TITLE: The Role of Teaching and Learning Materials/Methods in a Science Pedagogy.

ABSTRACT

The activity and method of teaching and learning identifies the input factors (students,

teachers, instructional materials), the process (research, leadership, student services), and the

output factors (employable graduates, knowledge creation and economic growth). Teaching

and learning activity is also seen in the skills, attitudes and research orientation of the

students. Negative physical and social conditions may affect the quality of effective teaching

and learning. It is important that an enabling environment be put in place for effective

teaching and learning skills. Furthermore, it is the responsibility of teachers to be sufficiently

trained on the use of teaching aids, and have full understanding of their subject in order to

pass on the right knowledge to students. The use of pictures, video clips, objects, internet

facilities help the students to have a real-life imagination of the context of what is being

taught. This leads to the reinforcement of learning: what we hear we forget; what we see we

remember; what we do we understand. Motivations for transforming 21 st century learning are

the lack of preparation for life and work, emerging student characteristics, disengagement and

high dropout rates, lack of motivation, the changing conditions and needs of the 21 st century

labour market, and global scenarios like economic and social crises, global diversity, and

climate change. By effectively delivering knowledge content, students acquire transferable

skills to be globally competent, think out of the box, and have an intelligent understanding of

the complexity of technology.

In recent years, the role of materials in education has gained renewed attention due to

their potential to enhance comprehension, retention, and critical thinking skills. This article

seeks to shed light on the transformative potential of material-based pedagogy by exploring

the myriad benefits and challenges associated with their use. It draws from an extensive body
of research and educational practices to provide insights into how educators can harness the

power of materials to optimize the teaching-learning process.

The article begins with an exploration of the historical perspective, tracing the

evolution of teaching materials and their growing importance in an era dominated by

technology. It then delves into the tangible benefits that teaching materials offer, including

improved understanding, enhanced student engagement, and the promotion of active learning.

We examine various types of materials, from tangible, tactile resources to the dynamic world

of digital content, to illustrate their versatile application across subjects and grade levels.

While teaching materials have the potential to revolutionize education, they are not

without challenges. This article candidly addresses these hurdles, from resource constraints to

the necessity of proper training for educators. It provides practical guidance on overcoming

these challenges and harnessing the full potential of teaching materials to benefit both

teachers and students.

KEYWORDS: teaching, learning, students, teachers, labour market, global competence.

 BACKGROUND REVIEW:

The integration of teaching and learning materials in the classroom has become a focal

point in educational research, reflecting a broader shift towards more dynamic and student-

centred pedagogies. This background review seeks to contextualize the significance of

incorporating diverse resources into the teaching environment and explore the multifaceted

impacts on both educators and students.

Historically, classrooms relied heavily on traditional modes of instruction, predominantly

utilizing textbooks and chalkboards. However, as educational philosophies evolved, so did

the understanding of effective teaching

The incorporation of teaching and learning resources aligns with several educational

theories. Constructivism, with its emphasis on active learning and student engagement,

resonates well with the use of resources that promote hands-on experiences. Additionally, the

principles of inquiry-based learning find support in the diverse array of resources that

encourage critical thinking and exploration.

Research indicates that students exposed to a variety of teaching resources experience

cognitive benefits. Visual aids, manipulatives, and multimedia presentations enhance

comprehension, retention, and transfer of knowledge. The multisensory nature of diverse

resources caters to different learning styles, fostering a more inclusive educational

environment.

Educators play a pivotal role in the successful integration of teaching resources. As the

landscape of education evolves, teachers must continually adapt their instructional methods.

Professional development opportunities that focus on resource integration empower teachers

to navigate technological advancements, ensuring they can effectively leverage a diverse

range of tools to enhance the learning experience.

In a globalized world, the discussion extends beyond regional boundaries. Countries

worldwide are navigating the integration of teaching resources to meet the demands of 21st-

century education. Cross-cultural studies provide insights into the universal challenges and

successes associated with incorporating diverse resources in diverse educational systems.

The background review emphasizes the transformative impact of incorporating teaching

and learning resources in the classroom. From historical shifts in instructional methods to the

cognitive benefits for students, the journey towards a resource-rich educational environment

is both dynamic and promising. As educators and researchers delve deeper into the intricacies

of resource integration, the aim is not only to enhance.

INTRODUCTION
Okebukola (2010) identifies that the activity and method of teaching and learning includes
input factors – teachers, facilities, instructional materials, students, and curriculum. These
input factors are combined in the process of teaching, administration, research, quality
assurance, and community impact. The output shows the skilled and employable graduates,
new knowledge created, responsible citizens and economic growth. Teaching and learning
activity is seen in the skills, attitudes and research orientation of the students. In devising the
most effective way by which knowledge content can be delivered, leaners are taught technical
skills, exposed to career awareness about the labour market, equipped to have an intelligent
understanding of technology and stimulate creative thinking (Ogbulogo, George & Olukanni,
2014).

Recently, students have demonstrated poor interest towards learning and ability to recall
what has been taught (Joseph, 2015). This could be as a result of the teaching methods used
by the teacher during the teaching and learning process in the classroom. In order to enhance
teaching and learning activities, and avoid learners getting bored during lecture sessions,
teachers are encouraged to use pictures, short video clips, and social media tools. These help
students to have a

The diverse teaching methods used in today’s world provide opportunities to enrich and
develop teachers. A teaching method is an effective way to organise learning and unite both
the teacher’s and learner’s efforts. It is important that teachers are creative and professionally
developed to use and combine these teaching methods.

Instructional materials are resources that facilitate classroom teaching and learning.
Broadly defined, they refer to human and non-human means of effectively achieving pre-
planned learning or instructional objectives. Human resources are those proceeding from
within the instructor (teacher), example, the teaching approaches applied and the range of
instructional qualities the teacher exhibits before learners. Flynn (2020) describes non-
human resources as things or objects that exist externally of people, and can be seen,
experienced and used by them. According to him, they are also known as material resources.
Examples include, libraries, books, computers, clocks, plants and money.
 Learning with concrete or real materials can be a lot of fun, especially to young learners,
whose age categories range from the primary to the crèche. Schneider (2022) refers to such
concrete learning materials as tangibles or physical objects that can be grasped and
manipulated in various ways. Tangible learning, according to him, refers to learning with
physical objects (sometimes called manipulatives).
Definition/Meaning of Tangible Instructional Materials
Tangible instructional materials are learning resources that can be seen, touched or

manipulated during teaching and learning processes. They convey concrete or specific

learning experiences, such as, through watching videos, looking at beautiful pictures,

observing and manipulating real physical objects and so on. Concrete learning resources,

which are also known as manipulatives, are physical objects that children can pick up and

manipulate to improve their learning.

According to Johnson (2021), the abstract nature of maths, for instance, can be confusing

for children, but through the use of these concrete, practical resources, they are able to ‘see’

the maths and make sense of what is actually happening. Once children are confident with a

concept using concrete resources, they progress to drawing pictorial representations or quick

sketches of the objects. By doing this, they are no longer manipulating the physical resources,

but are still benefiting from the visual support the resources provide. He maintained that,

once children have a secure understanding of the concept through the use of concrete

resources and visual images, they are then able to move on to the abstract.

PROBLEM STATEMENT

There is an explosive growth in the volume of information available to learners.

Information is now in multiple forms like texts, graphics, video and audio. As a result,

teachers have become saddled with the challenge of how to teach learners to make sense of

the vast amount of information they find, identify credible sources, question authenticity and

accuracy of information, connect new knowledge with prior knowledge, and discern its

significance in comparison to what they already understand (Facer, 2011).

Teaching aids

Teachers are great facilitators of knowledge and skills in the 21 st century teaching and

learning profession (Joseph, 2015). Teachers use teaching aids to enhance classroom
instruction, extract learners’ attention and create a motivation to learn. These teaching aids

are devices (computer, DVD), instructional aids (book, chalk board, picture), or objects

(specimen, map, globe) that help the teacher to effortlessly carry out the teaching-learning

process. A lot depends on the creative abilities of the teacher. The use of teaching aids can

facilitate the learning process by making it interesting and less time consuming. The use of

teaching aids enables learners to use their hearing or seeing abilities and actively perform

something while learning.

Types of teaching aids

On the basis of time-period

• Conventional/traditional teaching aids: When technology had not yet appeared in the

form as it is available today – there was no electricity, phones, computers or internet.

Chalks, blackboards and ‘dust and mud sketching’ were used by teachers as a standard

teaching aid. Elements of nature, actual objects and specimen were written and

presented as teaching aids. Books formed the traditional or conventional resource

available to both the teachers and learners.

• Non-conventional/modern teaching aids: With the gradual technological progress, non-

conventional teaching aids became available to teachers and students like computers,

television/radio, and interactive whiteboard, multimedia. The modern teaching aids

present themselves in different forms. A world of opportunities like teaching aids,

games, activities and media have become available to students. They have made

teachers’ task both enjoyable and challenging. The use of non-conventional teaching

aids play an important role in the teaching and learning process today.
On the basis of the sense organs involved

Teaching aids are also called audio-visual aids. Contemporary teaching aids that are in use

provide stimulation to ears and eyes together compared to the traditionally used teaching aids

that stimulated only one sense organ. The emerging teaching aids involve other sense organs

(Đurđanović, 2015). These teaching aids are visual aids (illustrations, textbooks, magazines),

auditory aids (sound recordings from CDs), audio-visual aids (combination of audio and

video materials, DVDs).

Projected and non-projected aids

Projected aids include PPT, slides, film-strips, overhead projectors, TV/VCR as they can

be projected on screen to give an enlarged image of the material. They can be used suitably

for large and small groups. The large, bright and colourful images make them more effective

than a non-projected aid. Non-projected aids do not require projection screens. Such materials

are simply shown, hung or touched, e.g. chalkboard, whiteboard, charts, posters, pictorial

materials and models. They provide first hand experiences, make the learners actively

participate, stimulate students’ interest, ensure better results and longer retention.

Teaching and learning methods in the past, present and future

Past education system

The education system in the ancient days was based on the Vedic, Brahmanical, Muslim,

British periods (Siljander, Kontio & Pikkarainen, 2017). Education was compulsory in Vedic

periods and students were handed over to the teacher. Education was based on war,

protection, arts and craftworks. Vocational education emerged and was based on teaching and

learning craftwork. The invasion of the British contributed to the development of the

education system. British education gave more importance to the school system up-to-date.

The British established several schools and provided facilities in the education system.
Significant changes were made in the syllabus, methods of teaching, and the education

system. Despite this, access to education was the privilege of a few, with majority being

denied in many countries. Teaching and learning process was based on personal experiences.

Knowledge and basic social skills were developed by interacting with other people and things

(Siljander, Kontio & Pikkarainen, 2017). As a result, there was no room for change or

innovation beyond the level of knowledge and skills of the previous generations.

Present education system

The present education has a great difference from the past. Yet, it is still not playing a

significant role to teach and develop the youth for the changing world (Carneiro, 2007). The

main aim of modern education is to develop skills and knowledge to make money. School

owners mostly measure success on financial growth rather than value for students. Evidence

shows that the present education environment and system of teaching and learning are

inadequate to address and support 21 st century learning needs (Carneiro, 2007). In most cases,

education system in underdeveloped countries is not evolving. Therefore, students graduate

without the knowledge that is needed to make them better citizens or improve their lifestyle

and morals. Because of this business-minded system of education, students are not qualified

for proper jobs, and teachers are not ready to train students on practical life skills. Job seekers

are being disqualified during interview processes because the education system fails to teach

the basic skills and knowledge that are required in real life (UNESCO, 2015). Nowadays,

education gives more importance to technology. Students are only graded based on

examinations without an understanding of what has been taught. This exposes the puzzle on

whether students are tested based on their ‘recall’ skills or actual intelligence. The present

education system does not adequately differentiate students’ knowledge and abilities.
Future education system

The future of the education system is uncertain still one can predict how it will be shaped.

Future educational systems are expected to transform from institutions with strong emphasis

on teaching to organizations with increased emphasis on learning (Scott, 2015). Government

authorities must be responsible and take proper action to make some useful changes in the

education system. The aim of the future education system is not just to confront new

challenges but to create a world for all (Scott, 2015). The future system of education will give

more importance to countries’ development, students’ training, skills and professional

qualities. The role of teachers will be transformed from subject experts to guides and coaches

(Ericsson, 2012). Educated people are the main asset of a nation. Education plays a vital role

in developing personal and social life, and shaping tomorrow’s leaders. However, it is feared

that the education system is going backwards; that the poor of society cannot risk taking out

loans to fund expensive studies and, social mobility will be determined by where people grow

up and not by ability. There have been talks regarding the role technology will play in the

future of education. Although traditionalists are fighting for children to go ‘back to nature’;

teachers should be open to embrace advancements in technology, ensure its usefulness in the

classroom and employ more effective ways using recent research about how people learn

(Scott, 2015). Education is becoming unpredictable and unsteady because future jobs are not

in existence today. To solve unexpected challenges, a future-oriented curriculum should be

developed to equip students with the right knowledge and skills.

Global competence

Global competence is the capacity to examine local, global, and intercultural issues;

understand and appreciate others’ worldviews and perspectives; engage in open, appropriate,

and effective interactions with people from different cultures; and act for collective well-

being and sustainable development (OECD, 2018). It is multifaceted and includes cognitive

development, socioemotional skills, and civic learning. Four dimensions need to be

developed for students to interact with others both locally and globally (Scott, 2015; P21,

2013). The first dimension is the capacity to critically examine and solve global issues such

as poverty, trade, migration, inequality, conflict. The second is the capacity to think critically

and understand different perspectives and world views. The third dimension emphasizes on

preparing youth to collaborate across different cultures and backgrounds to address any

sociological, political and environmental difficulty. The fourth dimension emphasizes on

acting constructively to address issues of sustainability and well-being. The world requires

multi-faceted responses because of its complexity (OECD, 2018). Skills in these dimensions

are needed to examine and work toward resolving issues with local and global significance.

Nations, foundations, scholars, international organizations, and educators around the globe

are working to develop students’ knowledge, skills, attitudes, and values that are relevant to

global competence. Drivers of change that affect teaching/learning for global competence are

based on themes that cut across the curriculum or transformed using existing lessons.

Regardless of the subject or the teaching/learning method, global competence requires a

culture that engages students to constructively interact with each other and their teacher on

differing perspectives and complex topics.

Teaching for global competence

To gain global competence, students need to be actively engaged in their learning and

have the opportunity to reflect. They need to learn how to cultivate their curiosity and ability
to think critically. To make informed decisions and collaborate with different backgrounds,

students must be prepared to deal with complex issues like economical, socio-cultural, health

environmental and geopolitical concerns (P21, 2013). Students need to practice global

competence skills in the classroom and apply them to real-world topics. Textbooks, lectures,

and memorizing correct answers to factual questions have their place in students’ learning,

but they must be paired with more active, engaging pedagogy to develop global competence.

Today’s learners learn in a conducive environment by using trial and error methods to

explore, express and exchange ideas using technology before arriving at solutions (Facer,

2011).

Classroom culture

To foster global competence, effective classroom cultures must be created where students

have the freedom to respectfully express their opinions with their teachers or fellow students,

select which media to access, which tools to use, and how, when and where to use them to

support learning (Scott, 2015). Although digital learning tools are now used to support

student learning compared to the traditional tools, only a few teachers have made use of these

technologies in their ‘teaching’. Technology in itself does not drive learning except learning

tasks are clearly defined. Benefits are rather derived from the collaboration, creativity and

communication that technology supports. Digital tools will affect what and how students

teach in the future (Redecker & Punie, 2013).

Students’ perceptions of one another can be influenced by who takes on classroom duties,

how teachers create teams for projects and how seating arrangements are designed. This way,

students are able to tap into the rich diversity in the classroom and illustrate concepts in the

curriculum using multicultural examples. These concepts include human rights, cultural

diversity, injustice, inequality, and oppression.

 Instructional approaches are familiar to teachers and can be applied to develop students’

global competence. Regardless of the instructional approach, teachers need targeted

professional learning opportunities to support education for global competence. Instructional

approaches for global competence include:

Structured discussions and debates

Students learn to openly express their perspectives, back up their opinions with evidence,

listen for understanding, and be willing to change their minds when confronted with new

information (Witherspoon, Sykes & Bell, 2016). To stimulate a discussion or debate among

students, the teacher uses a text, thought-provoking video-clip or controversial image. They

engage in class discussions by practicing their communication, collaboration and

argumentation skills, researching a particular topic, defending opposing positions on global

issues from multiple perspectives, and raising awareness on global issues (Sun et al., 2015).

Students form two teams, one supporting a statement and the other opposing it.

Availability of anytime/anywhere learning

In the present and future system of education, the workplace, home, community, ‘on-the-

move’ (mobile) offer powerful sites for flexible learning compared to just the school

environment (Carneiro, 2007). Learning activities are no longer done in the classrooms alone

as the demands for educational service delivery is increasingly independent of location. The

availability of smartphones and broadband networks allow people to access learning

irrespective of the time and location. There has been a major shift from traditional educational

institutions toward a more diverse and complex system of learning using a wide variety of

educational institutions and third-party providers. Schools are expected to “reposition

themselves in the emerging learning landscape” (Gijsbers & van Schoonhoven, 2012). The

school is not the only place students learn. As leaning begins to move out of the classroom

into homes and virtual communities, students are able to link their learning into the real world
and become more self-directed. As students become familiar with digital tools, they are able

to engage in more diverse settings, interact with others, and apply their knowledge in new

contexts.

Types of Tangible Instructional Materials

Tangible instructional resources include the following: Flashcards, manipulatives, visual

aids, story books, games, videos, and apps or computers.

Flashcards: These are well designed numbers, letters of the alphabet, words, and various

kinds of objects on cards that help young learners to really concretize learning. They can be

designed pictorially and in words as illustrated:

Flashcards for shapes

Flashcards for pictures

Manipulatives: These are physical objects that can be seen, touched, moved and

manipulated by the learner or instructor and they convey real and concrete learning

experiences. Manipulatives for learning of Mathematics include: interlocking cubes, pattern

blocks, fraction bars and probability spinners. Some examples are clearly illustrated.

Pattern blocks Interlocking cubes

 Probability spinners

Protractor

Fraction bars

Visual aids: Physical learning resources that supplement the teacher’s communication in

speech and writing are referred to as visual aids. Green, Fairchild, Knudsen and Lease-

Gubrud (2018) highlighted four reasons why they are used.

 To Clarify: A picture really is worth a thousand words. In many cases, a visual aid can

communicate a message more clearly than words. Imagine trying to explain the beauty of a

Caribbean island or the complexity of an automobile engine without the use of a visual

element. Words alone will not have the same impact as when combined with an image.

To Enhance Memory Value: When the audience receives the message in multiple

ways, through the speaker's spoken message and through the visual aids, the memory value

of the message increases. For some audience members, hearing the message will suffice, but

for others, a visual element is more memorable. Using a visual aid allows the audience to

tap into the message in a way that works best for them.

To Fulfil Audience Expectations: With the advent of slideware, such as PowerPoint,

audiences have become accustomed to seeing these types of visuals accompanying a

presentation. At times the speaker needs to use a visual aid because the audience expects it.

For example, at conferences it is common that audience members need a printout of slides to

validate attendance, so to not use a visual aid becomes a barrier to audience engagement.

To Add Variety: Although this should not be used as a primary purpose, if the speaker

is using an aid to clarify or to enhance memory value, the aids also provide some nice

variety for the audience. Avoid using aids just for variety, as they can too easily become

more important than the message.

Some commonly used visual aids include the following: Flip charts, white boards, video

clips, power point projectors, charts and graphs.

 Story books: Young learners, especially, are often captivated by stories. Learning can be

greatly enhanced when story books with rich and interesting lessons are read and explained

in class before young learners.

Games: Classroom games have very far reaching positive effect on learning. Though they

may involve lots of fun, but learning experiences are often derived from them, especially due

to the huge attention they draw from learners.

Videos: Videos have served the purpose of learning enhancement over the years.

Recently, with the evolution of technology and digital learning, videos have become

common place, especially among teenage learners. Teachers and learners alike would find

videos as very veritable tools that support effective classroom learning. Caution is, however,

needed in the use of videos by young learners as the internet space is replete with illicit

materials that promote moral decadence.

 The Teacher’s Role in the Effective Application of Tangible Learning Resources.

The teacher is at the centre of classroom learning. The tone of active learning must be set by

him. If the learner is well motivated and supported by the teacher to properly adapt to

learning activities, then a lot would have been done to ease and accomplish the instructional

task. Although, there are learning resources that are exclusively manipulated by the learner

for learning to take place, as earlier noted in this paper, the teacher must be on hand to guide

the whole process. Some of such resources not provided by the college or school authorities

or even the learners themselves should possibly be improvised by the teacher. In order to

ensure effective and efficient use of tangible instructional materials by the key players in the

teaching learning processes, the following should be noted by the teacher:

(i) Lesson plans must deliberately include specific concrete learning resources that the

teacher intends to use during lesson delivery.

(ii) Learners or pupils must be allowed ample opportunity to actively participate in

learning using the concrete or tangible materials.

(iii) Tangible or context-specific instructional materials that are within the teacher’s

ability to improvise should be readily provided.

(iv) The teacher should patiently guide pupils to discover for themselves the learning

experiences arising from the use of the concrete materials they are exposed to.

Importance of Tangible Instructional Materials in Teaching and Learning

Instructional materials that are concrete or tangible support learning in very remarkable

ways. The importance of these resources include the following:

(i) They simplify abstract ideas into real or clear concepts.

(ii) Tangible learning resources like manipulatives promote discovery learning.

(iii) Instruction is made a lot easier for the teacher with the deployment of tangible

instructional resources in the teaching process.

(iv) The learners’ attention to classroom instruction is often highly sustained.

(v) Concrete learning resources help slow learners to cope with learning tasks.

(vi) Tangible instructional materials make learning very lively and less stressful for both

teachers and learners.

(vii) Instructional objectives are more easily and rapidly achieved when lessons are

delivered with concrete objects.

BENEFITS OF MATERIAL-BASED SCIENCE PEDAGOGY:

The heart of the article lies in unpacking the manifold benefits of incorporating teaching

and learning materials into science education. Improved student engagement, enhanced
conceptual understanding, and the cultivation of critical thinking skills are among the

advantages explored. Real-world applications of scientific theories become tangible through

the use of materials, promoting a holistic and experiential learning environment.

Challenges and Solutions:

While the benefits are evident, the article candidly addresses challenges associated with

the incorporation of teaching materials. From resource constraints to the need for specialized

training, educators may face hurdles in optimizing the potential of these materials. Practical

solutions and strategies are presented, emphasizing the importance of investment in teacher

professional development and the collaborative development of open educational resources.

The incorporation of teaching and learning materials stands as a transformative force in

science education. From enriching the learning experience to preparing students for the

complexities of the scientific world, the impact is profound. As we navigate the evolving

landscape of science pedagogy, embracing a diverse array of teaching materials becomes not

just a choice but a necessity, ensuring a vibrant and effective science education for

generations to come.

Implications for Educational Assessment and Evaluation

Some learners, according to Tatematsu (2019), find it difficult to respond to verbal

instruction in an adequate manner, a situation, which may yield misleading results when they

are assessed to obtain their intellectual or cognitive competence using intelligence or

standardized tests. He refers to this group of learners as individuals in the learning process of

concept formation. Arguably, therefore, for the classroom instructor to achieve desired

learning objectives, such learners should be exposed to tangible learning materials or

manipulatives. This approach will not only yield valid post instruction assessment outcomes

of learners but help to effectively enhance their learning progress. Classroom evaluation is

the process of comparing a learner’s observed and expected learning outcomes in any

assessment situation. The process could be formative - where learners are continuously

subjected to assessment activities or tasks within a given instructional season, or summative

– involving a one-shot test at the end of a term or school session. Studies, including those of

Albasli and Yesilce (2018), have shown that tangible learning materials improve classroom

learning, and enhances the attainment of instructional objectives in very remarkable and

significant ways.

Conclusion

This paper has addressed the teaching and learning aids/methods related to future learning

and global competence. Irrespective of the multiple factors driving change in the way

students are educated, the fact remains that students are not learning adequately under the

present education system and are not being equipped with the skills and knowledge needed to

lead productive working lives. Learning should be tailored to the needs of each student to

help them reach their full potential. This way, students will be able to interact with their own

communities, deal confidently with people from other cultures, while engaging in learning

activities throughout their lives. Just as teachers cannot revamp the education system alone,

nations must critically evaluate traditional education to determine whether schools are living

up to current expectations and equipping students to compete in a global economy.

Every nation can contribute to a global pool of expertise on how best to implement 21 st

century learning based on its context. Education should prepare students to develop

transferable skills such as collaborating among themselves to solve scenarios of real-world

challenges, reflecting on their ideas, strengthening their critical and creative thinking

capacities, showing initiative, and exploring analytical skills.

Instructional materials that are tangible and concrete make teaching and learning quite a

pleasurable experience. Rather than think about or conceptualize abstract ideas, the learner is

exposed to real physical objects and he can make meaning of them with ease. The teacher,

on his part, exposes the learner to the objects during instruction and in some cases observes

him manipulate others for learning to occur through discovery.

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