Hope

Hope is basically a feeling of expectation and desire for a particular thing to happen.
According to Snyder et al. (1991) hope is a positive cognitive state based on a sense of
successful goal-directed determination and planning to meet these goals.
Hope is defined as a positive motivational state that is based on an interactively derived sense
of successful:

(a) Agency (goal directed energy)

(b) Pathways (planning to meet goals)

According to Snyder’s Hope Theory (Snyder et al., 1991), hopefulness is a life-sustaining

human strength comprised of three distinct but related components:
Goals Thinking – the clear conceptualization of valuable goals.
Pathways Thinking – the capacity to develop specific strategies to reach those goals.
Agency Thinking – the ability to initiate and sustain the motivation for using those strategies.
Characteristics of hope
People who are hopeful are more likely to persevere in the face of challenges, and they
are better able to cope with stress and adversity. Hope can also help people to achieve their goals,
both big and small.
There are several characteristics of hope in positive psychology. These include:
 Optimism: Hopeful people are optimistic about their ability to achieve their goals. They
believe that they can overcome challenges and obstacles.
 Resilience: Hopeful people are resilient in the face of setbacks. They bounce back from
disappointments and keep moving forward.
 Perseverance: Hopeful people are persistent in their efforts to achieve their goals. They
don't give up easily.
 Creativity: Hopeful people are creative in their problem-solving. They are able to find
new and innovative ways to achieve their goals.
 Empowerment: Hopeful people feel empowered to take control of their lives. They
believe that they can make a difference in their own lives and the lives of others.
Types of Hope
1. Realistic Hope
 Realistic hope This is hope for an outcome that is reasonable or probable. For example, a
student hoping to get a good grade on an exam might have realistic hope if they have studied
hard and feel confident in their abilities.
According to Eaves, Nichter, and Ritenbaugh (2016) being realistic is a way of hoping
that allows individuals to observe and understand their situation while still maintaining openness
toward the possibility of positive change.
2. Utopian Hope
This type of hope is a collective hope that collaborative action will result in a better
future for all. This is hope for a better future, even if it is not realistic. For example, a person
hoping for world peace might have utopian hope.
3. Chosen Hope
Hope not only helps us live with a difficult present but also with an uncertain future. This
is hope for something that is not yet within reach, but that the person is willing to work towards.
For example, a person who is struggling with addiction might have chosen hope for a sober
future.
4. Transcendent Hope
This is hope that is not tied to a specific outcome, but is more of a general belief in the
goodness of life.
According to Eaves, Nichter, and Ritenbaugh (2016), transcendent hope encompasses three
types of hope, namely:
1. Patient Hope – a hope that everything will work out well in the end.
2. Generalized Hope – hope not directed toward a specific outcome.
3. Universal Hope – a general belief in the future and a defense against despair in the face
of challenges.
Factors Effecting hope
There are many factors that can contribute to hope, including:
 Personal factors: These include things like self-esteem, resilience, and optimism. People
who have a strong sense of self-worth and believe in their ability to overcome challenges
are more likely to be hopeful.
  Social factors: These include things like social support, religious beliefs, and cultural
values. People who have strong social support networks and believe in a higher power are
more likely to be hopeful.
 Environmental factors: These include things like access to resources, opportunities, and
challenges. People who have access to the resources they need to achieve their goals and
who are exposed to positive experiences are more likely to be hopeful.
 Coping strategies: These are the ways that people deal with stress and adversity. People
who have effective coping strategies are more likely to maintain hope in difficult times.
 Personal growth: This is the process of becoming more self-aware, resilient, and
resourceful. People who are actively engaged in personal growth are more likely to
experience hope.
It is important to note that hope is not a static state of mind. It can fluctuate depending on the
circumstances. However, by cultivating the factors that contribute to hope, we can increase our
chances of maintaining hope even in difficult times.

Childhood antecedents of hope

The childhood antecedents of hope are the factors that contribute to the development of
hope in children.
Hope has no hereditary contributions but rather is entirely a learned cognitive set about
goal-directed thinking. The components of hopeful thought are in place by age two.
Pathways thinking reflects basic cause-and-effect learning that the child acquires from
caregivers and others. Such pathways thought is acquired before agency thinking, with the latter
being posited to begin around age one year. Snyder has proposed that strong attachment to
caregivers is crucial for imparting hope, and available research is consistent with this
speculation.
Few factors related to childhood antecedents of hope include:

 Secure attachment
Children who have a secure attachment to their primary caregivers are more likely to
develop hope. This is because they learn that they can rely on others for support and guidance,
which gives them the confidence to pursue their goals.
  Positive self-esteem
Children with positive self-esteem believe in their own abilities and worth. This helps
them to see themselves as capable of achieving their goals, even when faced with challenges.

 Optimism
Children who are optimistic believe that good things will happen to them. This helps
them to stay motivated and hopeful even when things are tough.

 Resilience
Children who are resilient are able to bounce back from setbacks. This helps them to
maintain hope even when they experience disappointment or failure.

 Social support
Children who have a strong social support network are more likely to develop hope. This
is because they have people who believe in them and can offer them encouragement and help.

 Positive experiences
Children who have positive experiences, such as success in school or sports, are more
likely to develop hope. These experiences teach them that they are capable of achieving their
goals.
 Traumatic events
Traumatic events across the course of childhood also have been linked to the lessening of
hope, and there is research support for the negative impacts of some of these traumas (e.g., the
loss of parents, Westberg, 2001).

Neurobiology of hope

The neurobiology of hope is the study of the brain mechanisms that underlie hope.

It is a relatively new field of research and research on the neurobiology of hope is ongoing,
scientists are still learning about the complex brain mechanisms that underlie this emotion.
However, the research that has been done so far suggests that hope is a real and powerful
emotion that has a significant impact on our thoughts, feelings, and behaviors.
 Brain researchers now believe that what happens in the body can affect the brain, and
what happens in the brain can affect the body. Hope, purpose and determination are not merely
mental states.

Electrochemical connections
They have electrochemical connections that play a large part in the workings of the
immune system and, indeed, in the entire economy of the total human organism.

Several brain regions

1. The amygdala:
This is the brain’s emotion processing center. It is involved in processing emotions such
as fear, anger, and sadness. Hope is thought to be associated with the amygdala because it is
involved in the anticipation of positive outcomes.

2. The anterior cingulate cortex (ACC):

This region is involved in thinking about the self, reflecting on the past, and anticipating
the future. It is also involved in motivation and decision-making. Hope is thought to be
associated with the ACC because it is involved in the cognitive processes that are necessary for
hope, such as goal setting and planning.

3. The ventral tegmental area (VTA):

This region is involved in the release of dopamine, a neurotransmitter that is associated with
reward and motivation. Hope is thought to be associated with the VTA because it is involved in
the anticipation of positive outcomes, which can be a motivating factor.

In addition to these brain regions, hope is also thought to be influenced by other factors, such
as personality, genetics, and life experiences.

Behavior Inhibition System (BIS), Behavior Activation System (BAS) and Behavioral
Facilitation System (BFS)
One exciting new idea here is that goal-directed actions are guided by opposing control
processes in the central nervous system. According to Pickering and Gray (1999), these
processes are regulated by the Behavioral inhibition system (BIS) and the behavioral activation
system (BAS). The BIS is thought to be responsive to punishment, and it signals the organism to
stop, whereas the BAS is governed by rewards, and it sends the message to go forward. A related
body research suggests a behavioral facilitation system (BFS) that drives incentive-seeking
actions of organism. The BFS is thought to include the dopamine pathways of the midbrain that
connect to the limbic system and the amygdala.

Measurement of hope

1. Adult hope scale (AHS)

Adult Hope Scale (AHS; Snyder et al., 1991) is a 12-item measure of hope designed for
individuals over 15 years of age. The scale is divided into two subscales Agency thinking
(goal-directed energy) and Pathways thinking (planning to accomplish goals). The higher the
total score, the higher the overall degree of the respondent’s hope.

2. The State Hope Scale (SHS)

The State Hope Scale (SHS; Snyder et al., 1996) was developed to assess goal-directed
thinking in a given moment. Without identifying specific goals, the short 6-item self-report
SHS measures an individual’s momentary hopeful thinking by asking respondents to rate
items based on how they think about themselves on an 8-point Likert scale from 1 (definitely
false) to 8 (definitely true).

3. The Herth Hope Index (HHI)

The Herth Hope Index (HHI; Herth, 1991) is a 12-item instrument designed to measure a
global, non-time oriented sense of hope. The Herth Hope Index consists of three dimensions:

1. Temporality and future – the presence of goals and a positive outlook on life versus fear
of the future.

2. Positive readiness and expectancy – a sense of direction and the ability to see a light at
the end of the tunnel.

3. Interconnectedness – a sense of isolation versus giving and receiving love.

Hope in past as well as current time period
Past ages Current time period

Hope was often seen as a religious concept, a Hope is more often seen as a secular concept, a
belief in a better afterlife. belief that things can get better in this life.

People believed that they would be rewarded in People believe that they can create their own
heaven for living a good life. destiny through hard work and determination.

Hope was often seen as a gift from God. People Hope is more often seen as something that people
believed that God would provide for them and create for themselves.
help them through difficult times.

Hope was often seen as a passive emotion. Hope is more often seen as a proactive emotion.
People believed that they could just sit back and People believe that they need to take action to
hope for the best. make their hopes a reality.
Some examples Some examples
Hope was often expressed through religious texts Hope is often expressed through music, literature,
and art. For example, the Bible contains many and film. For example, the song “Imagine” by
stories about hope, such as the story of Noah’s John Lennon is a powerful expression of hope for
Ark. a better world.

However, there are still some similarities in the way that people perceive hope in the past
and present. Both past and present people believe that hope is essential for survival. Hope gives
people the motivation to strive for a better future.
Overall, the perception of hope has changed over time. However, hope remains an
essential part of the human experience. It gives people the strength to persevere through difficult
times and the motivation to strive for a better future. No matter how it is expressed, hope is a
powerful force that can help people overcome challenges and achieve their goals.