therefore, xy−1 ∈ Z(G).

By the Subgroup Criterion, Z(G) is a subgroup of G. 

T
Lemma 3.2.7 Let G be a group and {Hi | i ∈ I} be any nonempty family of subgroups of G. Then i∈I Hi is
a subgroup of G.

Proof:
T
Since Hi is a subgroup of G for all i ∈ I, it follows that e ∈ Hi for all i ∈ I. Thus, e ∈ i∈I Hi . Hence,
i. T
i∈I Hi is nonempty.
T
ii. Let x ∈ T i∈I Hi . Then x ∈ Hi for all i ∈ I. Since Hi is a subgroup of G for all i ∈ I, it follows that x ∈ G.
Hence, i∈I Hi ⊆ G.
T
iii. Let a, b ∈ i∈I Hi . Then a, b ∈ Hi for T all i ∈ I. Since Hi is a subgroup of G for all i ∈ I, it follows that
ab−1 ∈ Hi for all i ∈ I. Hence, a, b−1 ∈ i∈I Hi .
T
By the Subgroup Criterion, i∈I Hi is a subgroup of G. 

Example 3.2.8
If a ∈ G, define N(a) = {x ∈ G | xa = ax}. Show that N(a) is a subgroup of G. N(a) is usually called the
normalizer of a in G.

Proof:
i. Since ea = a = ae, it follows that e ∈ N(a). Thus, N(a) is nonempty.
ii. Let x ∈ N(a). By definition of N(a), x ∈ G. Thus, N(a) ⊆ G.

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 iii. Let x, y ∈ N(a). Then xa = ax and ya = ay. Thus,

y−1 a = y−1 ae = y−1 ayy−1 = y−1 yay−1 = eay−1 = ay−1 .

Hence,
(xy−1 )a = x(y−1 a) = x(ay−1 ) = (xa)y−1 ) = (ax)y−1 = a(xy−1 ).
Therefore, xy−1 ∈ N(a).
By the Subgroup Criterion, N(a) is a subgroup of G. 

Example 3.2.9
Let H be a subgroup of a group G and let g ∈ G. Prove that gHg−1 = {ghg−1 | h ∈ H} is a subgroup of G
and |gHg−1 | = |H|.

Proof:
i. Since e ∈ H, it follows that geg−1 ∈ gHg−1 . Hence, gHg−1 is nonempty.
ii. Let ghg−1 ∈ gHg−1 . Then h ∈ H. Thus, h ∈ G. Hence, gHg−1 ⊆ G.
iii. Let ghg−1 , gkg−1 ∈ gHg−1 . Then h, k ∈ H. Thus, k−1 ∈ H and hk−1 ∈ H. Hence, g(hk−1 )g−1 ∈ gHg−1 .
Therefore, (ghg−1 )(gkg−1 )−1 = ghg−1 (g−1 )−1 k−1 g−1 = ghg−1 gk−1 g−1 = ghek−1 g−1 = g(hk−1 )g−1 ∈ gHg−1 .
By the Subgroup Criterion, gHg−1 is a subgroup of G.

Let f : H → gHg−1 defined by f (h) = ghg−1 .

i. Let h, k ∈ H such that h = k. Then ghg−1 = gkg−1 . Thus, f (h) = f (k). Hence, f is well-defined.
ii. Let h, k ∈ H such that f (h) = f (k). Then ghg−1 = gkg−1 . By the cancellation law, h = k. Thus, f is
injective.
iii. Let y ∈ gHg−1 . Then y = ghg−1 for some h ∈ H. Thus, there exists h ∈ H such that f (h) = ghg−1 = y.
Hence, f is surjective.
Therefore, H is isomorphic to gHg−1 . Consequently, |gHg−1 | = |H|. 

Remark 3.2.10 Let H and K be subgroups of group G. If K ⊆ H, then K is a subgroup of H.

3.3 SUBGROUPS GENERATED BY A SUBSET

Definition 3.3.1 Let G be a group and S ⊆ G. Let S = {H | H is a subgroup of G and S ⊆ H}. Define
hSi = H∈S H, that is, hSi is the intersection of all subgroups H of G such that S ⊆ H.
T

i. The subgroup hSi of G is called the subgroup generated by S.

ii. If G = hSi, then S is called a set of generators for G.

Remark 3.3.2 Let G be a group and S ⊆ G. If either S = ∅ or S = {e}, then hSi = {e}. Moreover, hGi = G.

Let S = {H | H is a subgroup of G and S ⊆ H}, where S , ∅. Then (S, ≤) is a partially ordered set, where ≤
denotes the set inclusion relation. Hence, hSi is the smallest subgroup of G which contains S.
The elements of S are the generators of the subgroup hSi. If S = {a1 , a2 , · · · , an }, we write ha1 , a2 , · · · , an i

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instead of hSi. If G = ha1 , a2 , · · · , an i , (ai ∈ G), then G is said to be finitely generated. If a ∈ G, the subgroup
hai is called the cyclic group or cyclic subgroup generated by a.

Theorem 3.3.3 Let G be a group and S a nonempty subset of G. Then

hSi = {an1 1 an2 2 · · · ant t | ai ∈ S, ni ∈ Z}.

Proof:
Let
A = {an1 1 an2 2 · · · ant t | ai ∈ S, ni ∈ Z}.
Then A ⊆ hSi. We show that A is a subgroup of G containing S.
Since S , ∅, there exists a ∈ S. Thus, a = a1 ∈ A, which means that S ⊆ A. Now, let

a = an1 1 an2 2 · · · ant t , b = bn1 1 bn2 2 · · · bns s ∈ A.

Then

ab−1 = (an1 1 an2 2 · · · ant t )(bn1 1 bn2 2 · · · bns s )−1

= an1 1 an2 2 · · · ant t b−n −n2 −n1
s · · · b2 b1
s
∈ A.

Hence, A is a subgroup of G. By definition of hSi, it is the smallest subgroup of G containing S. Therefore,

hSi ⊆ A. Accordingly, hSi = {an1 1 an2 2 · · · ant t | ai ∈ S, ni ∈ Z}. 

Corollary 3.3.4 If G is a group and a ∈ G, then hai = {an | n ∈ Z}.

Proof:
By Theorem 3.3.3,

hai = {an1 an2 · · · ant | ni ∈ Z}

= {an1 +n2 +···+nt | ni ∈ Z}
= {an | n ∈ Z}.

Example 3.3.5
Let G = (Z, +) and S = {2}. Find hSi.

Solution:

hSi = h2i = {2n | n ∈ Z}

= {· · · , −4, −2, 0, 2, 4, 6, · · · }
= E.

Therefore, hSi = h2i = {2n | n ∈ Z} = E. 

Example 3.3.6
Let G = (Z, +) and {4, 6} ⊆ G. Find h4, 6i.

Solution:

h4, 6i = {4n1 + 6n2 | n1 , n2 ∈ Z}

= {2(2n1 + 3n2 ) | n1 , n2 ∈ Z}
= {2n | n ∈ Z} = E.

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Therefore, h4, 6i = h2i = E. 

3.4 PRODUCT OF SUBGROUPS

Definition 3.4.1 Let H and K be nonempty subsets of a group G. The product of H and K is defined to be
the set
HK = {hk | h ∈ H, k ∈ K}.
Let H1 , H2 , · · · , Hn be nonempty subsets of a group G. The product of H1 , H2 , · · · , Hn is defined to be the
set
H1 H2 · · · Hn = {h1 h2 · · · hn | hi ∈ H, i = 1, 2, · · · , n}.

Theorem 3.4.3 Let H and K be subgroups of a group G. Then HK is a subgroup of G if and only if HK = KH.

Proof:
Suppose that HK is a subgroup of G. Let kh ∈ KH. Then k ∈ K and h ∈ H. Now, h = he ∈ HK and
k = ek ∈ HK. This implies that kh ∈ HK. Thus, KH ⊆ HK. On the other hand, let hk ∈ HK. Then (hk)−1 ∈ HK,
which implies that (hk)−1 = h1 k1 for some h1 ∈ H and k1 ∈ K. Thus, h−1
1
∈ H and k1−1 ∈ K. Hence,

hk = (h1 k1 )−1 = k1−1 h−1

1 ∈ KH.

This implies that HK ⊆ KH. Therefore, HK = KH.

Conversely, suppose that HK = KH. Clearly, HK is nonempty and HK ⊆ G. Let h1 k1 , h2 k2 ∈ HK. Then
h1 , h2 ∈ H and k1 , k2 ∈ K.
Thus,

(h1 k1 )(h2 k2 )−1 = h1 k1 k2−1 h−1

2
= h1 k3 h−1
2 , k1 k2 = k3
−1

= h1 h4 k4 , 2 = h4 k4 since HK = KH
k3 h−1
= h5 k4 , h1 h4 = h5 .

Hence, (h1 k1 )(h2 k2 )−1 ∈ HK. By the Subgroup Criterion, HK is a subgroup of G. 

Corollary 3.4.4 If H and K are subgroups of an abelian group G, then HK is a subgroup of G.

Proof:
If G is abelian, then HK = KH. By Theorem 3.4.3, HK is a subgroup of G. 

Theorem 3.4.5 Let H and K be subgroups of a group G. Then HK is a subgroup of G if and only if
HK = hH ∪ Ki.

Proof:
Suppose that HK is a subgroup of G. Let h ∈ H and k ∈ K. Then h = he ∈ HK and k = ek ∈ HK. Thus,
H ∪ K ⊆ HK. But hH ∪ Ki is the smallest subgroup of G containing H ∪ K. Hence, hH ∪ Ki ⊆ HK.
Let hk ∈ HK. Then h ∈ H and k ∈ K. Since H ⊆ hH ∪ Ki and K ⊆ hH ∪ Ki , h, k ∈ hH ∪ Ki. But hH ∪ Ki is a
subgroup, hence, hk ∈ hH ∪ Ki. Thus HK ⊆ hH ∪ Ki. Therefore, HK = hH ∪ Ki.
Conversely, suppose that HK = hH ∪ Ki. Since hH ∪ Ki is a subgroup of G, it follows that HK is a subgroup
of G. 

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Example 3.4.6 (" # )
a 0
Let G = GL(2, R) and let H = ∈ G | a , 0 . Then H is a subgroup of G.
0 a

Example 3.4.7
Find all the subgroups of the group Z12 .

Example 3.4.8
Find all the subgroups of the group S3 .

Example 3.4.9
If H is a subgroup of G, then the centralizer of H is the set C(H) = {x ∈ G | xh = hx for all h ∈ H}. Prove that
C(H) is a subgroup of G.

3.5 CYCLIC GROUPS

Definition 3.5.1 A group G is called a cyclic group if there exists a ∈ G such that G = hai.

We recall that hai = {an | n ∈ Z}.

Theorem 3.5.2 Every cyclic group is abelian.

Proof:
Let G = hai and let x, y ∈ G. Then x = am and y = an for some m, n ∈ Z. Thus,
xy = am an = am+n = an+m = an am = yx.
Hence, G is abelian. 

Example 3.5.3
(Z, +) is a cyclic group.

Proof:
Consider 1 ∈ Z. Then h1i = {1(n) : n ∈ Z} = {n : n ∈ Z} = Z. Hence, Z = h1i. 

Example 3.5.4
Let n ∈ Z. Then nZ is a cyclic group.

Proof:
Consider n ∈ nZ. Then hni = {nk : k ∈ Z} = nZ. Hence nZ = hni. 

Example 3.5.5
(Zn , +n ) is a cyclic group.

Proof:
Consider [1] ∈ nZn . Then h[1]i = {[1]n : n ∈ Z} = {[n] : n ∈ Z} = Zn . Hence Zn = h1i. 

Example 3.5.6
Consider the set G = {e, a, b, c}. Define ∗ on G by means of the following operation table.

8
 ∗ e a b c
e e a b c
a a e c b
b b c e a
c c b a e
From the multiplication table, it follows that that (G, ∗) is an abelian group. But G is not a cyclic group since
hei = {e}, hai = {e, a}, hbi = {e, b}, hci = {e, c}
and each of these subgroups is not equal to G. this group is known as the Klein 4-group.

Theorem 3.5.7 Let hai be a cyclic group of order n. Then hai = {e, a, a2 , · · · , an−1 }.

Proof:
Note that hai = {ai | i ∈ Z}. Since hai is finite, there exists i, j ∈ Z (j > i) such that ai = a j . Thus, a j−i = e
and j − i > 0. Let m be the smallest positive integer such that am = e. We claim that the elements of the set
S = {e, a, a2 , · · · , am−1 } are distinct.
Suppose that there exists integers s, t with 0 ≤ s < t < m such that as , at . Then at−s = e with 0 < t − s < m.
This contradicts the minimality of m. Thus, the elements of the set S = {e, a, a2 , · · · , am−1 } are distinct and
S ⊆ hai.
Now, let ak ∈ hai. By the division algorithm, there exist integers q, r such that k = qm + r, where 0 ≤ r < m.
Hence, ak = (aq )m ar = ear = ar ∈ S. Thus, hai ⊆ S. This means that S = hai. Therefore, m = n and
hai = {e, a, a2 , · · · , an−1 }. 

The following corollaries immediately follows from the proof of Theorem 3.5.7.

Corollary 3.5.8 Let hai be a finite cyclic group. Then ◦(a) = | hai |.

Corollary 3.5.9 A finite group G is a cyclic group if and only if there exists an element a ∈ G such that
◦(a) = |G|.

Theorem 3.5.10 Every subgroup of a cyclic group is cyclic.

Proof:
Let H be a subgroup of a cyclic group G = hai. If H = {e}, then H = hei. Suppose that H , {e}. Then there
exists b ∈ H such that b , e. Since b ∈ G, b = am for some integer m , 0. Since H is a group, a−m = b−1 ∈ H.
This implies that either m or −m is positive. Thus, H contains at least one element which is a positive power
of a. Let n be the smallest positive integer such that an ∈ H. We claim that H = han i.
Since an ∈ H, han i ⊆ H. Let h ∈ H. Then h = ak for some integer k. By the division algorithm, there
exist integers q, r such that k = nq + r, where 0 ≤ r < n. Thus, ar = ak−nq = ak (an )−q . Since ak , an ∈ H, we
have ar ∈ H. If r > 0, then it contradicts the minimality of n. Hence, r = 0 and k = nq. This implies that
h = ak = (an )q ∈ han i, that is, H ⊆ han i. Hence, H = han i. Therefore, H is cyclic. 

Example 3.5.11
(Q, +) is not cyclic.

Proof: DpE
Suppose Q is cyclic. Then Q = q , where p and q are relatively prime. This means that every element of
p p p p
Q is generated by q . Consider 2q ∈ Q. Then there exists integer n such that n q = 2q . This implies that n = 12 .
This is a contradiction. Therefore, Q is not cyclic. 

Example 3.5.12
Let G be an infinite cyclic group generated by a. Show that

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 (a) ar = at if and only if r = t, where r, t are integers.
(b) G has exactly two generators.
Proof:
(a) Let ar = at , where r, t ∈ Z. Suppose that r , t. Without loss of generality, we may assume that r > t.
Then r − t > 0 and ar−t = e. Thus, ◦(a) = r − t, that is, the order of G is finite. This is a contradiction
since the order of G is infinite.
Conversely, if r = t, then ar = at .
(b) Suppose that G = hbi for some b ∈ G. Since a ∈ G = hbi and b ∈ G = hai, we have a = br and b = at for
some integers r and t. Thus, a = br = (at )r = art . By (a), rt = 1. This implies that either r = t = 1 or
r = t = −1. Hence, either b = a or b = a−1 . Since 1 , −1, by (a), a , a−1 . Therefore, G has exactly two
generators. 

3.6 COSETS AND LAGRANGE’S THEOREM

Definition 3.6.1 Let H be a subgroup of a group G and a ∈ G. The sets aH = {ah | h ∈ H and Ha = {ha | h ∈ H
are called the left and right cosets of H in G, respectively. The element a is called a representative of aH and
Ha.

If G is abelian, then of course aH = Ha. Observe that eH = H = He and that a = ae ∈ H and a = ea ∈ H.

Example 3.6.2
Consider the group G = (Z12 , +12 ). Then H = {[0], [4], [8]} is a subgroup of S3 . Find all the left and right
cosets of H in G.

Solution:
We find the left cosets of H in G.

[0] +12 H = {[0], [4], [8]} = H

[1] +12 H = {[1] +12 [0], [1] + 12[4], [1] + 12[8]} = {[1], [5], [9]}
[2] +12 H = {[2] +12 [0], [2] + 12[4], [2] + 12[8]} = {[2], [6], [20]}
[3] +12 H = {[3] +12 [0], [3] + 12[4], [3] + 12[8]} = {[3], [7], [11]}
[4] +12 H = {[4] +12 [0], [4] + 12[4], [4] + 12[8]} = {[4], [8], [0]} = H
[5] +12 H = {[5] +12 [0], [5] + 12[4], [5] + 12[8]} = {[5], [9], [1]} = [1] +12 H
[6] +12 H = {[6] +12 [0], [6] + 12[4], [6] + 12[8]} = {[6], [10], [2]} = [2] +12 H
[7] +12 H = {[7] +12 [0], [7] + 12[4], [7] + 12[8]} = {[7], [11], [3]} = [3] +12 H
[8] +12 H = {[8] +12 [0], [8] + 12[4], [8] + 12[8]} = {[8], [0], [4]} = [4] +12 H = H
[9] +12 H = {[9] +12 [0], [9] + 12[4], [9] + 12[8]} = {[9], [1], [5]} = [5] +12 H = [1] +12 H
[10] +12 H = {[10] +12 [0], [10] + 12[4], [10] + 12[8]} = {[10], [2], [6]} = [6] +12 H = [2] +12 H
[11] +12 H = {[11] +12 [0], [11] + 12[4], [11] + 12[8]} = {[11], [3], [7]} = [7] +12 H = [3] +12 H.

Hence, the left cosets of H in G are

H = {[0], [4], [8]},

[1] +12 H = {[1], [5], [9]},
[2] +12 H = {[2], [6], [20]},
[3] +12 H = {[3], [7], [11]}.

10
 Since G = (Z12 , +12 ) is abelian, it follows that the left cosets and the right cosets of H in G are equal.
Therefore, the right cosets of H in G are

H = {[0], [4], [8]},

H +12 [1] = {[1], [5], [9]},
H +12 [2] = {[2], [6], [20]},
H +12 [3] = {[3], [7], [11]}.

Example 3.6.3
Consider the group (Z, +) and the subgroup H = h5i = {5n | n ∈ Z}. Find all the left and right cosets of H
in (Z, +).

Solution:
We find the left cosets of H in (Z, +).

0 + H = 0 + {5n | n ∈ Z} = {5n | n ∈ Z} = H
1 + H = 1 + {5n | n ∈ Z} = {5n + 1 | n ∈ Z}
2 + H = 2 + {5n | n ∈ Z} = {5n + 2 | n ∈ Z}
3 + H = 3 + {5n | n ∈ Z} = {5n + 3 | n ∈ Z}
4 + H = 4 + {5n | n ∈ Z} = {5n + 4 | n ∈ Z}
5 + H = 5 + {5n | n ∈ Z} = {5n + 5 | n ∈ Z} = {5n | n ∈ Z} = H
6 + H = 6 + {5n | n ∈ Z} = {5n + 6 | n ∈ Z} = {5n + 1 | n ∈ Z} = 1 + H.

Hence, the left cosets of H in (Z, +) are

H = {5n | n ∈ Z}
1 + H = {5n + 1 | n ∈ Z}
2 + H = {5n + 2 | n ∈ Z}
3 + H = {5n + 3 | n ∈ Z}
4 + H = {5n + 4 | n ∈ Z}.

Since (Z, +) is abelian, it follows that the left cosets and the right cosets of H in (Z, +) are equal. Therefore,
the right cosets of H in (Z, +) are

H = {5n | n ∈ Z}
H + 1 = {5n + 1 | n ∈ Z}
H + 2 = {5n + 2 | n ∈ Z}
H + 3 = {5n + 3 | n ∈ Z}
H + 4 = {5n + 4 | n ∈ Z}.

Theorem 3.6.4 Let H be a subgroup of a group G and a, b ∈ G. Then

i. aH = bH if and only if b−1 a ∈ H.
ii. Ha = Hb if and only if ab−1 ∈ H.

Proof:

11
 i. Suppose that aH = bH. Since a = ae ∈ aH, there exists h0 ∈ H such that a = bh0 . Thus, b−1 a = h0 ∈ H.
Conversely, suppose that b−1 a ∈ H. Then h0 = b−1 a for some h0 ∈ H. Thus, a = bh0 . Now, let ah ∈ aH.
Then ah = bh0 h ∈ bH, which implies that aH ⊆ bH. Next, let bh ∈ bH. Since a = bh0 , it follows that
b = ah0−1 . Hence, bh = ah0−1 h ∈ aH, which implies that bH ⊆ aH. Therefore, aH = bH.
ii. The proof is similar to (i.).

Theorem 3.6.5 Let H be a subgroup of a group G. Then for all a, b ∈ G, either aH = bH or aH ∩ bH = ∅.

Proof:
Let a, b ∈ G. If aH ∩ bH = ∅, then we are done. Suppose that aH ∩ bH , ∅. Then there exists c ∈ aH ∩ bH,
that is, c ∈ aH and c ∈ bH. Thus, c = ah1 and c = ah2 for some h1 , h2 ∈ H. Hence, ah1 = ah2 , which implies that
b−1 a = h2 h−1
1
. Therefore, b−1 a ∈ H. By Theorem 3.6.4 (i), aH = bH. 

Theorem 3.6.6 Let H be a subgroup of a group G. Then the elements of H are in one-one correspondence
with the elements of any left (right) coset of H in G.

Proof:
Let a ∈ G and aH be a left coset of H in G. Define f : H → aH by f (h) = ah for all h ∈ H.
Let h1 , h2 ∈ H such that h1 = h2 . Then ah1 = ah2 , that is, f (h1 ) = f (h2 ). Thus, f is well-defined.
Let h1 , h2 ∈ H such that f (h1 ) = f (h2 ). Then ah1 = ah2 , that is, h1 = h2 . Thus, f is one-one.
Let y ∈ aH. Then y = ah for some h ∈ H. Thus, there exists h ∈ H such that f (h) = ah. Hence, f is onto.
Therefore, f maps H onto aH. Similarly, we can show that the elements of H are in one-one correspondence
with the elements of Ha. 

The next result is a consequence of Theorem 3.6.6.

Corollary 3.6.7 Let H be a subgroup of a group G. Then for all a ∈ G, |H| = |aH| = |Ha|.

Definition 3.6.8 Let H be a subgroup of a group G. Then the number of distinct left (right) cosets, written
[G : H] of H in G is called The index of H in G.

By Corollary 3.6.7, the number of left cosets and the number of right cosets of a subgroup H of a group
G are the same. Thus, [G : H] is well-defined.

If G is finite, then [G : H] is finite. The following example is one, where G is infinite and [G : H] is finite.

Example 3.6.9
Let n be a fixed positive integer. Consider the cyclic group (hni , +) of (Z, +). Let k + hni be a left coset of
hni in Z. By the Division algorithm, there exist integers q and r such that k = qn + r, where 0 ≤ r < n. Then
k − r = qn ∈ hni. By Theorem 3.6.4, k + hni = r + hni. Now, suppose that i + hni = j + hni, where 0 ≤ i, j < n.
Then i − j ∈ hni by Theorem 3.6.4. Thus, n|(i − j). Since n > (i − j), we have either i − j = o or i = j. Hence,
the distinct left cosets of hni in Z are 0 + hni , 1 + hni , · · · , n − 1 + hni.

Theorem 3.6.10 (Lagrange) Let H be a subgroup of a finite group G. Then the order of H divides the
order of G. In particular, |G| = [G : H]|H|.

12
 Proof:
Since G is a finite group, the number of Sleft cosets of H in G is finite. Let {a1 H, a2 H, · · · , ar H} be the set of
all distinct left cosets of H in G. Then G = ri=1 H and ai H ∩ a j H = ∅ for all i , j, 1 ≤ i, j ≤ r. Hence, [G : H] = r
and
|G| = |a1 H| + |a2 H| + · · · + |ar H|.
By Corollary 3.6.7, |H| = |ai H| for all i, 1 ≤ i ≤ r. Thus,

|G| = |H| + |H| + · · · + |H| (r terms)

= r|H|
= [G : H]|H|.

Therefore, the order of H divides the order of G. 

Corollary 3.6.11 Let G be a group of finite order n. Then the order of any element a of G divides n and an = e.

Proof:
Let a ∈ G and ◦(a) = k. Let H = hai. By Corollary 3.6.7, |H| = | hai | = ◦(a) = k. By Theorem 3.6.10, k divides
n. Thus, there exists integer q such that n = kq. Hence,

an = akq = (ak )q = eq = e.

Let G be a finite group of order n and a ∈ G. Then ◦(a) divides n by Corollary 3.6.11. Thus, to find the
◦(a), we only need to check ak , where k is a positive divisor of n.

Example 3.6.12
Consider the group Z20 and [6] ∈ Z20 . Find ◦([6]).

Solution:
We have |Z20 | = 20 and the positive divisors of 20 are: 1,2,4,5,10, and 20. Thus,

1[6] = [6] , [0], 2[6] = [12] , [0], 4[6] = [4] , [0], 5[6] = [10] , [0], 10[6] = [0].

Hence, ◦([6]) = 10. 

Corollary 3.6.13 Let G be a group of prime order. then G is cyclic.

Proof:
Suppose that |G| is prime. Then |G| ≥ 2. Thus, there exists a ∈ G such that a , e. Let H = hai. Then {e} ⊆ H
and by Lagrange’s Theorem, |H| divides |G|. But |G| is prime and |H| , 1. Thus, |H| = |G|. Since H ⊆ G, it
follows that H = G. Therefore, G is cyclic. 

Example 3.6.14
Let H be a subgroup of a group G. Show that for all a ∈ G, aH = H if and only if a ∈ H.

Proof:
Suppose that aH = H. Then a = ae ∈ aH = H.
Conversely, suppose that a ∈ H. Let ah ∈ aH, where h ∈ H. Thus, ah ∈ H, that is, aH ⊆ H. Next, h ∈ H.
Then a−1 h ∈ H. Hence, h = a(a−1 h) ∈ aH, that is, H ⊆ aH. Therefore, aH = H. 

13
 3.7 NORMAL SUBGROUPS

Definition 3.7.1
Let G be a group. A subgroup H of G is said to be a normal subgroup of G if aH = Ha for all a ∈ G.

From the definition of a normal subgroup, it follows that for any group G, G and {e} are normal subgroups
of G.

If H is a normal subgroup of G, this does not always mean that ah = ha for all h ∈ H and for all a ∈ G as
shown by the following example.

Example 3.7.2
Consider the subgroup H5 = {ι, δ, } of S3 and let δ ∈ H5 . Then
σ ◦ δ = τ and δ ◦ σ = µ.
Hence, σ ◦ δ , δ ◦ σ even though σH = Hσ.

Theorem 3.7.3 Let H be a subgroup of a group G. Then H is a normal subgroup of G if and only if for all
a ∈ G, aHa−1 ⊆ H.

Proof:
Suppose that H is a normal subgroup of G. Let a ∈ G and let aha−1 ∈ aHa−1 , where h ∈ H. Since H is
a normal subgroup of G, aH = Ha. Also, since ah ∈ aH, we have ah ∈ Ha. Thus, ah = h0 a for some h0 ∈ H.
Hence, aha−1 = h0 ∈ H, which implies that aHa−1 ⊆ H.
Conversely, suppose that aHa−1 ⊆ H for all a ∈ G. Let ah ∈ aH, where h ∈ H. Then aha−1 ∈ aHa−1 ⊆ H, that
is, aha−1 ∈ H. Thus, aha−1 = h0 for some h0 ∈ H. This implies that ah = h0 a ∈ Ha. Hence, aH ⊆ Ha. Similarly,
we can show that Ha ⊆ aH. Therefore, aH = Ha. Consequently, H is a normal subgroup of G. 

Corollary 3.7.4 Let H be a subgroup of a group G. Then H is a normal subgroup of G if and only if for all
a ∈ G and for all h ∈ H, aha−1 ∈ H.

Theorem 3.7.5 Let H and K be normal subgroups of a group G. Then

(i.) H ∩ K is a normal subgroup of G.
(ii.) HK = KH is a normal subgroup of G.
Proof:
(i.) Since the intersection of subgroups is a subgroup, H ∩ K is a subgroup of G. Let g ∈ G and let
gag−1 ∈ g(H ∩ k)g−1 , where a ∈ H ∩ K. Then a ∈ H and a ∈ K. Since H and K are normal subgroups,
gag−1 ∈ H and gag−1 ∈ K. Thus, gag−1 ∈ H ∩ K, which means that g(H ∩ K)g−1 ⊆ H ∩ K. By Theorem
3.7.3, H ∩ K is a normal subgroup of G.
(ii.) First, we show that HK = KH. Let hk ∈ HK, where h ∈ H and k ∈ K. Since K is a normal subgroup and
h ∈ G, we have hK = Kh. Thus, hk ∈ hK. Since Kh ⊆ KH, we have hk ∈ HK. Hence, HK ⊆ KH. Similarly,
KH ⊆ HK and so HK = KH. By Theorem 3.4.3, HK is a subgroup of G. Let g ∈ G. Since H and K are
normal subgroups, gHg−1 ⊆ H and gKg−1 ⊆ K. Now,
g(HK)g−1 = g(HeK)g−1
= g(Hg−1 gK)g−1
= (gHg−1 )(gKg−1 )
⊆ HK.

14
Therefore, by Theorem 3.7.3, HK is a normal subgroup of G. 

Theorem 3.7.6 If H and K are subgroups of G such that H is normal in G, then H is normal subgroup of K.

3.8 QUOTIENT GROUPS

Theorem 3.8.1 Let H be a normal subgroup of a group G. Denote the set of all left cosets {aH | a ∈ G} by
G/H and define ∗ on G/H by for all aH, bH ∈ G/H,

(aH) ∗ (bH) = abH.

Then (G/H, ∗) is a group.

Proof:
Let aH, bH, a0 H, b0 H ∈ G/H such that aH = a0 H and bH = b0 H. Then a = a0 h1 and b = b0 h2 for some
h1 , h2 ∈ H. Thus,

(a0 b0 )−1 (ab) = b0−1 a0−1 ab

= b0−1 a0−1 a0 h1 b0 h2
= b0−1 h1 b0 h2
= (b0−1 h1 b0 )h2 .

Since H is a normal subgroup, (b0−1 h1 b0 )h2 ∈ H, that is, (a0 b0 )−1 (ab) ∈ H. By Theorem 3.3.3, abH = a0 b0 H.
Hence, ∗ is well-defined.

(G1) Let aH, bH, cH ∈ G/H. Then

(aH ∗ bH) ∗ cH = abH ∗ cH

= (ab)cH
= a(bc)H
= aH ∗ bcH
= aH ∗ (bH ∗ cH).

Hence, ∗ associative.
(G2) Since e ∈ G/H, there exists eH ∈ G/H such that

aH ∗ eH = aeH = aH = eaH = eH ∗ aH

for all aH ∈ G/H.

(G3) Let aH ∈ G/H. Then a ∈ G and a−1 ∈ G. Thus, there exists a−1 H ∈ G/H such that

aH ∗ a−1 H = aa−1 H = eH = a−1 aH = a−1 H ∗ aH.

Therefore, (G/H, ∗) is a group. 

Definition 3.8.2 Let G be a group and H be a normal subgroup of G. The group G/H is called the quotient
group of G by H.

|G|
Corollary 3.8.3 If G is a finite group and H be a normal subgroup of G, then |G/H| = |H| .

15
 Proof:
|G|
Since G/H has as its elements the left cosets of H in G, and since there are [G : H] = |H| such cosets, we
|G|
have |G/H| = |H| . 

Example 3.8.4
Consider the subgroup (hni , +) of the group (Z, +), where n is a fixed integer. Since Z is commutative,
hni is a normal subgroup of Z. Hence, Z/ hni is a group, where

(a + hni) + (b + hni) = (a + b) + hni

for all a + hni , b + hni ∈ Z/ hni. The distinct left coset of hni in Z are

0 + hni , 1 + hni , 2 + hni , · · · , n − 1 + hni .

Therefore,
Z/ hni = {0 + hni , 1 + hni , 2 + hni , · · · , n − 1 + hni}.

Example 3.8.5
Consider the subgroup H = {[0], [4]} of the group Z8 . Then H is a normal subgroup of Z8 . Find Z8 /H.

Solution:
Since |H| = 2 and |Z8 | = 8, we have |Z8 /H| = [Z8 : H] = 4. Now,

[0] +8 H = [4] +8 H = H
[1] +8 H = {[1] + [0], [1] + [4]} = {[1], [5]} = [5] +8 H
[2] +8 H = {[2] + [0], [2] + [4]} = {[2], [6]} = [6] +8 H
[3] +8 H = {[3] + [0], [3] + [4]} = {[3], [7]} = [7] +8 H.

Therefore,
Z8 /H = {[0] +8 H, [1] +8 H, [2] +8 H, [3] +8 H}.


Example 3.8.6
Consider the subgroup H5 = {ι, δ, } of the group S3 . Then H5 is a normal subgroup of S3 . Find S3 /H5 .

Example 3.8.7
Consider Z4 × Z6 , the direct product of Z4 and Z6 . Let

H = h([0], [1])i = {([0], [0]), ([0], [1]), ([0], [2]), ([0], [3]), ([0], [4]), ([0], [5])}.

Since Z4 × Z6 is commutative, H is a normal subgroup of Z4 × Z6 . Find (Z4 × Z6 )/H.

Example 3.8.8
Show that every subgroup of an abelian group is normal.

Example 3.8.9
Let H be a subgroup of a group G. Then W = g∈G gHg−1 is a normal subgroup of G.
T

Example 3.8.10
Let H be a subgroup of a group G. Suppose that the product of two left cosets of H in G is again a left
coset of H in G. Prove that H is a normal subgroup of G.

16
Example 3.8.11
Prove that Z(G) is a normal subgroup of a group G.

Example 3.8.12
Let G be a group, K a subgroup of G, and H a normal subgroup of G. prove that H ∩ K is a normal
subgroup of K.

Proof:
Let khk−1 ∈ kH ∩ Kk−1 . Then k ∈ K and h ∈ H ∩ K. Thus, khk−1 ∈ H since H is normal in G, and khk−1 ∈ K
since K is a subgroup of G. Hence, khk−1 ∈ H ∩ K. This implies that kH ∩ Kk−1 ⊆ H ∩ K. Therefore, H ∩ K is a
normal subgroup of K. 

17