— —— Contents RELATIONS AND FUNCTIONS. wt verify that the relation R in the set L of all lines in a plane, defined by R= {(/,m):/-L m} is symmetric but neither reflexive nor transitive \ 2 ro verify that the relation R in the set L of all lines ina lace defined by R equivalence relation. 1, my ini 3. To demonstrate a function which is not one-one but is onto... i 4. To demonstrate a function which is one-one but not onto. . 14 INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS So draw the graph of sin", using the graph of sin x and demonstrate the concept of mirror reflection (about the line y = x). . 16 6. To explore the principal value of the function sin’ x using a unit circle... 20 EXPONENTIAL AND LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS. 7. To sketch the graphs of a’ and log, x, a> 0, a # | and to examine that they are mirror images of each other.. 23 RELATION BETWEEN COMMON LOGARITHM AND NATURAL LOGARITHM 8. To establish a relationship between common logarithm (to the base 10) and natural logarithm (to the base e) of the number x. 25 LIMIT AND CONTINUITY 12-10 find analytically the limit of a function f (x) at x = c and also to check the continuity of the function at that point. . 28 CONTINUITY 10. To verify that for a function fto be continuous at given point x, A, L(x +4,) fx) is arbitrarily small provided Ax is sufficiently small 30 ROLLE’S THEOREM 11, To verify Rolle’s theorem 3 LAGRANGE’S MEAN VALUE THEOREM 12. To verify Lagrange’s Mean Value Theorem... 35 APPLICATIONS OF DERIVATIVES \3-To understand the concepts of decreasing and increasing functions. 37 lw To understand the concepts of local maxima, and local minima and point of inflection in a given function. 4015, To understand the concepts of absolute maximum and minimum values of a function in a given closed interval through its graph... a WORD PROBLEMS ON MAXIMA AND MINIMA. _16¢ To construct an open box of maximum value from a given rectangular sheet by cutting caval square pieces from each other.. _ FINDING MAXIMA AND MINIMA 17To find the time when the area of a rectangle of given dimensions become maxi YK length is decreasing and the breadth is increasing at given rates. VERIFICATION OF MAXIMA AND MINIMA 18,/To verify that amongst all the rectangles of the same perimeter, the square has the maximum area.. : : um, if its DEFINITE INTEGRALS 19/1 evaluate the definite integral { (1-2) dx as the limit of a sum and verify it by actual integration.. VECTOR AND CROSS PRODUCT (20 To verify geometrically that “¢'x(a+b)=-exat ex bd. [ANGLE BETWEEN TWO VECTORS 21 To verify that angle in a semi-circle isa right angle, using vector method . THREE-DIMENSIONAL GEOMETRY 22/Fo locate the points to given coordinates in space, measure the distance between two points in space and then to verify the distance using distance formula... o EQUATION OF PLANE IN NORMAL FORM 23. To demonstrate the equation of a plane in normal form... ANGLE BETWEEN TWO PLANES 24. To verify that the angle between two planes is the same as the angle between their normals. DISTANCE OF GIVEN POINT FROM A GIVEN PLANE 25. To find the distance of given point (in space) from a plane (passing through three non-collinear points) by actual measurement and also analytically. SHORTEST DISTANCE BETWEEN TWO SKEW LINES: Pe To measure the shortest distance between two skew lines and verify it analytically. CONDITIONAL PROBABILITY 29 To explain the computation of conditional probability of a given event A, when event B has already occurred, through an example of throwing a pair of dice... Perlodie Test (With Answer Keys). 43 45 48 32. 55 38 61 64 67 0 75 1: a i 1 Relations and Functions OBJECTIVE MaTERIALS REQUIRED To verify tha the relation Rin the set Lofall ines ina plane, defined by | @ Hardboard or plywood R= {((cm):/-Lm} issymmetric but neither reflexive nor transitive © 8 pieces of wires © Cutter for cutting wires © Nails © White paper If(a,b)e R, then we say that aisrelated tob and write, aRD. If(a,b)¢ R, then we say thataisnotrelatedto band write, aRb. Doutain and Range ofa Relation : Let R bea relation ina set A. Then, the set ofall fist coordinate of aoa iccalled the domain of R, writen as dom (R) and the st of al second coordinates of is called the range of R, written asrange(R)- dom (R)= {a:(a,b)€ R) and range (R)= {b:(a,5)€ R}. Empty Relation (or Void Relation) : Arelation R ina set Ais jsrelatedtoany element of A and we denote such relation by ¢- ‘ruiversal Relation) :Arelation R ina set is called a universal relation, ifeach element of is related to every clement ofA. Thus, R=(AXA)¢(A *A) isthe universal relation on A. Identity Relation : The relation = {(a,2):a A} iscalled the identity relation on A. Various Types of Relations : Let Abeanon-empty st. Then, arelationR on Ais sido be f(a,a)e Rforeachae R,i.,ifaRaforeachae A. sif(a,b)e R= (b,a)eR foralla, be A. i.e, ifaRb=2bRa forall a, be A. QER= (ace Roralla,b, ce A. THEORY Relations : Arelation R ina setA isa subset of Ax A. Thus, Risarelation inasetAe> RCAXA. called an empty relation, ifno element of A () reflexive: (ii) symmetri (iii) transitive; if(a,b)e R,@, ie.,ifaRband BRe=>aRe. Equivalence Relation : A relation R in a set symmetric and transitive. ‘Ais said to be an equivalence relation if it is reflexive, METHOD OF CONSTRUCTION 1, Take hardboard or plywood of a suitable size and paste a white paper on it. 2, Fix some nails on the plywood in such a way that when wires are tied with them, some of the wires are parallel, some are perpendicular and some vires intersect each other, ¢. are inclined to each otheras shown in Fig. 1. DEMONSTRATION 1. Lethe wires represent the limes fly, ly 2. LLisperpendiculartocach of the ines / l,. (See Fig. 1]3. hisperpendicularto 4 Lisparallelto/,,1,isparallelio/, and /,isparallelto SG l Gils Cs lds oh YER 7" OBSERVATIONS Pada We observe that— 1. InFig. 1, since no tine is perpendicular to itself, therelation R= {(/,m):/ Lm} isnotreflexive. 2. InFig.1.1 AL/.Also/,1/, GLE) €R3(,,4) R Similarly, .1,.Also/,..1, (hh) ERG LER Also, 1,.L1,.Also/,1, = (sh) ERI0,,)€R The relation Ris symmetric. 3. InFig.1 /,.1/, and/,/, but /, isnotperpendicularto ie. (L,,)€ Rand), LeR(,,,)eR The relation Ris not transitive. RESULT The relation R= {(/,m) :/Lm)} is symmetric but neither reflexive nor transitive. APPLICATION This activity may be used to check wether a given relation is an equivalence relation or not. WViva-Voce Q.1. Whatisarelationonaset? Sol. ArelationR inasetA isa subset ofA*A. Q.2. Whatisan empty relation? Sol. Arelation R ina setA is called an empty relation, ifno element of is related to any element of Aand we denote such arelation 9. Q.3. Define universal relation. Sol. Arelation R inaset Ais called a universal relation, ifeach clement ofA is related to every element of A. Q.4. Whatisan identity relation? Sol. Therelation 1,= {(a,a):a€ A} iscalled the identity relationonA. Q.5. Which methods are used to represent a relation? Sol. Roster method and set builder method. 0.6. If(a,b)€ R, we say that ais related to b, how do we denote it? Sol. If(a,b)€ R, then we say that ais related to b and write aRb.a 2 Relations and Functions Activity OBJECTIVE : ; MATERIALS REQUIRED ‘To verify that the relation R in the set L of ll lines ina plane, defined by | @ Hardboard or plywood R= {/,m}:1||misan equivalence relation. © 8 pieces of wires © Cutter for cutting wires THEORY © Nails Same as Activity-1. © White paper, glue etc. METHOD OF CONSTRUCTION 1. Take hardboard or plywood of suitable size and paste a white paper on it. 2. Fix some nails on the plywood in such a way that when wires are tied with them, some of the wires are parallel, some are perpendicular to each other, and some wires intersect each other, ie. are inclined to each other as shown in Fig. 2. DEMONSTRATION 1, Letthe wires represent the lines f, 2. l,isperpendicularto each ofthe lines/,,/,,/, _ [SeeFig. 2] 3. L.isperpendicularto/, 4. hisparallel to/,,/,, is parallel to/, and /, is parallel to /, 5. yb (nts le heR Co AN blldasds Ad OBSERVATIONS ‘We observe that — 1, InFig. 2, every line is parallel to itself. therelation R= {(I,m):1 Lm} isnotreflexive relation. 2. InFig. 2, observe that j,.And / Il/; (hh) ERG LER Similarly, ,|I/,-And 1, [| 4 (hl) ER, L)ER and, (Isp ,) R= (lyyL)ER The relation R is symmetric relation. 3. InFig.2, observe that /, If, and J II/,.And Id, (sh) € Rand (Isl) ER=9(4,1) eR Similarly, /, ||, and J, || /-And4, If f-LIE Rolls) ER (LER Thus, the relation R is transitive relation, Hence, the relation R is reflexive, symmetric and transitive. Thus, R is equivalence relation, RESULT The relation R = {(/,m):/||m} is an equivalence relation. APPLICATION This activity is useful in understanding the concept ofan equivalence relation. WViva-Voce Qi. Sol. Q.2. Sol. Q.3. Sol. Q4. Sol. Q Sol. Q6. Sol. What isa reflexive relation? Arelation R in a set A is said to be reflexive if every element of A is related to itself, ie., Ris reflexive if (a,a)ER=9(a,a)eRVa,beA What isa symmetric relation? Arclation R inasetA is said to be symmetric, if (a,b) ER = (,a)eRVa, bE A. Whatisa transitive relation? Arelation R ina setA is tobe transitive, if(a, b) and (a,c)eR => (a,c) ¢RWa,b, ceA. Whatis an equivalence relation? Arelation whichis reflexive, symmetric and transitive is called an equivalence relation. Isparalle! line relation symmetric? Yesiifline/, is parallel to/, then /,is also parallel to/,. Is the relation “perpendicularto” reflexive? No, aline cannot be perpendicular to itself.Inverse Trigonometric Functions MATERIALS REQUIRED © Hardboard or cardboard © White chart paper © Ruler @ Colour pens @ Pencil © Eraser © Cutter @ Adhesive @ Nails @ Thin wires OBJECTIVE To draw the graph of sin''x, using the graph of sin x an concept of mirror reflection (about the line y=). \d demonstrate the THEORY Graph ofsin”'x: ‘The graph of y=sin.x is shown in Fig. 5(@) Y yosinx Fig. S(a) The graph ofy=sin ‘x isshownin Fig. 5(6). Left poeuio[ =, 3]: s09=sin"'x Here [# ; 4] js called the principal value branch of sin"'x.The other branches of sin"! are [Ee 2°2 y= sin" x and y= sin x Fig. 5(€) METHOD OF CONSTRUCTION 1, Take a cardboard of suitable dimensions, say, 30cm x 30cm. 2. On the cardboard, paste a white chart paper of size 25 cm x 25 cm (say). 3. On the paper, draw two lines X’OX, Y'OY mutually perpendicular to each other and regard them as rectangular axis (See Fig. 5(d)). ei4. Graduate the axis approximately as shown in Fig. 5(d) by taking unit of x-axis = 1.25 times the unit of y-axis. mt) (E oink asin c f 5, Maskapproximately the points (§. sink ) (5 si *) (Eesin 5 } inthe coordinate plane 6 and ateach point fix anail ts : Repeat the above process on the other side ofx-axis, marking the points | ~ sin (-2)). (-En( )), . (Se (-3)) approximately and fix nailson these points asN',,N’, 4 N,N‘, Alsofixanail at. Join the nails with the help of tight wire on both side of X-axis to get the graph on sin from a nom E08, 2°2 & Draw the graph of the line y=x (by plotting the points (1,1), 2,2),(3,3),-- ete. and fixing a wire on these points). 9. FromihenailsN’,.N'.N},N'a draw perpendicular on the liney=xand produce these lines such that length of perpendicular on both sides ofthe line y= are equal. At these points fix nals, 1, 1,1, 1, 10. Repeat the above activity on the other side of x-axis and fix nail at!',,1',T',T'. 11. Join thenailson both side of the line y=xby a tight wire that will show the graph of, DEMONSTRATION Puta mirror on the line y=x. The image of graph of sin.x in the mirror will represent the graph of sin’ showing that sin’'x is mirrorreflection of sinx and vice versa. OBSERVATIONS ‘The image of pointN, in the mirror (the line: ‘The image of point, in the mirror (the line. ‘The image of point N, in the mirror (the line y=) is I,. ‘Theimage of point N, in the mirror (the line y=x) is I,. ‘The image of pointN;'in the mirror (the line y=x) is’, The image of pointN; inthe mirror (the line y=) is, The image of point N'in the mirror (the line y=x) is’. The image of point N,'in the mirror (the line y=x) isl’, The image of the graph of sin.x in y=. is the graph of sin 'x, and the image of the graph of sin 'x in y=xis the graph of sin x. APPLICATION ‘Similar activities can be performed for drawing the graph of cos 'x, tan ‘x, etc. from the graphs of sin x, cos, tany,......and vice versa. WViva-Voce Q.1. Whatis the maximum value of sin.x? Sol. Themaximum value of sin xis 1. isl, isl, & 1e Future Vision in Mathematics Lab Manual—Xil_ : reneeLimit and Continui OBJECTIVE MATERIALS ReQuireD To find analytically the limit ofa function /(x) atx =candalsotocheck | @ Paper the continuity of the function at that point. © Pencil THEORY 2 Eee. @ Calculator Continuity at a Point : Areal function /(x)is said to be continuous ata Loeitienial) | SP Him p¢a) existandequalsf(). 3a pointa of its domain if. x Thus, f(x) isnot continuous atx=aif Hm y= 2 fox)=f1a) x at xa If/(x) isnot continuous at a point, itis said to be discontinuous at that point. Discontinuity at a Point :/(x) is discontinuous atx= 4 from the right. lim. lim. xe SG)=8, f(4)=10. f(x) =8 and SR)=8. x9 lim 3 4, Therefore bs ss BE fe)=f(@)=No x4 6. Sincef()# aan f(x) . the function is not continuous atx=4. RESULT The given function is not continuous atx=4 APPLICATION This activity is useful in understanding the concept of limit and continuity ofa function ata point. WViva-Voce Q.1. Whatis continuity of.a function ata given point? Sol. Areal function is said o be continuous atx = cif the function is defined at x= if the function atx=cis equal to the limit of the function atx=c. Q.2. Whenisa function said to be discontinuous at a point? Sol. A function f is said to be discontinuous at x = c if it is not continuous at x=c and cis called the point of discontinuity of f. Q.3. Whenisareal function said to be continuous? Sol. Areal function is said to be continuous if itis continuous at every point in the domain of Q.4, Whathappens toa function f(x) atx=a if ae SQ) =f(@)? xa Sol. f becomes continuous atx=a. Q.5. Forthe function f, 1 (2) does notexist. Canitbe continuous atx= xa Sol, No. Q.6. Forafunction/, lim _ f(x) exists, canit be discontinuous atx=a? xa Sol. Yes,if lim f(x) +/(a). xa Q.7. Whathappensa function /(x)atx =aif lim /(x)=f(a)? xa Sol. f becomes continuous atx = a. | Fire Vision in Mathematics Lab Manual-XI | f ae ot |Applications of Derivatives (Increasing and Decreasing Functions) Qaxeerve MATERIALS REQUIRED Tounderstand the concepts of decreasing and increasing functions. © Drawing board | THEORY © Whitepaper sheet | Increasing Function : A function f (x) defined on Ja, bf is said to be| © Trigonometic tables increasing if © Pieces of wires of | different lengths x. x, Se) 2 fe) forall x,, x,¢]4, 5. ee Strictly Increasing Funetion : A function (x) defined on a, b [is said to be increasing if x4x =f) $ f(x) forall x,,x,€]4,b[. METHOD OF CONSTRUCTION 1. Takeappiece of plywood of aconvenient size and paste a white paper ont. 2, Take two pieces of wires of length say 20 em each and fix them on the white paper to represent xeaxisandy-axis. 3, Take two more pieces of wire each of suitable length and bend them in the shape of curves representing two functions and fix them on the paper as. shown in the Fig. 13. z - ae LF)4. Take two straight wires each of suitable length for the purpose of showing tangents to the curves at different points on them. DEMONSTRATION 1. Take one straight wire and place it on the curve (on the left) such that Point say M, and making an angle ot, with the positive direction of x-axis. 2+ Guisan obtuse angle, tan o, is negative, i. the slope ofthe tangent at M, (derivative ofthe function atM, is negative. 3. Take another two points say M, and M, on the same curve, and make tangents, using the same wire, tM, and M, making angles @, and 0, , respectively with the positive direction of x-axis, 4. Here again o, and 0, are obtuse angles and therefore slopes ofthe tangents tan cand tan cr, are both negative, i.e., derivatives of the function at M, and M, are negative. 5. The function given by the curve (on the left) is a decreasing function. 6 On the curve (on the right), take three points N,, N,, N, and using the other straight wires, form ‘angents at each ofthese points making angles B,, B,,B,, respectively with the positive direction of - axis, as shown in the figure. B,, B, B,all acute angles. ~» the derivatives of the function at these points are positive. Thus, the function given by this curve (on the right) isan increasing function. OBSERVATIONS 1. 0 = 120°, > 90° a, = 135° > 90°, a, = 150°> 90°, tan 0, = V3, (negative), tan ot, =-1, (negative) langent t0 the curve atthe tana, Fp negative. Thus the function is decreasing. 1 2. B,=30°<90°, B,=45°, <90°, B,= 60°, <90° tan B, YF Positive), tan B, = 1, (positive), tan Bj=/3, Positive. Thus, the function is inereasing. RESULT ‘A function may be decreasing or an increasing function depending upon the shape of the graph of two function. . APPLICATION Thisactivity may be useful in explaining the concepts of decreasing and increasing functions. ee Q. 1. Whatisan increasing in an interval? Sel. Afimetion / is said to be increasingif f(x) increases eax increases or f(x) decreases as xdecreases. Or J issaid to be increasing or strictly increasing, if 215% fH) <,) or 4,7 %, =f) >S 05) where x,,x, belong to domain of function.ications of Derivatiy 7 14 Applications ore and Minines MATERIALS REQUIRED © Drawing board © White paper sheet © Board pins © Pencil and scale OBJECTIVE : ; To understand the concepts of local maxima, and local minima and point of inflection in a given function. THEORY Local Maximum value of a Funetion : We say that cis a point of local maximum of a function f(x) if there is an open interval I containing c such that /(x)Osuch that Sx) $ flo) Vxe(c-6, c+). Heref(c) is called local maximum value and cis called point of local maxima, ze,OBJECTIVE To construct an open box of maximum value from a given rectangular MATERIALS REQUIRED | sheet by cutting equal square pieces from each other. Le : © Cellotape SoME USEFUL FORMULA FOR SOLUTION OF PRACTICAL PROBLEMS iw L @ Scissors 2, Perimeter of Square (sidex) = 4x 2 ae 3. Area of Rectangle (sides.xandy) =xy wi 4, Perimeter of Rectangle (sides xandy)=2(x+y) 5, Area of Trapezi =} (cumof parallel sides) (Distance between them) . Area of Circle (Radius r)=r7", 1. Circumference of Cirele (Radius r)=2nr. 6 1. 8. Volume of Sphere (Radius n=t Fa 9. ). Surface Area of Sphere (Radius r) = 4ny° 10. Volume of Right Circular Cylinder (Base radius r andheight i) =70°h. « Surface Area of Right Cireular Cylinder =2nrh + 2nr’where base radi 12. Curved Surface Area of Right Circular Cylinder=2nvh 13. Right Circular Cone of Base Radius r, Height h and Slant Height/ =randheight=h Volume= 2" Curved surface Area, Total Surface Area= n+ nr 3 14, Volume of Cuboid (Length of edges.x,y,2)=xyz, Surface Area=2(xy+yz+2x) 15. Volume of Cube (Length of edgex)=x°, Surface Area= 6x" 16. Area ofEquilateral Triangle= (§ ) (side 1 1 1 17. AreaofTriangle=3 absin Cory besinAor > casinB 18. Areaof Triangle = /s(s—a) s(s—b)(s—c) (Hero Formula) METHOD OF CONSTRUCTION 1. Takearectangular chart paper of size 45 cm 24cmandnameitas PQRS, 2. Cut-out four equal square pieces of size | em» lem from each comer, 3. Now fold up the flaps to from an open rectangular box from this chart paper with the help of cellotape. Seen Pnrecep thand height of thisopen-box wih the help of seal. Work outthe volume jeasure the length, bread 4 box using this formula, , ofthe open box using Ve length breadth * height 45cm R § z a 45cm Fig. 16 5, Theanother rectangular chart paper sheet of same size (45 cm x 24cm) and repeat the above process by cutting out squares of size (2 em x 2 cm) from each comer and measure its length, breadth and heightand find the volume ofthe open box. ; | 6. Now take a third rectangular chart paper sheet of same size (45 em x 24 cm). Again remove equal square pieces of size (3 em * 3 em) from each comer and measure its length, breadth, and height and find its volume. . 7. Goon repeating this process by cutting out equal square pieces from each comer of sizes 4 cm x4 ‘em, Sem x 5 em 6 cm 6cmand 7 cm*7 cm. Ineach case make an open rectangular box by folding Lupthe flaps. Now measure the length, breadth and height ofthe each box and calculate their Volume. DEMONSTRATION 1, Whenx=1em, /=(45~2)em=43 em, b=(24-2)om=22cmandheight= lem . Volume V, = (43 x 22 x 1) cm’ =946 cm? 2. Whenx=2cm, !=(45—4)em=41 cm,=(24—4)cm=20cm andheight= 2¢m -. Volume V,=(41 x 20*2)cm’=1640cm’ 3. Whenx=30m, /=(45-6)cm=39em, = (24—6)cm=18cmandheight= 3m <. Volume V,=(39* 18 x3)cm’ =2106em* 4, Whenx=4em, /=(45~8)om=37 om, b= (24-8)cm=16cmandheight= 4em +. Volume V,=(37* 164) em’ =2368 cm’ 5, Whenx=Sem, !=(45~10)em=35cm,b=(24~10)em=14emandheight= $m 2. Volume V,=(35 * 14 *$)em’=2450cm’ 6 Whenx=6em, I= (45~12)cm=33 cm,b=(24~-12)em=12cmandheight= 6em Volume V,=(33 12*6)em’ =2376 em" 7. Whenx=Tom, 1=(45—14)em=31 em, b= (24-14)cm=10cmandheight= 7om ++ Volume V, = (31 « 10%7) em’ =2170em’ OBSERVATIONS 1. When cm, then V,= 946 cm’ 2. When x = 2cm, then V,=1640cm’ hi ‘Future Vision in Mathematics Lab Manual-¥ll AN ay3. When x = 3cm, thenV,= 2106cm’ 4. When x = 4cm, then V,= 2368 em’ 5. When x = Sem, then V,= 2450cm’ 6, When x = 6cm, thenV,= 2376cm’ 7. When x = 7m, thenV,= 2170cm’ (Maximum Volume) Hence, the volume of the open box is maximum = 2450 em’ When size of square to be removed from each comer is Scm* Sem. APPLICATION This activity is useful in explaining the concepts of maxima/minima of functions. It is also useful in making packages of maximum volume with minimum cost. WViva-Voce Q.1. Which concept of local maxima/minima or absolute maxima/minima has been used in the activity? Sol. Concept of local maxima/ local minima has been used. Q.2. Show that ofall rectangles with given perimeter P, the square has the largest area. Sol. Let.xand ybe length and breadth of rectangle having given perimeterp. se 2et2y=p =xty=plr ] yoBox ‘A=area of rectangle = xy = (-») 2 wwe (1) x = £-a5-2(2-x) & y y dA _ yo > Now “*=0 =P 5 iow T° =O gives x= 2 P Pp dA : For x<‘j slightly,A>Oandforx>G A changes sign from+veto-ve Hence A ismaximum forx=p/4 7 <. x=y= p/4 shows thats A is maximum. Hence, rectangle becomes square.Finding Maxima ang Minima MATERIALS ReQuirep © Chart paper ® Scissors ®@ Scale ®@ Pencil @ Eraser @ Cardboard OBJECTIVE To find the time when the area of a rectangle of, given dimensions become mum, ifits length is decreasing and the breadth is increasing at given rates. THEORY Let the length and breadth of rectangle bea and The length ofrectangle after tseconds = a1. The breadth of rectangle after seconds =b +21. Area ofthe rectangle (after sec)=4 (=(@—-0 (6+21)=ab—bt+ 2at-2P NO=- bs 20~4r= (2 -1) Formaxima or minima, A’ (‘)=0,A"(1)=0, 1= maxit < slightly A’()>Oand when >? slightly A’ (1) <0, A’(t) changes sign from +ve to—ve. Thus,A() ismaximumat ¢= 745 seconds, METHOD OF CONSTRUCTION 1 Takea rectangle R, of dimensions 16cm 8m, 2. Letthe length of the rectangl atthe rate of 2 cm/second. 3. CutotherrectangleR,, R;, RJR, RRR, Ry etc, of dimensions 15 em Toe ste 14em * 12 om, 13 emx 14¢m, 12 mx 16em, 1lem «18 cm, 10 * 20cm, 9em 22cm, 8m x 24em, (See Fig, 17) 4. Letus paste these rectangles on cardboard. le be decreasing at the rate of 1 cm/second and the breadth is increasing et R, 8 R, 10] 16 1s 13, @ wo (iit (iv) R, 24] BS. 16] R 418 Ry Fie 22 12 u 10 9 8 goes Fig.i7 0 (vii) (i) eit)1. Length ofthe rectangle 2emls tangle is decreasing atthe rate of I emi/s and the breadth is increasing atthe rate of . - ae a ae oe ee sec)=15* 10=150cm", 5 oe tangle R, (after 2 sec)= 14x 12=168em". tangle R, (after3 sec)= 13 x 14= 182em’. (9) Areaofthe givenrectangle R, (after 4sec)=12 16=192cm'. (vi) Areaofthe given rectangle R, (after S sec)=11 x 18=198cm". (vif) Area ofthe givenrectangle R, (after 6 sec)= 10% 20=200em" (viii) Area ofthe given rectangle R, (after sec)=9x22=198em. (ix) Areaofthe given rectangle R, (after 8 sec)=8 24= 192cm’. OBSERVATIONS 1. Areaofthe rectangle R, (after I sec)=150cm’. ‘Area of the rectangle R, (after 2 sec) = 168 cm’. ‘Area of the rectangle R,(after3 sec)=182cm’. Area of the rectangle R, (after 4 sec)= 192m’. ‘Area of the rectangle R, (after 5 sec)= 198 cm". ‘Area of the rectangle R, (after 6 sec)=200em" (maximum area) ‘Area ofthe rectangle R, (after sec) = 198 cm". ‘Area ofthe rectangle R, (after sec)=192 em". Rectangle of Maximum: area (after 6 seconds)=200: cm’. ‘Area of the rectangle ismaximum after 6 sec. is=200em’. eaae een Maximum area of the rectangl APPLICATION This activity ean be used in explaining the concept ofrateofchange ‘and optimisation of a function. WViva-Voce —‘“O Qu. Have we usedhere the concept of absolute maxima orabsolute minim? Sol, No, we have not used here the concept of absolute ‘maxima or absolute minima, here we have used the concept of local maxima or local minima. Where can weuse this activity? | Thin activity can be used in finding out aftr what ine the sens of different figures whose length and cris hare changing at given ate, wil bemaximum or minimum. Q.3. Whatdo youmean by absolutemaximum of function? isf(c), where f(c)2f(2)forallx inthe domain off Sol. The absolute maximum off atx Q.4. Whatdo yournean by absoluterinimum ofa function /? Sol, The absolute minimum of a function fatx= disf(d). Where (d)$ f(s) forall xinthe domain off.-18 Mate Verification of Maxima and Minima © Drawing board © White paper sheet OBJECTIVE To verify that amongst all the rectangles of the same perimeter, the square has the maximum area, THEORY © Scale Pencil Let the length and breadth ofrectangle bex andy. The perimeter of the rectangle P= 48 cm. 2(¢+))=48 or x+y=24 or y= (24—x) Let A(x) be the area of rectangle, then AQ) = xy=x(24-x) aro A'Q@) = 24-2x=2(12-x) A'(@) = 0 2 (12-x)=0 =x = 12 when, x<12slightly, A'(x)>Oand when x> 12 slightly, A'(x)<0. Al (x) change sign from +ve to—ve. ‘Therefore, area is maximum whenx=12 4—12=12 So, ‘y=12 Hence, amongst all rectangles, the square has the maximum area. METHOD OF CONSTRUCTION 1, Takea cardboard ofa suitable size and paste a white paper on it. 2. Make rectangles each of perimeter say 48 cm ona chart paper. R Board pins Actsent S| aensen! § F 16cm. 7 _ ihm (a) (b) (e) R rn R, R acwsen 811 p.-tasem 8) | Amtsszsem'a] | ajmtaias & 2 2 ea 13 = 12cm 12.5 cm 10,5 em, (e) oO w)Rectangles of different dimensions arc as follows Ry: 16cm Sem=128 em’ Sem%9em=135em’ Ry: !em» 10em=140em' Rg: Bem 1 cm=143 em’ Ry: 12em x 12em=144em! R,:12.5em* 1.5m = 143. 750m’ R,:10.5cm x 13,5em=141.75 em" 3. Cutout these rectangles and paste them on the white paper on the cardboard (See fig. 18 (a)t0(z))- 4, Repeat step2 for more rectangles of different dimensions each having perimeter 48 cm. 5, Paste these rectangles on cardboard. DEMONSTRATION 1. Areaofrectangle of R,=128cm* Areaofrectangleof R,= 135m" Areaof R,=140cm" Areaof R,=143em" Areaof R= 144m’ ‘Area of R,=143.75em’ ‘Areaof R,=141.75 cm’ 2, Perimeter of each rectangle is same but their area are different. Area ofrectangle Ris the maximum. Itis square of side 12.cm. This canbe verified using theoretical description given n the theory OBSERVATIONS 1, Perimeter of each rectangle is greater, ,R:,R,,Ry,Rs)Re,Rris48em. ‘Area of rectangle R,is greater than the area of rectangle R,. ‘Area of rectangle R,is greater than the area ofrectangle R,, ‘Area of rectangle Ris greater than the area ofrectangleR;. ‘Area of rectangle R,is greater than the area ofrectangleR,. ‘Area of rectangle R,is greater than the area of rectangle K,. ‘Area of rectangle R, is greater than the area ofrectangleR,. ‘The rectangle R, has the dimension 12m 12cmandhenceitisasquare. Offall the rectangles with same perimeter, the square has the maximum area. naayaenr APPLICATION ‘This activity is useful in explaining the idea of Maximum of a function. The result is also useful in preparing economical packages ‘Wiva-Woce 0.1. Can we construct an open box of maximum value from 2 given rectangular sheet by cutting equal squares from each ofits comers? Sol. Yes. : 0.2. Amongstall the rectangles ofthe same perimeter does rectangular ora square has the maximum area? Sol. Asquare has the maximum area. Q. Which concept has been used in the aboveactivity? Sol. Local maxima. Q.4. Can we verify the above activity mathematically? Sol. Yes, we can verify the above activity mathematical : gtMATERIALS ReQuiren | © Drawing board © White paper sheet © Scale OBJECTIVE ’ . To evaluate the definite integral if (1—x*) dx as the limit ofa sum and verify itby actual integration. : Us coal © Pencil | Definite Integral as the Limit of a Sum : Let f(x) be a continuous real- © Board pins valued function, defined in the closed interval [a, b]. Then we define =| oo froaw- lim AUG) +f(ath)+f (a+2h)+...+f [a+(n~1)h], where nh=(b—a) : _ a, JIG) de= ~ fi fromaright handed system. — ‘When a right-handed screw is rotated from a to and it advances along f then the systems said tobe right-handed. ‘Therefore, g x b i8avvector whose direction is perpendicular (normal) to both q’as well asp and is givenby theright hand rule or the right handed screw rule for the eross-product of two vectors. c One of the properties of the vector products its distributivty over *B. addition ic., vector productis distributive over addition. ero, NON a Fig. 20(a) ie, x(at b)=exatexd ‘Another important property of the vector or the eross-product oftwo vectorsisthatifthe vectors q and p representthe adjacent sides of a parallelogram as shown in Fig. 20(b) then its areais given byjax 6] [ J METHOD OF CONSTRUCTION a a 1. Fixawhite paper on the cardboard. , 2. Drawaline segment OA (=6cm, say)andletitrepresent c - ian 3. Draw another line segment OB (=4em, say) atan angle (say 60°) withOA.LetOB= a - a Fig. 20(0) Fig, 20(0) E4. DrawBC(=3¢m, say) making anangle (say 30°) with OA .Let BC = b 5. Drawperpendiculars BM, CLand BN. 6. Complete parallelogram OAPC, OAQB and BQPC [See Fig. 20(¢)] DEMONSTRATION 1. OC=0B+BC= a +, andlet ZCOA=a, 2. (ex(a'+ bye] e || a+ b |Sin&=(OA) (OC) sin.=OA x LC=area of parallelogram OAPC, 3. [ex a [=| || a | Sin60°=(OA) (OB) =area of parallelogram OAQB. 4. [ex B |=|¢ || b | sin30°=(0A)(BC)sin30° =area ofparallelogram BQPC = (BQ)(CS) 5. AreaofparallelogramOAPC = (OA)(CC) = (OA)(LN+NC)=(0A)(BM+NC) ‘rea of parallelogram OAQB + Area of parallelogram BQPC sletalt}exd| Thus,| © x(a +6 )/=| Direction ofeach of these vectors ¢ x(a +b), eX a and ¢ x b isperpendiculartothe same plane. Hence, ¢ x(a + b)= OBSERVATIONS 1. | © |=[OA| = OA= c xatexb,. [a+ B|=|0C| = CL=. .$q. units. a) 2 G) |e x(a + b)| = Areaofparallelogram OAPC=(OA)(CL)= |e x a | = Areaofparallelogram OAQB =(OA)(BM) = Area of parallelogram BQPC=(OA)(CN)= fexs| From (1), (2)and3, ‘Area of parallelogram OAPC= Area of parallelogram OAQB + Area of parallelogram... Thus Sas Difele x ais ex Cx a,c%b, and c x(a +b) areallinthe direction ofnormal to the plane of paper. Therefore “e" x(a" +b’ RESULT This activity proves the property of distributive of cross-product of vectors over addition. jen ex(a+bjeexatexd. | i !APPLICATION . = ‘Through the activity, distributive property of vector multiplication over addition can be explained. Vva-Voce —=—$= =————— rrr Q.1. Whatare scalars? Sol. A quantity that has magnitude only is known asa scalar. Q.2. Whatare vectors? Sol. Aquantity that has magnitude as well as direction is called a vector. Q.3. Whatisaunit vector? Sol. Avector q is alledaunit vectorif | a’ |= landitis denotedby 4. Q.4. Whatare equal vectors? Sol. Two vectors a and p are said to be equal if they have the same magnitude and the same direction regardless of the positions of their initial points, Q.5. Whatis zero ornull vector? Sol. Avector whose initial and terminal points coincide is called a zero vector, denoted by O | 0.6. Whatare free vectors? Sol. Ifthe initial point ofa vector is not specified then tis said to be a free vector. Q.7. Whatare localised vectors? Sol. A vector drawn parallel to given vector through a specified point as the initial point is called a localised vector. Q.8. Whatare coplanar vectors? Sol. Three or more non zero vectors lying in the same plane or parallel to the same plane are said to be coplanar, otherwise they are called non-coplanar.Angle Between Two Vectors Mareriats Reouine OBJECTIVE i | F : © Drawing board To verify shotangle ina semicirleisarightangle,using vector method cae as | THEORY a i © Pencil | IfQis the angle between two vectors @ and _p ,thenby theparallelogram law | @ Scale of vectors, the magnitude of theirresultant (R’= a + b ) isgivenby © Board pins | R = Ja? +b? +2ab cos 0 where, R = Ao palel — —_ and b Scalar or Dot Product of Two Vectors : The scalar or dot product of two non-zero vectors is denoted by qa’. b’ and is defined as ab =la' ||| cose ou Where | a’ |ismagnitude of a’. |B |ismagnitude of 5: ‘And@isthe angle between | a |and 5, where0< 0 < x. If @ =90°, then TB =a} |B | cos90°=0 i.e, the dot product of two vectors which are perpendicular to each other is zero. Conversely, if the dot product of two vectors is zero, then the angle between them is 90° ic, they are perpendicular to each other. Such vectors are called orthogonal vectors. a 21a) METHOD OF CONSTRUCTION 1. Takea thick cardboard of size 30cm * 30cm. 2. On the cardboard, paste a white paper of the same size using an adhesive, 3. On this paper draw a circle, with centre O and radius 10cm. 4, Fix nails at the points O, A, B, P and Q. Join OP, OA, OB, AP, AQ, BQ, OQ and BP using wires. 5. Putarrows on OA, OB, OP, AP, BP, OQ, AQand BQ to show them as vectors, using paper arrow heads, as shown in the Fig. 21 (6).DEMONSTRATION 1, Usinga protractor, ‘Measure the angle between the ‘vector AP and BP, 1 = 2. Similarly, rs AP and BP, i.c,, ZAPB=90", theangle between the vectors AQ and BQ, ic, ZAQB=90", 3. Repeat thi ae outs Process by taking some more points R, ST, ... on the semi-circles, forming BR; AS, BS; AT, BT; S; AT, BT; vectors... ete.,i.e, angle formed between two vectorsin semi-circle isarightangle. OBSERVATIONS By actual measurement. |2*|-|%|-|5|-|09|- =a=p=10em 14.1 +(14.1)? 98.8 + 198.8 397.6 = 400 i = ZACB=90° Again, | 6 |=18em|36| Fem * |x6f +|B6f = osy(e2y = 324+75.69 = 399,69 = 400=| AB = AQB=90° AQ.BO = |AQ| | 80 cos 2AQB = |AQ| | BO | cos90°=0 Similarly, for points, S,T, ZARB=.. ZASI ie.,angleinasemi-circleisa right angle. RESULT Angle inasemicircle is right angle. =APPLICATIONS This activity can be used to explain the concepts of ©) opposite vectors Gi) vectors of equal magnitude Git) perpendicular vectors (iv) dot product of two vectors WViva-Voce ——— Q. 1. What is the dot product (or scalar product) of two vectors? Sol. Let| @ Jand b betwonon-zero vectors inclined at angle 0. Then the dot product (or scalar product) of \@ and 6” isdenoted by a’. 5” andisdefined asthe scalar. | a’| | b'| cos. ot 0 ay Thus “a”. 6’ =| a'|| b’| cosd. ‘This isa scalar quantity. Q.2. Why do we call this product as dot product? Sol. We call this product as dot product because we use ‘,’ dot for multiplication. Q.3. Why do we call this product as scalar product? Sol. Wecall this product as scalar product, because product of these two vect Q.4. Isdotproduct commutative? Sol. Yes, because G".’ = bh’. @ Q.5. Isdot product distributive? ors give a scalar quantity. Sol. Yes, because a’ -(b'+ c° Q..6. What is the dot product of two perpendicular vectors? Sol. Zero.Three-Dimensional ~22 Geometry | MaTeRiats Requiren | Coordinates in Space, measure the distance between two points in space andthentoren srify the distance using distance formula, Distance Formula : The distance (@) between two points A and B whose Coordinates are (x,,),,z,)and(x,, y,, #)isgivenby- 4= Vn) + 02-9) 4 (2)? METHOD OF CONSTRUCTION 1. Ona drawing board, paste a squared paper ont 2. Draw two mutually perpendicular lines X'OX and YOY to represent x-axis respectively (See Fig. 22) and take I unit=1cm, PtFixa wire through O, in the vertical direction, representing the -axis. Fix nails of length 1 cm, 2 cm, 3 cm, 4m, etc. at different points on the squared paper (say at P(-2, ~3),Q(-2,2),R(4, 1), S(3,-5)), etc. ‘Then the upper tips of these nails represent the points (say A,B, C, D) in the space. DEMONSTRATION 1. Coordinates of the point =(-2,-3, 1). 2. Coordinates of the point B=(-2, 2, 2). 3. Similarly find the coordinates of the pointC and D. 4. Byactual measurement (using. scale) distance AB=5.1 em. 5. Bydistance formula AB = \(-2+2)' +(-3-2)' +(1-2), = v26 = 5.099. Hence the distance AB, obtained by actual measurement is approximately the same as the distance obtained by using the distance formula. Same can be verified for other pairs of points A, C;B, C;A,D; C,D;B,D. OBSERVATIONS Coordinates of the point C= (4, 1,3) Coordinates of the point D=(3,-5,4) Onactual measurement : AC=7.5em,BC=6.2em AD=6.2em,CD=6.2cm,BD=88em Using distance formula; AC= (442) +(1+3)' +(3-1) = 3641644 = 56 = 2V14 = 7.48 cm =7.5em V36+1+1 = V38 om = 6.16 cm = 6.2m BC= (442) + (1-2) +-2) AD=\(3+2) +(-5+3) +(4-1)° = V254+449 = V38 cm=6.16 cm=6.2cm CD = (3-4) + (-5-1)' +(4-3) = (1) + (-6)' + (6) = V38 em =6.16 em =6.2em BD=(3+2)' + (-5-2)' +(4—2)' = V25+49+4 = 78 cm =8.83 om =8.8em RESULT The distance between two points in space obtained by actual measurement and by using distance formula isapproximately the same. APPLICATIONS 1. Thisactivity is useful in visualising the position of different points in space (coordinates of points). 2. The concept of position vectors can also be explained through this activity. erenceShortest Distance -26 between Two Skew Lines OBJECTIVE MATERIALS REQUIRED ‘To measure the shortest distance between two skew lines and verify | @ Drawing board itanalytically. © Board pins © White paper sheet and one THEORY wooden block of size 2 mx Coplanar Lines : Two lines lying in the same plane are called 2em*4com coplanar lines. Coplanar lines are either parallel or intersecting. © Wires of different lengths Skew Lines : Two lines in space which are not coplanar are called | @ get squares skew lines. Skew lines are neither parallel nor intersecting. © Adhesive Short Distance between Two Skew Lines: © Pen/Pencil scale, ete | The length of the line PQ, segment, intercepted by two skew lines L, | —----—~ and L, on the common perpendicular to both the lines, is called the _Q| : shortest distance (S D) between L,andL,. Foor : If two lines in space intersect at a point then the shortest distance between themis ero. To Find the shortest Distance between Two Skew Lines : Vector Form Let Land L, and two skew lines whose vector equations are respectively : Fig. 26(@) aati “O and > = a, +15, sooo (if) Then, L, is parallel to 4, and passes through a point A, whose position vector is a, . And L, is parallel to 4: and passes through a point B, whose position vectors a, B Let PQ_bethe shortest distance vectorbetween L,andL,. . Then, PQL b, and PQ.L B, PQ =|Projection of Abalone ( Bxh, \ BX) ae ° ] ——— Fig. 26(0) 14x | ‘Two lines intersect only when the shortest distance between them is zero, METHOD OF CONSTRUCTION 1, Paste a squared paper on a piece of plywood. 2. On the squared paper, draw two mutually perpendicular lines OA and OB to represent x- axis, and y-axis, respectively. i]3. Name the three blocks of size 2 cm x 2 em x Ne oe eee cm x 2em as I, Il and III, Name the other wooden block of 4, Place blocks I, II and III such that their base i , : centres are at the points (2, 2), (1, 6) and (7, 6), respectively and block IV with its base centre at (6,2). Other wooden block of size 2 em x 2¢m * 4 & eds wire Joining the point P and Q, blocks the centres of the bases of the blocks I and II and anot er wire joining the centres R and S of the tops of blocks IT and IV as shown in Fig. 26 (a). 6. These two wires represent two skew lines. 7. Takea wire and join itperpendicularly with the skew lines and measure the actual distance. Bs Fig. 26(c) DEMONSTRATION 1. Aset-squareis placed in such a way thats one perpendicular side isalong the wire PQ. 2. Move the set-square along PQ till its other perpendicular side touches the other wire. 3. Measure the distance between the two lines in this position using set-square. This is the shortest distance between two skew lines. 4, Analytcaly, find the equation of linejoining P 2, 2,0)andQ (7, 6,0)andotherlineoining R (1 6, 2) and (6,2,4) and find S.D. using (43 ~ 4% ).(b x by ). The distance obtained in two cases willbethe same. 1b xb | OBSERVATIONS 1, Coordinates of point Pare (2, 2, 0) 2, Coordinates of point Qare (7. 6, 0) fiCoordinates of point Rare (1. 6, 2) Coordinates of point are (6, 2, 4) a 4. 5. Equation ofline PQis_r = (21-+2/-+ 0k) +(5i+ 4/+0k) 6. Equation oflineRSis__r = (+6+2k) +u (Si - 4+2k) Shortest distance between PQand RS: ose ] ia +100 + 1600 Wve Shortest distance by actual measurement=3 The results so obtained are the same. _ 128 _ 64 42 21° APPLICATION This activity can be used to explain the concept of skew lines and of shortest distance between two lines in space. Wiva-Voce Q.1. Whatare coplanar lines? Sol. Twolines lying in the same plane are called coplanar lines. Q.2. Whatare skew lines? Sol. Two lines in space which are not parallel and also do not intersect are called skew lines. Q.3. Are skew lines possible in plane geometry? skew lines are not possible in plane geometry because in plane geometry, either the two lines are Sol. No, parallel or they intersect ifnot parallel. &, 74 Future Vision in Mathematics Lab Manual—XIl | a— OBJECTIVE MATERIALS REQUIRED To explain the computation of conditional probability of a given event | © Drawing board ‘A, when event B has already occurred, through an example of throwing a pair ‘@ A white paper sheet ofdice. © Apair of dice THEORY © Board pins ORY, ee © Pencil and scale Conditional Probability : Let A and B be two events associated with the same random experiment. Then, the probability of occurrence of A under the condition that B has already ‘occurred, P(B) #0, is called conditional probability, denoted by P(A/B). We define, P(AnB) (an) _ PCAOB) _ naa P(AIB) = Sr = apy whereby PAB). and P(B/A) = a = PAB) (A) P(A) _ n(AaB) = nA) , where by P(A) #0. Properties of Conditional Probabi -2,7 Conditional Probability Property 1: Let AandB be events ofa sample space 5 of an experiment, then we have P(S/B) = P(B/B)=! Property2: IfAand Bare any two events ofa sample space Sand F isan event of S such that P(F) +0 P((AMB)|F)= P(A/F)+P(B/F)-P(ANB)|F) Inparticular, if Aand B are disjoint events, then, P(AUB)|F)= P(A/F)+P(B/F) Property3: P(A’/B)=1-P(A/B) METHOD OF CONSTRUCTION 1. Letus paste a white paper on a piece of plywood ofa | convenient size. | 2. Makea square and divide it into 36 unit square of size | §,4] 1 em each (See Fig. 27). peal 3. Write pair of numbers as shown in the figure. 16,1] D DEMONSTRATION 1. Fig. 27 givesall possible outcomes of the given experiment. the experiment. B 2. Suppose we have to find the conditional probability of an event A, when an event B has already occurred, where A is the event “a number 4 appears on both the dice” and B is the event “4 has appeared on at least one of the dice”.e. we have to find P(A/B). 3. From Fig. 27 number of outcomes favourable to A= | Number of outcomes favourable to B = 11 Number of outcomes favourable toAM B= 1ul 4. @ Papal @ P(AB) 36 1 (9 PNB) = 35 Gi) P(A B) = PAB) OBSERVATIONS 1. Outcome (s) favourableto:A:1, n(A)=1 Outcomes favourable to B : 11, n(B)= 11 2 3. Outcomes favourable toAM B:1, (AN B) 4. P(AMB) =e = z P(ANB) _ 1/36 P(A/B) = [G@OB) _ V36 _ 1 can PB) «1136 1 APPLICATION This activity is helpful in understanding the concept of conditional probability which is further used in Bayes’ theorem. Wiva-Voce —————_ Q. 1. What do you know about an experiment in probability? Sol. The game we play, in probability is called an experiment. For example, tossing of coins, tossing dice etc, are experiments in probability. Q.2. Whatdo youmean by outcomes in probability? Sol. All possible results we ‘get on performing an experimentare called: outcomes. Q.3. Whatare favourable outcomes? Sol. The outcomes of an experiment which hel event. Q.4. Whatis a sample space ofan experiment? Sol. The set ofall possible events of an: experiment is called sample space. Ip an event to occur, are called outcomes favourable to that 5 7 4 5. If P(A)= =, P(B)= —andP(ANB)=— , find P(A/B) OS TERA Ty PCB)= Tand P(AMB) = find P(A/B) 4 = PCANB) _ i 4 Sol. P(A/B) P(B) 7 7 13 0.6. IP(A)= 5, P(B)=— and P(A B)= 4 find (BIA) 13 Be B Sol. p(B/A) = PAB) _ 13 _ 4 P(B) 535 13