TRAFFIC ENGINEERING AND

MANAGEMENT

By
ZZIGWA MARVIN
Department of Civil and Building Engineering
Traffic Analysis at Signalized Intersections
 Introduction
Traffic signals are now used throughout the world, using the
three light signals of Green, red and amber.
with the red signal at the top and the green light at the bottom.
• Used at intersections to reduce conflicts to a minimum
by time sharing of right of way.
This actually reduces the capacity of the intersection, but greatly
enhances safety. Most intersections are not signalised due to
low traffic volumes and adequate sight distances.

They are one of the most powerful tools for urban traffic
control available to city authorities and their correct installation
can improve both traffic flow and the safety of all road users.
 Introduction…..Continued
Essentially, traffic signals form part of the "software" of a city as
opposed to the roads and bridges that are part of its
"hardware".
As such they have the advantage of being cheap and often the
disadvantage of being so cheap that no local lobby is interested
in them, especially when city mayors fail to see the political
advantages in changing an old signal for a new one.
It is thus part of the traffic engineer's task to prove to city
authorities that a modern and well designed traffic
signal system will bring real and visible benefits to the
city
• The selection and use of traffic signals should be based on an
engineering study of roadway, traffic and other considerations.
• Engineering judgment should be applied in review of operating
traffic control signals to determine whether the type of
installation and the timing program meet the current
requirements of all forms of traffic.
 Introduction…..Continued
Some Common Definitions
Approach (or leg): A lane or group of lanes through which traffic enters the
intersection.
Indication: The illumination of one or more signal lenses (greens, yellows, reds)
indicating a permitted or prohibited movement.
Green time (G): The time period in which the traffic signal has the green indication.
Red time(R): The time period in which the traffic signal has the red indication.
Yellow (Amber) time (Y): The time period in which the traffic signal has the yellow
(amber) indication.
Cycle: One complete sequence or rotation of all signal indications ([yellow +]
green + yellow + red)
Cycle time (cycle length) (C): The total time for the signal to complete one
sequence of signal indication i.e. [yellow +] green + yellow + red times.
 Introduction…..Continued
Some Common Definitions……….
Signal timing: The operating characteristics of the signal with the parameters
being signal cycle length and the green and red times.
Interval: a period of time during which all signal indications remain constant
for all approaches.
All red interval (AR): The display time of a red indication for all approaches.
(Signal) Phase: the part of a cycle allocated to any combination of traffic
movements receiving the right-of-way simultaneously during one or more
intervals: green + yellow + all red.
Change interval (or inter-green or clearance interval): The yellow plus all
red times (intervals) that provide for clearance of the intersection before
conflicting traffic movements are released.
Intergreen: The period between one phase losing the right of way and the
next phase gaining the right of way, i.e. the period between the termination of
green on one phase and the commencement of green on the next phase.
 Introduction…..Continued
Some Common Definitions……….
 Introduction…..Continued
Some Common Definitions……….
Permitted movement: This is a movement that is made through a conflicting
pedestrian or other movement.

Protected movement: It is a movement is made without conflicts with

others.
Major Street: This is the street at an intersection that has higher traffic
volume approaches.

Minor Street: This is the street at an intersection that has lower traffic
volume approaches.
Effective green (g): It is the time that is effectively available to the traffic
movements of an approach. Generally it is taken as the green time plus
the change interval minus the lost time for the approach.
Effective red (r): is the time during which a given traffic movement is
effectively not permitted to move. It is the cycle length minus the
effective green time.
 Types of Signal Operations
Pre-timed Operation
a) Here, the cycle length, phases, green times and change intervals are all
preset;
b) Several preset timing patterns may be used, each being implemented
automatically at fixed times of the day.
Semi-actuated Operation
The cycle length and green times may vary from cycle to cycle in response to
demand.
Fully-actuated Operation
a) All signal phases are controlled by detector actuations;
b) Minimum and maximum green times are specified for each phase, as is the
phase sequence;
c) Cycle lengths and green times may vary considerably in response to
demand;
d) Certain phases may be skipped entirely if no demand is sensed by
detectors;
e) Mostly used at intersections where significant variations in volume exist
on the approaches during the course of the day.
 Discharge headways, Lost time, Saturation Flow
and Capacity
a) Discharge headway, h (in sec/Veh)
The discharge (saturation) headway is based upon expected headway after the
point at which headways stabilise. The headway stabilises at 2.14 seconds for
the sixth and subsequent vehicles (see Figure 5.5).
The first discharge headway is the time
between the initiation of the green indication
and therear wheels of the first vehicle to
cross over the kerb line.
 Discharge headways, Lost time, Saturation Flow
and Capacity…..
b) Lost Time, tL
It is the time during which the intersection is not effectively used by any
approach.
This occurs during the change interval or the clearance time (change interval
lost time, l2) and at the beginning of each green indication as the first few cars in
a standing queue experience start-up delays (startup lost time, l1).

c) Saturation Flow, S
The maximum flow that could pass through an intersection from a
given approach if that approach were allocated all of the cycle time as
green time. Measured in vehicles per hour green per lane (vphgpl) or passenger
car units per hour, the saturation flow rate is computed as:

Where; h is the discharge (saturation) headway in seconds per vehicle and w is the width of
the approach road in metres for 5.15<w <18.3m
For widths less than 5.15 m the following values may be used:
 Discharge headways, Lost time, Saturation Flow
and Capacity…..
b) Approach capacity, c
It is the maximum flow that can pass through an intersection under prevailing
roadway and traffic conditions given the effective green allocated to the
approach. in vehicles per hour per lane (vphpl),
Where; g is the effective green; S is the
saturation flow; C is the cycle length.
 Discharge headways, Lost time, Saturation Flow
and Capacity…..
b) Approach capacity, c__Example …..
 Discharge headways, Lost time, Saturation Flow
and Capacity…..
b) Approach capacity, c__Example …..
 Effect of Right Turning Vehicles
All types of vehicles require additional time while making right or left turns
compared to through vehicles.
However, right turning vehicles (Uganda, Japan, UK and most of its
former colonies – Left-turning, rest of the world) require much more time to
execute the turns.

The Right Turn (RT) Equivalent

Processes two RT vehicles and three through (TH) vehicles in the same time that the
left lane processes 17 TH vehicles. In this situation, the TH-car equivalent of one RT
vehicle (RT equivalent) can be
found as follows: 3+ 2ERT = 17 Or ERT = 7

1 RT vehicle is equivalent to 7 TH vehicles in terms of headway.

Effect of Right Turning Vehicles
 The Time Budget and Critical Lanes
This concept centres on the allocation of the 3600 seconds in the hour
to lost time and to productive movements. FOR THE CRITICAL
LANE
Each signal phase has one and only one critical lane.
Let Vci denote the heaviest per-lane volume by phase (i.e. the critical lane
volume of each phase). The maximum total volume VC that can be
handled on all critical lanes in the 3600 seconds is given by
The Time Budget and Critical Lanes……..
The Time Budget and Critical Lanes……..
 The Time Budget and Critical Lanes……..
Consideration of the v/c ratio and Peak Hour Factor (PHF)

Peak Hour Factor (PHF)

▪ This accounts for the flow variation within an hour
 The Time Budget and Critical Lanes……..
Consideration of the v/c ratio and Peak Hour Factor (PHF)……..
Minimum Cycle Length, Cmin
The minimum cycle length can be obtained by considering the following
relationship:
 Inter-green/Change/Clearance Period

Inter-green consists of either a yellow (an amber) or yellow plus all-

red periods. It alerts motorists regarding the change from a green to a red
light.
For the case of stopping: define xc as the minimum distance for which the
vehicle can be stopped comfortably. Any shorter, it would be uncomfortable,
unsafe or even impossible.
 Inter-green/Change/Clearance Period……….
If the vehicle is to clear the intersection, the time required to
do so,

For a given intersection, the relative magnitudes of the

two critical distances xc and x0 determine whether a
vehicle can or cannot safely execute either or both
manoeuvres (ie, safely stopping or safely clearing the
intersection on yellow;
Note; x0 > xc
 Inter-green/Change/Clearance Period……….
Example;
 Pedestrian Requirements in Signal Timing

Consider a pedestrian crossing the EW road on the onset of pedestrian

green as shown in Figure above. The pedestrian walking speed is
assumed to be 1.2 m/s. The required minimum pedestrian green time,
 Pedestrian Requirements in Signal Timing
b) Impact of pedestrian traffic on Vehicular Traffic
The minimum pedestrian green imposes a constraint on the minimum red
for the vehicular movement(s) being crossed by the pedestrian.
For any given phase i, the red shown to the movements on approach i is
given by:

Alternatively, the minimum green for the movements moving in the same
direction as the pedestrian is obtained from:
 Pedestrian Requirements in Signal Timing…
c) Example
 Pedestrian Requirements in Signal Timing…
c) Example………….
 Pedestrian Requirements in Signal Timing…
c) Example………….
 Pedestrian Requirements in Signal Timing…
c) Example………….
 Optimal Cycle Length, Co
Unnecessarily long cycle lengths cause substantial delays while short cycle
lengths may cause congestion or violate the pedestrian crossing times.
Webster’s formula can be used to approximate the appropriate cycle length
that minimises delays to all streams on the approach roads. This cycle length
CO, called the optimal cycle length, is given by:

The flow ratio is defined as the ratio of the arrival rate (volume or
demand) to the saturation flow (or servicing rate).
Critical movement is identified in each phase as the lane or groups of
lanes with the highest flow ratio.
 Optimal Cycle Length, Co………..
Example
 Optimal Cycle Length, Co………..
Example…………..
 Optimal Cycle Length, Co………..
Example…………..
 Optimal Cycle Length, Co………..
Example…………..
 Optimal Cycle Length, Co………..
Example…………..
 Optimal Cycle Length, Co………..
Example…………..
 Optimal Cycle Length, Co………..
Example…………..