Traffic Engineering

(CENG …)
MSc: Road and Transport Engineering

Dr.-Ing. Alamirew M. Tola

Assistant Professor September 2023
 CHAPTER 4
Signal Design and Timing 1

Contents
▪ Key elements of signal design and timing
▪ Development of signal phase plans
▪ Phase and Ring Diagram
▪ Determining Vehicular Signal Requirements
▪ Determining the Sum of Critical-Lane Volumes
▪ Determining the Desired Cycle Length
▪ Splitting the Green (…)
 Key elements of signal design and timing 2

1. Development of a safe and effective phase plan and sequence

2. Determination of vehicular signal needs:
➢ Timing of “yellow” and “all-red” intervals for each signal phase
➢ Determination of sum of critical lane volumes (Vc)
➢ Determination of lost times per phase (tL) and per cycle (L)
➢ Determination of an appropriate cycle length (C)
➢ Allocation of effective green time to the various phases defined in the
phase plan – “splitting” the green
3. Determination of pedestrian signal needs
➢ Minimum pedestrian “green” times
➢ Check if vehicular greens meet minimum pedestrian needs
➢ If pedestrian needs are unmet, adjust timing or add pedestrian actuators to
ensure their safety
 NB: 3

• It must be noted, however, that it is virtually impossible to develop a

complete and final signal timing that will not be subject to subsequent
fine-tuning when the proposed design is analyzed using the HCM 2000
analysis model or some other analysis model or simulation.
• This is because no straightforward signal design and timing process can
hope to include and fully address all of the potential complexities that may
exist in any given situation
• Thus, initial design and timing is often a starting point for analysis using a
more complex model
My Recommendation Read HCM 2000
 Development of signal phase plans 4

Treatment of Left Turns

➢ The left turn is the most difficult process to model at a signalized
intersection
➢ A left-turning vehicle will consume more effective green time
traversing the intersection than will a similar through vehicle
➢ The most complex case is that of a permitted left turn made across an
opposing vehicular flow from a shared lane
➢ Through vehicle equivalents:
✓ how many through vehicles would consume the same amount of
effective green time traversing the stop line as one left-turning
vehicle?
 Development of signal phase plans 5

Treatment of Left Turns

“In the same amount of time, the left lane discharges five through vehicles and two
left-turning vehicles, while the right lane discharges eleven through vehicles”

➢ i.e. 11 through vehicles are

equivalent to 5 through vehicles
plus two left-turning vehicles
 Development of signal phase plans 6

Treatment of Left Turns

➢ Handled as permitted, protected, or compound
➢ The simplest signal phase plan has two phases, one for each of the crossing streets
(all left turns are permitted)
➢ Protection of left turns must weigh the additional lost times to the cycle against the
improved efficiency
➢ Two general guidelines: ➢ whether or not a particular left-turn movement
requires a protected or a partially protected phase

Where;
✓ vLT = left-turn flow rate, veh/hr
✓ v0 = opposing through movement, veh/hr
✓ N0 = number of lanes for opposing
through movement
 Development of signal phase plans 7

Treatment of Left Turns (some additional criteria)

➢ Permitted phasing should be provided when the following conditions
exist:

1. Left-turn demand flow within the peak hour (as plotted on next slide) against
the speed limit for opposing traffic, falls within the “permitted” portion

2. The sight distance for left-turning vehicles is not restricted

3. Fewer than eight left-turn crashes have occurred within the last three
years at any one approach with permitted-only phasing
 Development of signal phase plans 8

Treatment of Left Turns (some additional criteria)

Source: Asante, S., Ardekani, S., and Williams, J., “Selection Criteria for Left-Turn Phasing and Indication
Sequence,” Transportation Research Record 1421, Transportation Research Board, Washington DC, 1993.
 Development of signal phase plans 9

Treatment of Left Turns (some additional criteria)

➢ Fully protected phasing is recommended when any two of the
following criteria are met:

1. Left-turn flow rate is > 320 veh/hr

2. Opposing flow rate is > 1100 veh/hr

3. Opposing speed limit is ≥ 45 mi/hr

 Development of signal phase plans 10

Treatment of Left Turns

➢ Fully protected phasing is also recommended when any one of the
following criteria are met:
1. There are three opposing traffic lanes, and the opposing speed is ≥ 45 mi/hr
2. Left-turn flow rate is > 320 veh/hr, and heavy vehicles > 2.5%
3. The opposing flow rate > 1100 veh/hr, and left turns > 2.5%
4. Seven or more left turn crashes within three years under compound phasing
5. The avg. stopped delay to left-turn traffic is acceptable for fully protected
phasing, and the engineer decides that additional left- turn crashes would occur
under the compound phasing option
 General considerations in signal phasing 11

1. Phasing can be used to minimize crash risks by separating

competing movements
2. The increase in lost time due to increased number of phases can be
offset by the benefit of an increase in affected left- turn saturation
flow rate
3. All phase plans must be implemented in accordance with the
appropriate standards and criteria like MUTCD (signs, markings,
and signal hardware)
4. The phase plan must be consistent with the intersection geometry,
lane-use assignments, volumes and speeds, and pedestrian crossing
needs (Ex. Protected left-turn phases require exclusive left-turn
lanes)
 Phase and Ring Diagram 12

➢ Used to describe signal phase plans

➢ Phase diagram – shows all movements being made in a given phase

within a single block of the diagram

➢ Ring-diagram – shows which movements are controlled by which

“ring” on a signal controller
▪ A “ring” of a controller generally controls one set of signal faces

▪ A ring diagram is more informative, particularly where overlapping phase

sequences are involved
Phase and Ring Diagram 13
Common Phase Plans and Their Use
14

Basic Two-Phase Signalization

appropriate where the mix of left turns and opposing through flows is such that no
unreasonable delays or unsafe conditions are created by and/or for left-turners
 Common Phase Plans and Their Use
15

Basic Two-Phase Signalization

➢ In this case, the phase diagram shows all N-S movements occurring in
Phase A and all E-W movements occurring in Phase B.
➢ The ring diagram shows that in each phase, each set of directional
movements is controlled by a separate ring of the signal controller.
➢ As the basic signalization is relatively simple, both the phase and ring
diagrams are quite similar, and both are relatively easy to interpret
➢ Note that all phase boundaries cut across both rings of the controllers,
meaning that all transitions occur at the same times in both rings.
Common Phase Plans and Their Use
16

Exclusive left-turn phasing

Common Phase Plans and Their Use
17

Leading and Lagging Green Phases

Common Phase Plans and Their Use
18

Exclusive Left-Turn Phase with Leading Green

Common Phase Plans and Their Use
19

The Exclusive Pedestrian Phase (“Barnes Dance”)

Common Phase Plans and Their Use
20

Signalization of T-Intersections
Common Phase Plans and Their Use
21

Signalization of T-Intersections (Cont’d)

Common Phase Plans and Their Use
22

Signalization of T-Intersections (Cont’d)

 Common Phase Plans and Their Use
23

➢Right-Turn phasing
▪ Used only where the number of pedestrians is extremely high (a pedestrian flow
of 1700 peds/hr in a crosswalk can effectively block all right turns on green)

➢Right-Turn-on-Red (RTOR)
▪ First permitted in California in 1937

▪ Widely used unless specifically prohibited by a sign

➢ In general, final signalization should also be analyzed and fine-tuned using a

signalized intersection model (such as HCM 2000) or simulation
 Determining Vehicular Signal Requirements 24

Change and Clearance Intervals (“yellow” & “all-red”)

➢ Transition from GREEN to RED in each signal phase
➢ Their functions are as follows:
▪ Change Interval (yellow): allows a vehicle that is one Safe SD away
from the STOP line when the GREEN is withdrawn to continue at the
approach speed and enter the intersection legally on yellow (i.e front
wheels crossing over the STOP line)
▪ Clearance Interval (all-red): for a vehicle that just entered the
intersection legally on yellow, the all-red must provide sufficient time
for the vehicle to cross the intersection and clear its back bumper past
the far curb line (or x-walk) before conflicting vehicles are given the
GREEN
 Determining Veh…(Cont’d)
25

Change and Clearance Intervals (“yellow” & “all-red”)

➢ The ITE recommends the following for yellow interval:

Where; y = length of the yellow interval, s

t = driver reaction time, s (commonly 1s)
S85 = 85th percentile speed of approaching vehicles, or speed limit, mi/hr
a = deceleration rate of vehicles, ft/s2 (commonly 10 ft/s2 )
G = grade of approach, %
64.4 = twice the acceleration rate due to gravity (32.2 ft/s2)
 Determining Veh…(Cont’d)
26

Change and Clearance Intervals (“yellow” & “all-red”)

➢ The ITE recommends the following for all-red interval:
 Determining Veh…(Cont’d)
27

Change and Clearance Intervals (“yellow” & “all-red”)

Where;
ar = length of the all-red interval, s
w = distance from the departure STOP line to the far side of the farthest
conflicting traffic lane, ft
P = distance from the departure STOP line to the far side of the farthest
conflicting crosswalk, ft
L = length of a standard vehicle, usually taken to be 18-20 ft
S15 = 15th percentile speed of approaching vehicles, or speed limit, as
appropriate, mi/hr
 Determining Veh…(Cont’d)
28

Change and Clearance Intervals (“yellow” & “all-red”)

➢ To provide optimal safety, the equations for yellow and all-red intervals
use different speeds: the 85th and 15th percentile, respectively
➢ If only the average approach speed is known, the percentile speeds may
be estimated as:

S15 = S – 5

S85 = S + 5, where S is the average speed, mi/hr

➢ Where approach speeds are not measured and the speed limit is used, both
the yellow and all-red intervals will be determined using the same value of
speed
 Determining Lost Time Determining Veh…(Cont’d)
29

➢ The HCM 2000 indicates that lost times vary with the length of the yellow and all-
red phases in the signal timing.
➢ The HCM now recommends the use of the following default values for its
determination:
▪ Start-up lost time, l1 = 2.0s/phase
▪ Motorist use of yellow and all-red, e = 2.0 s/phase
Using these default values:
• l2 = Y – e, Y = y + ar, tL = l1 + l2
➢ The total lost time per cycle is the sum of lost times in each phase:
 Determining the Sum of Critical-Lane Volumes 30

➢ It is the per-lane volume that controls the required length of a particular

phase. Its determination is complicated by two factors:
▪ Simple volumes cannot be simply compared (Trucks, left-and right-turns,
upgrade approaches require more time)
▪ When phase plans involve overlapping elements, the ring diagram must be
carefully examined to determine which flows constitute critical-lane volumes
➢ Demand volumes can be converted to reflect the influence of the most
significant factors affecting intensity: left and right turns
▪ By converting all demand volumes to Equivalent through vehicle units
(tvus)
 Determining the Sum of Critical-Lane Volumes 31

Through vehicle Equivalents for Left-Turning Vehicles, ELT

 Determining the Sum of Critical-Lane Volumes 32

Through vehicle Equivalents for Right-Turning Vehicles, ERT

 Determining the Sum of Critical-Lane Volumes 33

The following points should be noted in using the previous tables:

➢ Opposing volume, V0, includes only the through volume on the
opposing approach, in veh/hr
➢ Interpolation for ELT for opposing volume is appropriate, but values
should be rounded to the nearest tenth
➢ For right turns the “conflicting crosswalk” is the crosswalk through
which right-turning vehicles must pass
➢ Pedestrian volumes in the table for ERT represent typical situations in
moderate-sized communities.
➢ Interpolation for ERT is not recommended
 Determining the Sum of Critical-Lane Volumes 34

➢ Once ELT and ERT are determined, all right-and left-turn volumes must be
converted to units of “through-vehicle equivalents.”
➢ Subsequently, the demand intensity per lane is found for each approach or
lane group

VLTE = VLT * ELT

VRTE = VRT *ERT

Where;
VLTE = left-turn volume in through-vehicle equivalents, tvu/hr
VRTE = Right-turn volume in through-vehicle equivalents, tvu/hr
 Determining the Sum of Critical-Lane Volumes 35

➢ The total equivalent volume and equivalent volume per lane in each
approach or lane group is determined as:

VEQ = VLTE + VTH + VRTE

VEQL = VEQ /N

Where;
VEQ = total volume in a lane group or approach, tvu/hr
VEQL = total volume per lane in a lane group or approach, tvu/hr/ln
N = number of lanes
 Determining the Sum of Critical-Lane Volumes 36

➢ Finding the critical-lane volumes for the signal phase plan requires
determining the critical path through the plan (i.e., the path that controls
the signal timing)

➢ This is done by finding the path through the signal phase plan that results
in the highest possible sum of critical-lane volumes

➢ To find the critical path, the controlling (maximum) equivalent volumes

must be found for each portion of the cycle, working between full phase
transition boundaries (See example, next slide)
Determining the Sum of Critical-Lane Volumes 37

Determining Critical Lane Volumes (Example)

 Determining the Desired Cycle Length 38

➢ The following equation is used to find the desired cycle length based on tvu
volumes, and a default value for saturation flow rate (1615 tvu/hg) for typical
conditions of lane width, heavy-vehicle presence, grades, parking, pedestrian
volumes, local buses, area type, and lane utilization:

Where; Cdes = desirable cycle length, s

L = total lost time per cycle, s/cycle
PHF = peak-hour factor
v/c = target v/c ratio for critical movements in the intersection
(Generally 0.85 – 0.95)
 Determining the Desired Cycle Length 39

➢ Example: What is Cdes for the case shown in slide 37: if L=4s/phase, PHF=0.92, v/c=0.90
▪ Three phase signal, Vc = 1100 veh/hr
▪ Total lost time per cycle: 4s/phase x 3phases/cycle = 12 s/cycle
▪ PHF = 0.92; v/c = 0.90

▪ Note: for pretimed signals, timing modules are available in 5-s increments
b/n cycle lengths of 30 & 90-s, and 10-s increments b/n 90 & 120-s.
▪ Thus, a 70-s cycle would be adopted in this case
 Splitting the Green 40

To be Continued 4B…