STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY

Introduction
Structural geology is a sub-discipline of geology that studies how rocks deform in
response to the stresses that act within the Earth. This geology branch deals with the
form, arrangement and internal structure of rocks and especially with the description,
representation and analysis of structures.

Importance of Structural Geology

 Structural geology is an important field because it helps us understand the
processes that shape the Earth’s surface, such as mountain building, faulting, and
folding.
 It also has practical applications in fields such as civil engineering, where the
characteristics of rocks and the forces that act on them are important for the design
of structures such as bridges and buildings.
 It helps us understand the processes that shape the Earth’s crust and the history of
the Earth’s surface
 Structural Geology studies are also crucial for the compilation of modern
geological maps and cross sections, that is, the tools that we use to illustrate how
rocks are distributed on the surface of the Earth and at depth below.
 It aids in determining where valuable mineral resources and oil might be buried.
 Studying elements like fault lines help mitigate earthquake hazard.

Approaches when carrying out Structural Geology Studies

Structural geologists follow commonly three different approaches when studying the
structural evolution of an outcrop of a region or of a hand specimen:
1. Descriptive and geometric analysis- geological structures are identified,
characterized and measured in order to produce their accurate description and to
understand their orientation in space.
2. Kinematic analysis- faults are studied in order to determine the movement of the
blocks that are juxtaposed along the fault plane, that is the surface where slip was
localized during deformation.
 3. Dynamic analysis- geological structures are used as natural gauges to derive
information on the forces and pressures that were active at the time of
deformation.

ELEMENTS / TOPICS OF STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY

Stress and Strain

Stress is the force exerted per unit area and strain is the physical change that results in
response to that force. When the applied stress is greater than the internal strength of
rock, strain results in the form of deformation of the rock caused by the stress. The stress
can either be uniform (confining stress where the force on a body is equal in all
directions) or Differential stress (stress not equal in all directions usually due to tectonic
forces).

There are three types of stress namely;

1. Compressional Stress- Compressional stress is a type of stress that occurs when rocks
are squeezed or pushed together. This type of stress is typically associated with
tectonic processes such as plate convergence, where two plates are colliding and
pushing against each other. Under compressional stress, rocks can undergo a range of
deformation processes, depending on their strength and the amount of stress applied.
In weaker rocks, such as sedimentary rocks, compressional stress can result in folding
or faulting, where the rock layers are compressed and deformed. In stronger rocks,
such as metamorphic or igneous rocks, compressional stress can result in fracturing or
crushing.
2. Tensional Stress- Tensional stress is a type of stress that occurs when rocks are pulled
apart or stretched. This type of stress is typically associated with tectonic processes
such as divergent plate boundaries, where two plates are moving away from each
other. Under tensional stress, rocks can undergo a range of deformation processes,
depending on their strength and the amount of stress applied. In weaker rocks, such as
sedimentary rocks, tensional stress can result in the formation of joints or fractures,
where the rock layers are pulled apart. In stronger rocks, such as igneous or
metamorphic rocks, tensional stress can result in stretching or thinning of the rock.
3. Shear stress- It is a type of stress that occurs when rocks are subjected to forces that
cause them to slide past each other in opposite directions. This type of stress is
typically associated with tectonic processes such as transform plate boundaries, where
two plates are sliding past each other. Under shear stress, rocks can undergo a range
of deformation processes, depending on their strength and the amount of stress
applied. In weaker rocks, such as sedimentary rocks, shear stress can result in the
formation of faults, where the rocks slide past each other along a plane of weakness.
In stronger rocks, such as igneous or metamorphic rocks, shear stress can result in
ductile deformation, where the rock layers are bent or folded. Shear stress can also
have important implications for the formation of geological structures, such as fault
zones. When rocks are subjected to shear stress, they can develop zones of weakness
along which they are more likely to deform in the future. Over time, these zones can
become fault zones, which can have important implications for resource exploration,
as well as for geological hazards such as earthquakes.

Types of Strain;
1. Elastic strain – it’s a type of deformation that occurs in a material when it is
subjected to stress but is able to return to its original shape and size once the stress
is removed. This is because the material is behaving elastically, like a spring,
under the applied stress. When a material is subjected to stress, the bonds between
the atoms in the material are stretched or compressed. In an elastic material, these
bonds can temporarily stretch or compress, but then return to their original length
once the stress is removed. This means that the material does not undergo
permanent deformation or damage.
2. Plastic strain is a type of deformation that occurs in a material when it is
subjected to stress beyond its elastic limit. Unlike elastic strain, plastic strain is
permanent and irreversible, meaning that the material does not return to its
original shape and size once the stress is removed. When a material is subjected to
stress beyond its elastic limit, the bonds between the atoms in the material begin
to break and rearrange. This leads to permanent deformation in the material, as the
bonds are unable to return to their original state once the stress is removed.

The relevance of stress and strain in Structural Geology;

Rock Deformation
This process occurs over a million of years hence it’s a relatively slow process that leads
to the deformation of the rock under stress. The deformation can either be;
 Brittle deformation- which is a type of deformation that occurs in rocks when they
are subjected to high stresses over a relatively short period of time. This type of
deformation is characterized by the formation of fractures or faults, which occur
when the material breaks in response to the applied stress. Brittle deformation
typically occurs in rocks that are near the Earth’s surface, where they are
subjected to relatively low temperatures and pressures. It can also occur in rocks
that are subjected to sudden and rapid changes in stress, such as those associated
with earthquakes or other seismic events.
 Ductile deformation- Occurs in rocks when they are subjected to high stresses
over a long period of time. This type of deformation is characterized by the
permanent bending, flowing, or stretching of the material without fracturing.
Ductile deformation typically occurs in rocks that are subjected to high pressures
and temperatures, such as those found at depth within the Earth’s crust. It can also
occur in rocks that are subjected to slow and steady changes in stress over long
periods of time. When a rock undergoes ductile deformation, it may develop
features such as folds, cleavage planes, or lineations. These features are the result
of the permanent deformation of the rock under stress.

As rocks are stressed, they go through stages of deformation which are;

1. Elastic Deformation- At first, the rock is strained enough that its shape or size
may change, but the change is reversible.
2. Ductile Deformation- Rocks become so deformed that the change is not
reversible. Ductile means that something can be changed into a new shape, but
once this happens, it stays that way.
3. Fracture Deformation- Finally, if rocks are stressed enough, fracture/ crack,
which is when the change is irreversible and the rock breaks.

Rock Deformation is influenced by a variety of factors, including;

1. Temperature: Temperature has a significant impact on deformation
mechanisms. At low temperatures, deformation is typically brittle, while at
high temperatures, deformation is typically ductile.
 2. Pressure: Pressure also plays a role in deformation mechanisms. High pressure
tends to favor ductile deformation, while low pressure favors brittle
deformation.
3. Strain rate: The rate at which a material is deformed can also affect the
deformation mechanism. Fast deformation rates tend to favor brittle
deformation, while slow deformation rates tend to favor ductile deformation.
4. Composition: The composition of the material being deformed can also
influence the deformation mechanism. Materials with high amounts of brittle
minerals, such as quartz, tend to exhibit brittle deformation, while materials
with high amounts of ductile minerals, such as mica or feldspar, tend to exhibit
ductile deformation.
5. Grain size: The grain size of a material can also affect the deformation
mechanism. Smaller grain sizes tend to favor ductile deformation, while larger
grain sizes tend to favor brittle deformation.
6. Fluids: The presence of fluids, such as water, can also influence deformation
mechanisms. Fluids can lubricate grain boundaries, making it easier for them
to move and deform, and can also facilitate chemical reactions that can alter
the properties of the material being deformed.
7. Time: The duration of the stress also plays a role in deformation mechanisms.
Slow, sustained stress tends to favor ductile deformation, while rapid, short-
term stress tends to favor brittle deformation.

Rock Deformation Mechanisms

Rock Deformation mechanisms are the processes that lead to the deformation of a
material under stress. In structural geology, understanding these mechanisms is important
for understanding how rocks deform and how geological structures such as folds, faults,
and shear zones form. There are several Rock deformation mechanisms that occur under
different types and amounts of stress which include;
1. Dislocation: This is the movement of atoms within a crystal lattice in response
to stress. Dislocations can occur along a plane within the lattice, causing the
material to deform.
2. Twinning: This is a deformation mechanism that occurs in certain types of
crystals, where a portion of the crystal lattice mirrors another portion, resulting
in a change in shape.
 3. Grain boundary sliding: This occurs in polycrystalline materials, where grains
slide past each other along their boundaries in response to stress.
4. Fracture: This is the breaking of a material due to stress, which can occur in
brittle materials such as rocks.
5. Ductile flow: This is a deformation mechanism that occurs in materials that can
undergo plastic deformation, such as metals or some types of rocks. Ductile
flow involves the permanent deformation of the material under stress, without
fracturing.
A geologic structure is any feature produced by rock deformation.
Tectonic forces create three types of geologic structures: folds, faults, and joints.

Faults
A fault is a fracture or zone of fractures between two blocks of rock. Faults allow the
blocks to move relative to each other. This movement may occur rapidly, in the form of
an earthquake - or may occur slowly, in the form of creep. Faults may range in length
from a few millimeters to thousands of kilometers. In geology, we use the angle of the
fault with respect to the surface (known as the dip) and the direction of slip along the
fault to classify faults. Faults which move along the direction of the dip plane are dip-
slip faults and described as either normal or reverse (thrust), depending on their
motion. Faults which move horizontally are known as strike-slip faults and are classified
as either right-lateral or left-lateral. Faults which show both dip-slip and strike-slip
motion are known as oblique-slip faults. Hence the following classifications;
 normal fault - a dip-slip fault in which the block above the fault has moved
downward relative to the block below. This type of faulting occurs in response to
extension and is often observed in the Western United States Basin and Range
Province and along oceanic ridge systems
 reverse (thrust) fault - a dip-slip fault in which the upper block, above the fault
plane, moves up and over the lower block. This type of faulting is common in
areas of compression, such as regions where one plate is being sub-ducted under
another as in Japan. When the dip angle is shallow, a reverse fault is often
described as a thrust fault.
 strike-slip fault - a fault on which the two blocks slide past one another. The San
Andreas Fault is an example of a right lateral fault.
 left-lateral strike-slip fault - the displacement of the far block is to the left when
viewed from either side.
  right-lateral strike-slip fault - the displacement of the far block is to the right
when viewed from either side.

In Fault Mechanism, owing to friction and the rigidity of the constituent rocks, the
two sides of a fault cannot always glide or flow past each other easily, and so
occasionally all movement stops. The regions of higher friction along a fault
plane, where it becomes locked, are called asperities. Stress builds up when a fault
is locked, and when it reaches a level that exceeds the strength threshold, the fault
ruptures and the accumulated strain energy is released in part as seismic waves,
forming an earthquake.
Strain occurs accumulatively or instantaneously, depending on the liquid state of
the rock; the ductile lower crust and mantle accumulate deformation gradually
via shearing, whereas the brittle upper crust reacts by fracture (instantaneous
stress release) resulting in motion along the fault. A fault in ductile rocks can also
release instantaneously when the strain rate is too great.

Earthquakes occur on faults; strike-slip earthquakes occur on strike-slip faults, normal

earthquakes occur on normal faults, and thrust earthquakes occur on reverse or
thrust faults. When an earthquake occurs on one of these faults, the rock on one side of
the fault slips with respect to the other. The fault surface can be vertical, horizontal, or at
some angle to the surface of the earth. The slip direction can also be at any angle.

FAULT CLASSIFICATION AND TERMINALOGY

A fault line is the surface trace of a fault, the line of intersection between the fault
plane and the Earth's surface. Since faults do not usually consist of a single, clean
fracture, geologists use the term fault zone when referring to the zone of complex
deformation associated with the fault plane.

Fault scarp
The fault scarp is the feature on the surface of the earth that looks like a step
caused by slip on the fault.

Fault trace
The fault trace is the intersection of a fault with the ground surface; also, the
line commonly plotted on geologic maps to represent a fault.

Fault plane: Surface that the movement has taken place within the fault.
On this surface the dip and strike of the fault is measured.
Hanging wall: The rock mass resting on the fault plane.
Footwall: The rock mass beneath the fault plane.
 Fig. (4-1)
Slip: Describes the movement parallel to the fault plane.
Dip slip: Describes the up and down movement parallel to the dip direction of the
fault.
Strike slip: Applies where movement is parallel to strike of the fault plane.
Oblique slip: Is a combination of strike slip and dip slip.
Net slip (true displacement): Is the total amount of motion measured parallel to the
direction of motion.
Separation: The amount of apparent offset of a faulted surface, measured in specified
direction. There are strike separation, dip separation, and net separation.
Heave: The horizontal component of dip separation measured perpendicular to strike of
the fault.
Throw: The vertical component measured in vertical plane containing the dip

Folds
In structural geology, a fold is a stack of originally planar surfaces, such
as sedimentary strata, that are bent or curved during permanent deformation. Folds in
rocks vary in size from microscopic crinkles to mountain-sized folds. They occur as single
isolated folds or in periodic sets (known as fold trains). A set of folds distributed on a
regional scale constitutes a fold belt. Folds are commonly formed by the shortening of
existing layers, but may also be formed as a result of displacement on a non-planar fault
or at the tip of a propagating fault.
classification, and geometry of folds, the mechanics of folding, and the relationship
between folds and rock deformation.
 Joints and Fractures: Definition and classification of joints and fractures, their
causes and effects, and their relationship with structural geology.
 Geological Maps: Principles of geological mapping, interpretation of
geological maps, and the use of geological maps in structural geology.
 Structural Analysis: Techniques for analyzing the structure of rocks, including
stereographic projection, cross-sections, and 3D modeling.
 Plate Tectonics: The relationship between plate tectonics and structural
geology, the role of plate boundaries in rock deformation, and the effects of
plate tectonics on the Earth’s crust.
 Applications of Structural Geology: The practical applications of structural
geology, including mineral exploration, hydrocarbon exploration, and
geotechnical engineering.
 Regional Structural Geology: The study of large-scale structural features,
including mountain belts, basins, and rift systems, and their relationship with
plate tectonics.
 Geological Structures and Geohazards: The relationship between geological
structures and natural hazards, including landslides, rockfalls, and earthquakes

analysis of geological structures is aimed at understanding why, how and when the
Earth deformed. By means of structural investigations it is possible to constrain the
mechanical laws that control how deformation is taken up by geological materials and
to reconstruct the evolution of mountain chains in space and through geological time.
Structural studies are also crucial for the compilation of modern geological maps and
cross sections, that is, the tools that we use to illustrate how rocks are distributed on
the surface of the Earth and at depth below it. 3D models can be constructed only with
the help of structural geology.
 Relationship between folds and strike-slip faults

Folds associated to wrench fault systems are typically non-cylindrical, doubly

plunging and relatively short with steeply dipping axial planes. They are arranged
spatially such that culminations and depressions in successive folds lie along lines
that make an acute angle with the approximately parallel fold axes. Such folds are
stepped, consistently overlapping, and said to be arranged en échelon. Taking the
axial planes as roughly orthogonal to the shortening direction, their distribution
permits to decipher the potential strike-slip fault they are related to. Such folds are
common above strike slip faults in the basement, which have not broken the cover. The
en échelon folding reveals the relative sense of movement

Factors that control rock behavior

Several factors control whether a rock responds to stress by elastic or plastic deformation
or fails by brittle fracture:
1. The nature of the material. Think of a quartz crystal, a gold nugget, and a rubber
ball. If you strike quartz with a hammer, it shatters. That is, it fails by brittle fracture.
In contrast, if you strike the gold nugget, it deforms in a plastic manner; it flattens
and stays flat. If you hit the rubber ball, it deforms elastically and rebounds
immediately, sending the hammer flying back at you. Initially, all rocks react to
stress by deforming elastically. Near the earth’s surface, where temperature and
pressure are low, different types of rocks behave differently with continuing stress.
Granite and quartzite tend to behave in a brittle manner. Other rocks, such as shale,
limestone, and marble, have greater tendencies to deform plastically.

2. Temperature . The higher the temperature, the greater the tendency of a rock to
behave in a plastic manner. It is difficult to bend an iron bar at room temperature, but
if the bar is heated in a forge, it becomes plastic and bends easily.

3. Pressure. High confining pressure also favors plastic behavior. During burial,
both temperature and pressure increase. Both factors promote plastic deformation, so
deeply buried rocks have a greater tendency to bend and flow than shallow rocks.
4.Time. Stress applied over a long time, rather than suddenly, also favors plastic
behavior. Marble park benches in New York City have sagged plastically under their
own weight within 100 years. In contrast, rapidly applied stress, such as the blow of a
hammer, to a marble bench causes brittle fracture.
Brittle Deformation
Brittle deformation is simply the permanent change that occurs in a solid material
(rocks) due to the growth of fractures and/ or sliding on fractures once they have formed.
Brittle deformation occurs only when stresses exceed a critical value, and thus only after
a rock has already undergone some elastic and/or plastic behavior.

Fracture: is a planar or curviplanar discontinuity forms as a result of brittle rock

failure under relatively low pressure and temperature condition in the earth crust.
These structural discontinuities are amongst the most common of all geological
features: every outcrop and most cores exhibit some sort of fracturing. Fractures and
other discontinuities affect nearly every petroleum reservoir, either by enhancing the
production, or by causing problems for production.

Rock fractures range in size from microcracks (fraction of mm) to faults which extend
for hundreds of kilometers.

Fracture is a discontinuity across which cohesion (Co) is lost.

A fracture dose not extend infinitely in all direction, some fracture intersect the surface
of a body of rock, whereas others terminate within the body. The line representing the
intersection of the fracture with the surface of a rock body is the fracture trace and
the separating the region of the rock that has fractured from nonfractured regions is the
fracture front. The point at which the fracture trace terminate on the surface of the
rock is the fracture tip, Fig(3-1 ).

Fig. (3-1)
The term fracture includes three basic types of discontinuities:

Extension fracture (type I): Relative movement normal to fracture surface. Tensile
cracks form normal to the 3 (parallel to the 12 plane)
Crack opens infinitesimally perpendicular to the crack plane (Fig.3-2) Crack grows in its

own plane; no bending/changing orientation.

Fig. (3-2)

Shear fracture (type II & III): Relative movement parallel to fracture surface.

Mode II – Sliding Mode: One block moves parallel to the fracture surface and normal
to the fracture front or tip.

Mode III – Tearing Mode: One block moves parallel to the crack and parallel to the
fracture front or tip (Fig 3-3).

Oblique extension (hybrid) fracture: A fracture that has components of displacement

both perpendicular and parallel to fracture surface.

Fig. (3-3)
Wing cracks: a tensile stress concentration occurs at the ends of a crack that is being loaded by a
shear stress.

Fig. 3-3b shows wing crack

Fracture set and system:

 Fracture or joint sets: a group of fractures occurs in systematic alignment with similar
strike and dip and arrangement (Fig.3-4A).

 Small extension fractures are referred to as joint.

 Systematic joints: have roughly planar fracture surfaces, regular parallel orientation and
regular spacing (Fig.3-4C).

 Non-systematic joints: are curved and irregular in geometry, although they are
distinguished by nearly always terminating against older joints that belong to a
systematic set(Fig.3-4C).

 Fracture system (fracture assemblages): two or more sets of fracture affecting the
same volume of rock each set being characterized by a different strike and dip (Fig.3-
4B).

JOINTS: are defined as dry fractures of geologic origin along which no appreciable
displacement has occurred. In sedimentary rocks these
joints are usually perpendicular or parallel to the bedding plane. In volcanic rocks, the
contraction of the rock during cooling forms joints that isolate prisms perpendicular to the
 gradient of temperature. In granitic rocks, joints appear to be related to the relaxation of the
vertical stress during erosion and exhumation.

A B

Fig. 3-4

Why are the Joints important?

• Provide a mass wasting surface failure plane; joint analysis typically done for slope
stability, dam stability, tunnel stability.
• Produce strength anisotropy: later reactivation?
• Provide fracture porosity/permeability - hydrologic modeling, mineralization.
• Important geomorphic control, contributing to drainage (e.g. trellis), lineaments.
• At deeper levels joints exert a control on the migration of geological fluids: water,
petroleum and gas.
• They provide an easy to interpret paleostress system (with caution), but difficult to date
(igneous rocks provide an exception to difficulty in dating because of late juices that can
fill the joints to produce veins).

Some common joint associations

In different geologic situations you get different characteristic joint patterns.
 • joints in volcanic rocks.
• joints in plutonic rocks related to thermal contraction.
• joints associated with folds and tectonism: usually at least two sets in symmetry, but up to
5.
• intracratonic regional joint sets.
• joint sets associated with point phenomena and radial and concentric patterns.
• conjugate sets: two sets at roughly 60 degrees to each other that form together (why 60?).

Joints are sometimes farther classified as extension joints and shear joints, as a subdivision
based on the angular relations of crossing joints. Because no movement normal or parallel to the
joint walls can be observed. Although individual joint fractures may be quite short (110m), in
certain regions it is found that master joints run for very long distances. Many of the striking
lineaments seen on air photographs are master joints rather than the major faults.

Thus, the main types of joint are:

Tectonic joints; breaks formed from the tensile stresses accompanying uplift or lateral
stretching, or from the effects of regional tectonic compression. They commonly occur as planar,
rough-surfaced sets of intersecting joints, with one or two of the sets usually dominating in
persistence

Sheeting joints or Exfoliation joints; a set of joints developed more or less parallel to the
surface of the ground, especially in plutonic igneous intrusions such as granite; probably as a
result of the unloading of the rock mass when the cover is eroded away. It appears that sheeting
joints form where horizontal stress is greater than the vertical load.
Breaks developed as a product of exfoliation; the breaking or splitting off from bare rock
surfaces by the action of chemical or physical forces, such as differential expansion and
contracting during heating and cooling over the daily temperature range

Cooling joints, are extensional fractures characteristic of shallow tabular igneous intrusion,
dykes or sills or thick extrusive flows. The fractures separate the rock into roughly hexagonal or
pentagonal columns, which are often oriented perpendicular to the contact of the igneous body
with the surrounding rock.

Features of Fracture Surfaces

Features on the surface of a fracture provide information about the fracture’s origin. A plumose
structure, or hackle plume, has a characteristic feather pattern. Arrest line are curved features
perpendicular to the lines of hackle of the fracture face. All these features indicate extensional
fracturing, as opposed to slickenside lineation, which
indicate shear fracturing

Plumose Structures are fracture networks that form at a range of scales, and spread outward
from a joint origin. The joint origin represents a point at which the fracture begins. The mirror
zone is the joint morphology closest to the origin that results in very smooth surfaces. Mist zones
exist on the fringe of mirror zones and represent the zone where the joint surface slightly
roughens. Hackle zones predominate after mist zones, where the joint surface begins to get fairly
rough. Hackle fringe describes a set of extension fractures that are aligned en echelon and
rotated away from the joint axis. This hackle zone severity designates barbs, which are the
curves away from the plume axis.

Geometric classification of joints

Orthogonal Joints: occur when the joints within the system occur at mutually perpendicular
angles to each other.

Two parameters influence fracture patterns: the orientation of the fractures and their
frequencies. Orientation of fractures is based on the state of stress within the rock. In contrast,
the frequency or spacing of fractures is based on the properties of the rocks in which the
fractures have formed.

Three mutually perpendicular directions depend on the orthogonal axes a, b and c. At each
locality the bedding defines the ab with the c-axis as normal, and with b-axis parallel to the fold
axis and a-axis is parallel to dip direction. Joints parallel to the acplane are known as cross
joints. And joints parallel to bc-plane as longitudinal joints, and those parallel to ab as bedding
joints. At times, the orientation of the joint sets can be related directly to the folding and may be
defined in terms of the a, b and c axes of the “tectonic cross” (Fig. 3.12). Those joints that cut
the fold at right angles to the axis are called ac or cross joints. The bc or longitudinal joints are
perpendicular to the latter joints, and diagonal or oblique joints run at an angle to both the ac and
bc joints. Diagonal joints are classified as shear joints, whereas ac and bc joints are regarded as
tension joints.

Conjugate joints

This type of classification depend on the orientation of the joint with respect to the three axis (a,
b, and c), when the joint crossing all the three axes is designated hkl, when it's parallel to a-axis
as Okl, when it's parallel to b-axis as hOl, and when it's parallel to c-axis as hkO (Fig.3-13).
 Fig 3-13.Example of conjugate joint set in tilted Tertiary sandstones of the Brule
Formation in the Slim Buttes area of South Dakota. The interpretation is that the conjugate joint
set happened before tilting of the strata.

Conjugate Joints occur when the joints intersect each other at angles significantly less than
ninety degrees.