Module 2.

Plate Tectonics Theory:

An Overview
Learning Outcome
At the end of this module, the learners will be able to:
1. explain the Continental Drift Theory;
2. explain the Sea Floor Spreading Theory;
3. discuss how the Theory of Plate Tectonics was developed;
4. identify the major tectonic plates;
5. identify the 3 major plate boundaries; and
6. explain how each of the plate boundaries moves in relation to how the plates move.

Topic Outline
● Learning Motivation
● The Earth’s Interior
● Continental Drift Theory (CDT)
● Sea Floor Spreading Theory (SFS)
● Plate Tectonics Theory (PTT)
● The different tectonic plates
● The different tectonic boundaries

Learning Resources
● Learning Activity 2 Continental Drift: Jigsaw Puzzle
● PHIVOLCS presentation slides

Learning Process/Discussion

Learning Motivation
Earthquakes and volcanic eruptions are natural phenomena that cannot be prevented. You
may introduce this topic to your students by asking them if they know any methods by which
earthquakes and volcanic eruptions can be stopped. It is important to dispel incorrect
answers and reiterate that no method, scientific or otherwise, can prevent these natural
occurrences. Given this inevitability, this module answers the question, “what drives the
occurrences of earthquakes and volcanic eruptions?”

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The Earth’s Interior
The earth is made up of three layers namely: crust, mantle, and core. This layered structure
can be compared to a hardboiled egg where the crust is the outermost layer, below the crust
is the mantle, and the innermost layer is the core (Figure 2.1). Like an eggshell, the
uppermost layer of the earth which is called the lithosphere (crust and the upper part of the
mantle) can be brittle and can break into smaller pieces.

Figure 2.1 (a) The earth’s interior is layered like a hardboiled egg cut in half. The uppermost
layer - crust and the upper portion of the mantle - is called the lithosphere. (b) The earth’s
lithosphere is broken into several pieces.

Continental Drift Theory

In 1912, the idea of moving continents was presented by Alfred Lothar Wegener in a theory
called Continental Drift. In this theory, Wegener proposed that 200 million years ago, a single
large continent called Pangaea began to break apart, forming two great land masses:
Laurasia and Gondwanaland. The continents continued to break apart into the smaller
continents that exist today. Wegener cited several pieces of evidence to support his theory
such as: (a) shorelines of major continents fit; and (b) there are similarities of fossil plants and
animals on continents that are presently separated by huge bodies of water. However, many
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in the scientific community could not accept this theory because there was no mechanism
proposed as to how it is possible for continents to just drift apart.

Learning Activity 2 on the Continental Drift Theory is a great activity for the students to
see the Earth through Wegener’s eyes and imagine how the Earth used to look like.

Sea Floor Spreading Theory

In the 1940s, during World War II, there were many deep-sea explorations and surveys
conducted for military use. Because of these activities, there was a lot of new information
gathered about the ocean bottom. It was during this time that the mid-oceanic ridge (line of
volcanoes at the bottom of the sea) was discovered and mapped. It was observed that along
these mid-oceanic ridges, new materials (lavas) are formed and extruded by undersea
volcanoes. In 1962, after careful study and observation of available data, Harry Hess and
Robert Dietz proposed the Theory of Sea Floor Spreading and Ocean Floor Recycling.

Figure 2.2 (a) Map of the world showing the spatial distribution of earthquakes. (b) Map
showing what has been recognized by scientists as the Pacific Ring of Fire (Figures from
Kious and Tilling, 1996).

According to this theory, the volcanic activity under the sea causes magma from beneath the
earth’s crust to rise to the surface forming a very long ridge along the middle of the oceans
that separate the large continents.

It was during the 1968 expedition of the research ship Glomar Challenge that evidence was
gathered proving that rocks near the oceanic ridges are young. Conversely, rocks away from
the ridges are older. It was also observed that there was a mirror-image pattern in the record
of magnetic signatures of rocks at the ocean floor. By the late 1960s, what became clear is

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that the distribution of earthquakes and volcanic eruptions worldwide is not random (Figure
2.2a). This is particularly well-observed in the Pacific region where the “Pacific Ring of Fire”
was recognized (Figure 2.2b). What explains these observations?

Plate Tectonics Theory

In the late 1960s, the Theory of Plate Tectonics slowly developed. In this theory, the earth’s
lithosphere (crust and the uppermost portion of the mantle) is broken into several pieces
known as tectonic plates. Moreover, according to this theory, there are two types of tectonic
plates according to composition: (a) oceanic crust, which is thinner but heavier, and (b)
continental crust which is thicker but lighter.

There are several major tectonic plates identified: North American Plate, South American
Plate, Pacific Plate, African Plate, Eurasian Plate, Antarctic Plate, and Indo-Australian Plate.
Aside from these, there are even more minor tectonic plates that are smaller in size.

Figure 2.3 Tectonic plates of the earth.

(Image from https://www.usgs.gov/media/images/tectonic-plates-earth)

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The tectonic plates move relative to each other. There are three major types of plate
boundaries where different types of plate movements are observed:

1. Divergent boundary – where plates move away from each other, and along this
boundary, new rocks are formed on the oceanic ridges (Figure 2.4a).
2. Convergent boundary – where tectonic plates move towards each other and collide
(collision zones) (Figure 2.4b). When two continental plates collide, they form
mountain ranges (ex. The Himalayas Mountain Range). When an oceanic plate
collides with a continental plate, this results in the subduction of the oceanic plate
under the continental plate. A subduction zone is a region or location wherein one
lithospheric plate descends into the mantle beneath into another plate upon collision.
3. Transform/ Strike-slip boundary - two tectonic plates slide past each other (Figure
2.4c).

a b c

Figure 2.4 The tectonic plate boundaries: (a.) Divergent boundary, (b.) Convergent boundary,
and (c.) Transform/Strike-slip boundary (Figures modified from Kious and Tilling, 1996)

The Pacific Ring of Fire is one apparent result of Plate Tectonics. Many of the above-
mentioned tectonic plates meet and continue to move relative to each other along this region.
Because of the continuous movement of tectonic plates, many active volcanoes exist and
earthquakes occur along the Pacific Ring of Fire. In Figure 2.2b, you will notice that the
Philippines is part of this region; hence, earthquakes and volcanoes are common in the
country.

But what drives the plates to move?

The question that we ask now is this: “what makes these tectonic plates move?” These plates
do not just drift randomly on the earth’s surface. Although scientists cannot still fully
understand the forces, most believe that the forces are originating deep in the Earth and drive
the tectonic plates to move.

Based on seismic evidence, geophysical evidence, and laboratory experiments, scientists

agree with Harry Hess’ Theory (Theory of Sea Floor Spreading): that underneath the tectonic
plates, the hot softened mantle moves circularly because of convection currents and it is this

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circular motion that moves and carries the plates like in a conveyor belt (mantle convection).
The circular movement of a partially molten mantle is also like that of a pot of thick soup that
is heated to the boiling point (Figure 2.5). When heated, the soup at the bottom of the pot
rises to the surface and spreads. As it begins to cool, it then sinks again back to the bottom. It
rises again as it is reheated and the cycle goes on.

Figure 2.5 The earth’s core heats the liquid

mantle. For this example, the soup in the pot is
the mantle while the stove is the heat source
from the core. The liquid moves circularly
when heated. The crystal plates are pulled
sideways along the liquid’s surface as the
liquid moves in a circular motion.

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Evaluation

How much did you learn? Answer these evaluation questions to gauge your learnings.
1. What were the observations made by Alfred Wegener that he used as evidence for
Continental Drift Theory?
2. What were the pieces of evidence cited by Harry Hess and Robert Dietz in the Sea
Floor Spreading Theory that they used to convince others that the sea floor is indeed
spreading?
3. What are the three types of tectonic plate boundaries?

References

Kious, W.J. and Tilling, R.I. (1996). This Dynamic Earth: The Story of Plate Tectonics. United
States Geological Survey, 77p.

Related Resources
Annenberg Learner. Dynamic Earth Interactive. https://www.learner.org/series/interactive-
dynamic-earth/

National Geographic. Plate Tectonics [Video]

https://www.nationalgeographic.org/media/plate-tectonics/

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