SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS 2

9. Sgn(t) F↔∙ T
PROPERTIES: jw
1. x [t−t o ] F ∙ S e
− jk w t '
o o
L ∙T Does n t ∃
↔ ↔
− jk w o t o ×(w)
F∙S e
↔
−S t o ×(w)
10. Initial Value Theorem:
L ∙T e ¿
x[o] = s → ∞ sx (s)
↔

Z∙T z
−no × ( z ) , R except z=0 ,∞ . x[o] = z ¿ → ∞ x (z)
↔ 11. Final Value Theorem:
¿
2. x[-t] F↔∙ S a−k x[∞ ] = s → o sx (s )
F ∙ T x (−w ) x[∞ ] = z ¿ → 1 ( 1−z−1 ) x (z)
↔
I ∙ T x (−s ) ; ROC=−R ;
↔
1 1
Z∙T x(z );
−1
. 12. μ(t) L ∙T
↔ s
↔ R
1 s
3. x(∝T ¿ ↔ ak with wo=∝ w o F∙T +π
1 w ↔ jw w
↔ ×( ) 1
|α| ∝ μ [ n] Z ∙ T −1
↔ 1−z
↔x () z
α
; ROC :|α|R
4. Differentiation:
 x(t)a k
d BASICS
[x(t)]↔(jkw o ¿ ak
dt 1. Energy and Power Signal:
d T
 x ( t ) F ∙T j wo ∙× ( w )
E= T ¿ ∞ ∫ |x (t)| dt
2
dt ↔
↔
d −T
t ∙ x ( t ) F ∙T j ∙ [x (w )] 1
T
dw ∫
2
↔ P= T ¿ ∞ |x (t)| dt
d ↔ 2T −T
 x ( t ) L ∙T sx ( s )
dt ↔
−d Energy signal:
t ∙ x (t ) L ∙ T
ds
[ x ( s )]
↔
1  Has finite energy, Zero power (Rocket cracker).
t∙ μ ( t ) ↔ 2 T
s
E x(t)=T ¿ ∞ ∫ |x (t)| ∙ dt
2
d 
→
 n x(n) ↔−z ∙ [x ( z ) ] −T
dz  So in a signal at any part if amplitude becomes
−|t | at −at
5. e =e u (−t ) +e u ( t ) zero, then it is called as energy signal.
2a  A signal having finite amplitude over some time
F∙T 2 2
↔ a +w is an energy signal.
−2 a Power signal:
L ∙T 2 2
↔ s +a

6.
jw t
e x ( t ) ↔ x ( w−wo )
o  Has finite power, infinite energy.
↔ x(s−so )  All periodic functions are power signals.
cos wo t F ∙ T π S(w-w ¿+S (w+w )  In a signal, always amplitude exists for ∞ time.
7. ↔ o o
 If you scale/shift a power signal, power remains
s same. Because scale/shift property doesn’t affect
L ∙T 2 2
↔ s +w amplitude.
sin w o t F ∙ T
π
¿ S(w-w o ¿−S (w+ wo )¿  Whereas if you scale/shift an energy signal,
8.
↔ 2 j energy changes.
s Time invariant system
L ∙T 2 2
↔ s +w
 Y( t )|t=t−¿= y ( t )|x ( t )=x ( t−¿ )
T
2
Invertible/Non – Invertible:
a n= ∫ x (t )cos n wo t dt
T o
If any one of input is zero, then on seeing the 2
T

output , nothing can be done. b n= ∫ x (t )sin n w o t dt

T o
Causal system:
Present output depends on present and past Exponential Fourier Series
input. ∞
It should not respond to future input . x(t)= ∑ Cn e
− jn w t
 o

Static system: n=−∞

T
Present output depends only on present input. 1
Linear/Non – Linear system:  C n=
TO
∫ x ( t ) e− jnw t dt o

It should satisfy both additive principle and Polar Fourier Series

homogenety. ∞
Periodic / Non – periodic : x(t)= a o +∑ d n cos(n wo t−θn )
If the signal has a period , then it is periodic. n=1

T1 Conversion from one form of Fourier Series to

must be rational number . another
T2
 d n= √ an +bn
2 2
Take GCD → That is wo → ¿that find T .
Discrete: −1 −bn
 θn = tan ( )
wo m an
= an − j bn
2π N  c n= a n=d n cos θn
N → must be rational number → periodic 2
b n=d n sin θn

Symmetry:
1. Even : b n=0 , ao ≠ 0
2. Odd : a n = 0, a o=0
2. Convolution: 3. Half wave : a n = 0 for n = even a o=0
 x(t) ¿ S ( t−t o )=x ( t−t o ) . T
x(t± ¿=−x ( t ) .
 x(t) ∙ S ( t−t o ) =x (t)∙ S ( t−t o ) . 2
∞
4. Hidden : a o ≠ 0
 ∫ x ( t ) ∙ S ( t−t o ) dt=x ( t o )
−∞
Fourier Transform :
 e μ ( t )∗μ ( t )=( 1−e−t ) μ ( t )
−t
∞


t
μ ( t )∗x ( t )=∫ x ( t ) ∙ dt
 x(w) = ∫ x ( t ) e− jwt dt
−∞
0 ∞
1
 −t −t
e μ ( t )∗e μ(t )=te−t u(t)  x(t) = ∫
2 π −∞
jwt
x ( w ) e dt
 S ( t )∗x ( t )=x (t )
≡ h1 ( n )+ h2 (n). −at 1
  e u (t )↔
a+ jw
 ≡ h1 ( n )∗h2 (n) .
2a
 e−a|t|↔ 2 2
a +w
 F ∙ T of S ( t ) ↔ 1
FOURIER SERIES:  F∙ T of 1↔−2 πδ ( w )
Trignometric Fourier Series  cos t↔ π [ S ( w−1 ) + S ( w+1 ) ]
∞ ∞
 cos wo t ↔ π [ S ( w−wo )+ S ( w+ wo ) ]
 x(t)=a o +∑ a n cos n wo t+ ∑ bn sin n w o t
π
n=1 n=1
 sin w o t ↔ [ S ( w−wo ) + S ( w+ wo ) ]
1
t
j
a o= ∫ x (t )dt
T o
 ∞
Laplace Transform:
 ∫ |h(z)|dz < ∞
∞ −∞

x(s) = ∫ xtl ¿ ¿ e− st dt ROC must include jw axis .

∞
−∞

e
−at 1
u (t )↔
 ∫ |h(z )|<∞
 ; σ >−a n=−∞
s+ a
ROC must include unit cercle.
−at −1
 e u (−t ) ↔ ; σ <−a 3. Causal & stable: Right sided signal
s+ a
at 1
 e u (t) ↔ ; σ>a Pre output should depend on pre past output.
s−a ∞


at
e u (−t ) ↔
−1
; σ>a ∫|n(z )|dz< ∞
s−a 0
' L ∙T All poles must have−ve real parts .
 1 L ∙T does n t ∃
↔
→
∞
 S(t) L↔∙T 1 → ∑ |h( n)|<∞
n=0
L ∙T | poles|< 1
Z – Transform : →

∞
4. Anti causal & stable: Left sided signal
x(z) = ∑ x [ n ] z−n
n=−∞
0
z

n
a u (n )↔
z−a
;|z| ¿|a| ∫ |h(t)|dz < ∞
−∞
n z L ∙T All poles must have+ ve real parts .
 −a u (−n−1 ) ↔ ;|z| ¿|a|
z−a −1
→

ROC→ Finite signal → ¿ Sided signal| z|<∞

→ ∑ |h(n)|< ∞
n=−∞
→ ¿−sided signal|z|>0 L ∙T | poles|> 1
→
→ S ( n ) → Entire z plane.
5. Non – Causal : Both the sided signals .
Pre output depends on futureinput .
→ μ ( n−1 ) → Positive sided signal → Greater than Greatest pole
.

Orthogonal Signal:
∞

∑ x ( n ) y ( n )=0
n=−∞
Sample location of x(n) & y(n) shouldn’t be the same.

Causality & Stability:

1. Causal : Causal signals are all right sided
signals.
 h(t)=0, t<0 [causal system]
ROC must occur to the right of right
most signal.
 h[n]=0, n<0
ROC is outside the circle with largest
pole.
2. Stable :