Trrafic Engineering

Prof. Dr. Ahmed El-Desouky

Traffic Signals
SIGNAL TIMING AT ISOLATED INTERSECTIONS

• An isolated intersection is one in which the signal time is not coordinated

with that of any other intersection and therefore operates independently
• Definitions:
− Cycle (cycle length): the time in seconds required for one complete colour
sequence of signal indication
− Phase (signal phase): that part of a cycle allocated to a stream of traffic, or
a combination of two or more streams of traffic, having the right of way
simultaneously during one or more intervals
− Interval: any part of the cycle length during which signal indications do not
change
 Phase A Phase B

• Gr Yellow Red Red Green Yellow

een
• Cycle length Cycle length
− Change and clearance interval: total length of time in seconds of the yellow
and all-red signal indications (allows vehicles to clear the intersection
before conflicting movements are released
− All-red interval: the display time of a red indication for all approaches
− Peak-hour factor (PHF): a measure of variability of demand during the peak
hour, and is equal to the ratio of the volume during the peak hour to the
maximum rate of flow during a given period within the peak hour
− Passenger car equivalent (PCE): a factor to convert straight-through
volumes of buses and trucks to straight-through volumes of passenger cars
(1.6–2.5 for intersections)
− Turning movement factors: factors to convert turning vehicles to equivalent
straight-through vehicles (1.4–1.6 for left-turning vehicles and 1.0–1.4 for
right-turning vehicles)
− Critical lane volume: maximum lane volume in a phase (vph)
• The main objectives of signal timing are:
− To reduce the average delay of all vehicles
− To reduce the probability of accidents
• The two objectives may conflict with each other as increasing the number
of phases will reduce the probability of accidents (by reducing conflict
points of traffic) and increase average delay
Yellow Interval

• The objectives of the yellow indication after the green are:

− To alert motorists to the fact that the green time is about to change to red
− To allow vehicles already in the intersection to cross it
• A bad choice of yellow interval may lead to the creation of a dilemma zone,
an area in which vehicles can neither stop safely before the intersection nor
clear it without speeding before the red signal comes on
• Therefore, the yellow interval must guarantee that an approaching vehicle
can either stop safely or proceed through the intersection without speeding
 X0 W L

Cannot stop

Cannot go

Xc

Dilemma zone

• At the minimum yellow interval required to eliminate the dilemma zone

(min): X0 = Xc
− For vehicles to just clear the intersection: Xc = u0 min – (W + L)
Where:
u0 = speed limit on the approach (m/sec)
W = width of intersection (m)
L = length of vehicle (m)
• For vehicles to stop before the intersection:
u02
X0 = u0  +
2a
Where:
 = perception-reaction time (sec)
a = rate of braking deceleration (m/sec2)
• Therefore,
u02
u0 min − (W + L ) = u0  +
2a
(W + L) u0
min =  + +
u0 2a

• If the effect of grade is added:

(W + L) u0
min =  + +
u0 2( a + Gg )

Where:
G = grade of the approach
g = acceleration due to gravity (m/sec2)
• Note that:
− For safety considerations, the yellow interval should not be less than 3 sec
− To encourage motorists’ respect for the yellow interval, it should not be
greater than 5 sec
− If a longer yellow interval is required, use the maximum yellow interval and
add an all-red interval
Example:
Determine the minimum yellow interval at a flat intersection whose width is 12
m if the maximum allowable speed on the approach roads is 50 km/h. Assume
average length of vehicle is 6.0 m, comfortable deceleration rate is 0.27g, and
perception-reaction time is 1.0 sec

(12 + 6) 50 * 0.278
min = 1.0 + + = 4.92 sec
50 * 0.278 2 * 0.27 * 9.81

Therefore, use a 5-sec yellow interval

Cycle Length

• Only pre-timed (fixed) signals will be discussed, where each signal has a
preset cycle length that remains fixed for a specific period of the day or for
the whole day
• Other types of signals are semi-actuated and fully actuated
• Several methods exist for determining the cycle length; only Webster
method will be studied
• Rate of discharge of vehicles at an intersection:
 Rate of discharge
Saturation flow

Lost Lost
time time
Effective green

Time

Green Yellow Red

− At the beginning of the green interval, some time is lost before the vehicles
start moving
− The rate of discharge then increases to a maximum (saturation flow, S)
− If there are sufficient vehicles in the queue to use the available green time, the
saturation flow will be sustained until the yellow interval occurs
− The rate of discharge then falls to zero when the yellow signal changes to red
− The number of vehicles discharged through the intersection is represented
by the area under the curve
− Dividing the number of vehicles by the saturation flow will give the
effective green time
− The effective green is less than the sum of the green and yellow; the
difference is considered lost time
Webster method:
− For a wide range of practical conditions, minimum intersection delay is
obtained when the cycle length is obtained by:
1.5L + 5
Co = 
1 −  Yi
i =1

Where:
Co = optimum cycle length (sec)
L = total lost time per cycle (sec)
Yi = qij/Sj = maximum value of the ratios of approach flows to saturation flows
for all traffic streams using phase i
 = number of phases
qij = flow on lane j having the right of way during phase i
Sj = saturation flow on lane
− Lost time for each phase can be estimated as:
ℓi = Gai + i – Gei
Where:
ℓi = lost time for phase i
Gai = actual green time for phase i
i = yellow time for phase i
Gei = effective green time for phase i
− Total lost time is given as:

L =  i + R
i =1
Where:
R = total all-red time during the cycle
− Total effective green time per cycle is:

  
Gte = C − L = C −    i + R 
 i =1 

Where:
C = actual cycle length (the value of Co rounded to the nearest 5 sec)
− The total effective green time is distributed among the different phases in
proportion to their Y values:
Yi
Gei = 
Gte
 Yi
i =1

− The actual green time is obtained as:

Gai = Gei +ℓi – i

Example:
The following figure shows peak-hour volumes for a major intersection on an
expressway. Using the Webster method, determine suitable signal timing for the
intersection using a four-phase system and the additional data given in the
figure. Use a yellow interval of 3 sec and assume the total lost time is 3.5 sec
per phase. Additional information:
− PHF = 0.95
− Left-turn factor = 1.4
− PCE for buses and trucks = 1.6
− Truck percentages:
North Approach South Approach West Approach East Approach
Trough Left Trough Left Trough Left Trough Left
0 0 0 0 4 4 0 0
 109
N

75
25
321
321
128
222
464
464

352

206
100
− Assume the following phasing system:

Phase A Phase B Phase C Phase D

Solution:
• First, convert mixed volumes to equivalent straight-through passenger cars
For example:
DHV for EB (West Approach) through traffic = 464/0.95 = 488 vehicles
PCE = (488 – 0.04*488) + 0.04*488*1.6 = 468 + 31 = 499

Phase,  Critical Lane

Volume
A 499
B 338
C 115
D 519
Total 1471
 N

115
79
37
338
338
189
335
499
499

519

217
105
 Phase,  Critical Lane
• The critical lane volumes are as follow:
Volume
• Total lost time L = 3.5 * number of phases A 499
= 3.5 * 4 = 14 sec B 338
C 115

• Determine Yi and Yi D 519

Total 1471

Phase A (EB) Phase B (WB) Phase C (SB) Phase D (NB)

Lanes 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3
qij 335 499 499 189 338 338 115 79 37 519 105 217
Sj 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000
qij/Sj 0.17 0.25 0.25 0.09 0.17 0.17 0.06 0.04 0.02 0.26 0.05 0.11
Yi 0.25 0.17 0.06 0.26

Yi = 0.74
• Optimum cycle length:
1.5L + 5 1.5 * 14 + 5
Co =  Co = = 100sec
1 −  Yi 1 − 0.74
i =1

• Total effective green time: Gte = C – L = 100 – 14 = 86 sec

• Effective and actual green times for each phase:

Yi Y
Gei = Gte = i * 86
 Yi 0.74

Gai = Gei +ℓi – i = Gei + 3.5 – 3.0

− Actual green time for phase A (GaA) = (0.25/0.74)*86 + 3.5 – 3.0  30 sec
− Actual green time for phase B (GaB) = (0.17/0.74)*86 + 3.5 – 3.0  20 sec
− Actual green time for phase C (GaC) = (0.06/0.74)*86 + 3.5 – 3.0  7 sec
− Actual green time for phase D (GaD) = (0.26/0.74)*86 + 3.5 – 3.0  31 sec