Stern rlach Expe: (0 a ‘co0) a) x Silver material Is kept in an oven ‘0’ as shown in fig(1). Now, the silver atoms are allowed to travel through slits S, &S, . So that a fine beam of silver comes out from the slits. The silver beam is then allowed to pasé through non-uniform magnetic field exerted by the magnetic poles M, M. One of the pole will have knife edge shape while the shape of other pole is as shown in fig (1). The magnetic poles will create a field Beene normal to the direction of plane of paper. The deflected atomic beam coming out from’ poles will fall on screen ‘P' it is that in the presence of magnetic field a doublet structure is observed, shsenved pLet ‘B’ Is the mic magnetlc Let 'P’ be the pole strength and ‘7" is the length of ato! 1 mutually perpendicular ‘ tion. Then two mutue applied magnetic field and “| Is the field gradient in x-direc ix fig (2). The force acting on one end of the pole forces will act on the atomic magnet as shows -21e0s0] due to these opposite and a is PB, while at the other end the force acting is ofp the Torque on t effect 0 unequal forces an external torque PBicos@ acts on the atomic magnet i + jg the force acting on atomic magnet the atomic magnet is to produce translatory motion. If "Fx then a magnet in If +y" Is the velocity of atomic magnet. ‘L’Is the distance travelled by atomic magn the magnetic field and ‘m’ is its mass, 'a,' is the acceleration of atomic magnet in x is the displacement of atomic magnet, then 5 direction, ‘a’ (2) (3) a= headyor atom model ‘A new atomic model proposed to overcome the defects in the Bohr’s model and Sommerfeld model is known as ‘vector atom model’, There are two important concepts in vector atom model. Named as (i) Space quantization (ii) Spinning electron “4 (i) Space quantization : " : As per the Bohr atomic model, the electron moves in circular orbit, since the.radius of the orbit remains fixed, hence the electron has only one degree of freedom hence one co-ordinate is enough to describe its motion. This assumption has resulted in one quantum number known as principal quantum number (n). According to Sommerfeld, the electron motion is described by elliptical orbits. Hence two co-ordinates are required to explain electron motion hence aa numbers namely principal quantum number (n), and Azimuthal quantum number (k) ar Sea But, the electron motion in atom is considered to be 3-Dimensional. 1 ee such three dimensional motion, three coordinates are required according oy srgroer t©, describe are no restrictions on orientation of orbits in an atom. But quantun 9 cosiCal laws, there orientation of orbits in space. The quantum laws allows only certain SSIs restricts the in space. There fore quantization of orbital 1 space in called ee of orbits € quantization. (ii) Spinning electron : aeAccording to Bohr and Sommerfeld, electron has only orbital motion. In order to expiain certain spectral features, the spin of electron has to be taken into account according to ulenbeck and Goud smith theory, the electron will have both orbital and spin motions due to these two motions, the electron possess orbital and spin angular momenta. Spinning of objects results in magnetic moment since the electron possess both orbital and spin motions, it will have both spin and orbital and spin motions, magnetic momenta. These two magnetic momenta are quantized. 5. Quantum numbers associated with vector atom model : model is associated with one quantum number known as principal quantum number (q). Sommer Feld model is associated with two quantum numbers known as radial quantum number (n,) and azimuthal quantum number (k). Vector atom model is associated with seven . quantum numbers. i i), Principal quantum number (n) :~ The principal quantum number as described by Bohr atomic model is referred as total quantum ‘qumberin vector atom model. The !n’ can assume only non zero integer values, N=1,2,3jas..0 THE value of ‘n’ indicate energy levels of electron and its distance from nucleus. The value of ‘n’ also indicate the shell of electron. The values are n=1,2,3,4...... referred as K,L,N/N,...... Shells. The number of electrons ente! © a shell has also been determined by the ‘n’ value. The maximum number of electrons admissible in a shell is given by 2m. 40° > 2¢3)"219 2c = 50 (i), Orbital quantum number (1) :— LMP — aeyrEZU The orbital angular momentum characterizes the shape of electron orbit and its orbital angular momentum jit is denoted by ‘Ii The orbital quantum number is equal to (n-1) and it assumes the values of 0,1,2,3,..... (N-1). The orbital quantum number specifies the sub-shell into which the electron enters, These sub shells are indicated by s,p,d,f,....If 'P,' is the orbital angular momentum, the value of ')’ is related to 'P;' is ‘As perthe quantum principles, the orbital angular moméntum is related to orbital quantum number is R= IIRL bras toe HORA (ii). Spin quantum number (s) = : = loge Ae This quantum number has been introduced to account for the spin of the electrons about their own axis. The magnitude of tht /s half (1/2). Since the electron can spin clock wise or anticlockwise, there are two values given to 'S''+-(1/2)' and '-1/2'. The spin angular momentum Sh : i of electron Ps =>—. Two electrons with same sign of spin quantum number are said to have 2n parallel sping while with those having opposite spins of spin quantum number are said to have opposite spins-The spin angular momentum 'Pg' is given by Ps = VSE+D ee s2ViGED tal ular momentum quantum number The sum of orbital and spin angular Momenta.of electron gives rise to total angular momenta. The total angular: momentum is quantized and it will be equal to j-, where, j is called total 2n to — angular momentum quantum number. :These four qu m Ne (v). Magnetic orbital momentum quantum number (1/) (¥). Magnetic orbital momentum quantum number (17 )*— Precessional motion of ¢, and 1, in magnetic field Ie values of m, for £=2 Q@ 2 When orbital vector is placed in an external mi Parallel to the external magnetic field direction as angular momentum on to the direction of spomentum quantum number (m, ). lagnetic field, it will precess around the axis shown in fig (1). The projection of orbital gxternal magnetic field is called magnetic orbital angular my is an Integer which takes values from ‘=’ to “+ Therefore, my will have (27 +1) values. Fig. (2) shows different values of my for /=2. Known as -2, 71,0, 4,2... (vi). Magnetic spin‘angular momentum quantum number (mg) The projection of spin angular moment Parallel or anti parallel direction to the external field it is, le ee - noted by *m.' ang has a Value of + i. csmg =S cos : : called magnetic total angular momentum quantu xternal Magnetic field is m number it is:de; Maca no : will be from. ‘=? to “j', it will have (2}+1) values. ted by th Tha valdias oF my mj = e0s0 : With these seven quantum numbers, the electronic stat te of at ‘CHARAN PUBLICATIONS, NALGONDA eT a Be Specified Siena [CHARAN PUBLICATIONS, NALGONDA =4, Davisson - Germer Experiment [Experimental confirmation of matter wave|:- (v.v..mr) Davisson and Germer were studying the reflection of electrons from Ni Target. The Ni Target was subjected to such a heat treatment that the Reflection became anomalous. The Reflected Intensity showed striking maxima and minima. Thus, they suspected that electrons are diffracted like X-rays. : cov The Davisson and Germer Experimental arrangement is show |. The apperatus con- sists of an electron gun (G). Where the electrons are produced and obtained in electronic beam of known velocity. The electron gun corisists of a tungsten filament (F). The electrons are accelerated in the electric field. After this the electrons are collimated by sultable slits to obtain a fine beam. The beam of electrons is directed to fall on a large- single crystal of Ni, Target. The electrons, acting as the waves, are diffracted in different directions. The angular ' ‘SHARAN PUBLICATIONS; NALGONBAT PUBLICATIONS, NALGONDA’ TELANGANA, PHYSICS SEM-V& VI] 65 ]9 a galvanometer. yy connected t ted scale 'S' betwe,! which 15 a ular gradua’ tect distribution is measured by an elect oy a cere ona circ stein dees trons. Electron detector consists of two walls vihie, aintained’between them So that on) flected elect jal ism are insulated from each other. rar eA ay Sater it. In this way the galvanomet.. fast moving electrons coming from é! Goren! fe trons coming from el deflection is only due to ee vr a low value and the crystal is set at any arbitra, The accelerating potential V Is giv , ri angie (0). The The electron detector is moved 10 various positions on the scale 'S' ar, Golvanometer current is noted for each position. Here it should be remembered that galyz, seimeter current Is a measure of intensity of diffracted beam. ‘A graph is plotted between glavanometer current and angle (0 s shown in fig. It is observed from the graph that are and diffracted beam it comes a! # With increasing potential, the bump moves upwards. @ The bump becomes most prominent in the curve for S4V electrons at 50°. 29° 10.90" to receive the re ) between incident bear © Athigher potentials, the bumps gradually disappear. ‘According to De-Broglie, the wavelength associated with electron accelerated through: potential 'V' is given by The wavelength associated with 54V electrons is given by _12.26 a In the case of X-ray diffraction, the wave length of X-rays [Acc.to the Bragg's equation f ffracti I f X. U eq Is about | 654°. This is the good agreement with the wavel hence this confirms the de-broglie concept matter waves ud ‘rom De-broglie hypethessre TI SCHRODINGER WAVE EQUATION’ endent schrodinger wave Equation:- (V.V.IMP) ‘To study the atomic systems, we need equation of motion. debroglie's waves associated with particles and describes the motion of particles, fundamental equations in Quantum mechanics known as schrodinger wave equations. Schrodinger presented the ware equations as a development of De-Broglie ideas of wave properties of matter. for this purpose, schrodinger introduced a mathematical function (y) known as wave function which is the variable quantity associated with the moving particle and is also complex function of the space co-ordinates of the particle and time 4, Timed larly, to study the we need a Let, w= Ae") ___) OY = ig A ellbwo 24 gilb-w) Py——(2) in? p> 2 e % > from eq'n (2), we.have :. ay 4x2? woo : : 2 92, ow = Py =-— 8) VO ane ox? On differentiating eq'n (1), wrt time, then BY _ py Ae i or Oy eG - aN a-iw 4) ae We know thatfrom eq'n (4), we get oy __2nE ar a But, we know that E=kE+PE 2 BaP ay 2m 2 By=f ys vy (6) 2m Sub" eq'ns (3) and (5), in eq'n (6), we get wm. # or pe # or In the case of 3-Dimensional yp OY _| 7a? wae 2m ly -———_(7). Panay 7 % Ey=Hy a Where, ‘ay = Enerey operator a Wey 7 He-oV +V =Hamil tonnian Operator ime Independent schro. in wave equ 1 PE do not'depend on time. tp 7 (V.V.IMp) on the PE(V) depend on the position of the particle, y ol written as the product of a function Of x-alone Let, y(x,1)= 4 elem) Se, The forces that area nder and thea" these conditions yal) © other the function of 't’ alone: W(xt)= A el mine wOs=OG)ermSt = iw (ade ot Wa A iy oy ine 2nE © ow (2) [: wot] => Ey On differentiating eq'n(1), wrt 'x' them ay gain ae Oy _ im mre (3) According to schrodinger Time dependent equation, Ew= i thy, +Vyw——(4) 2m ax 2 Sub" eq'ns (1) and (3), in eq'n (4), we get nyldermt erin 28 volar ax? { 2m In general, aay , 2m a OV E-Vy=0 ar In the case of 3-Dimensional, vey CE V)y =0})——(5) for a free particle, V= 0 ‘<. from eq'n (5), we getvunays ovum we 0 2. GEIGER-MULLER COUNTER scription : The geiger-muller counter Is just like the proportional counter. It consists of @ fine wire (usually tungsten) placed along the axis of a hollow metal-cylinder electrode (cathode) enclosed in a thin glass tube. The tube contains a mixture of 90% argon at 10cm pressure and 10% ethyl alcohol vapur at 11cm pressure. Different mixtures of gases at different pressures af2 used in different designs. At one end of the tube, a window cdvered with thin mice chest Ie provided through which the ionizing particles or radiations may enter the tube, A dc, potentiol of about 1200 volts is applied between the cathode and the wire which acts as an anode Glass tube Ionization radiation --+ To amplifier cae and scalar G.M. Counter hdvalue of the voltage i ihe tr. A high resistor dusted to be some what below the breakdown voltage of the yorkings: When a charged oy 's connected in series with battery. srl wire attracts the lectrece Passes through the counter, it jonizes the gas molecules. ste kes an ionization current many inile the cylindrical electrodé attracts the positive ion. 1186 0 tne electrons gain high kino, CePends upon the applied voltage. At sufficiently high tear number of secondary etic energy and cause further ionization of argon atoms. Thus, arent of the number of he ectrRS are produced. The number of secondary electrons is eee Primary ions produced by incoming particle due to the following 05" production of second; g mer ‘@ry electrons is not confined to the region near the primary electrons takes place all bat it fakes Place all along the length of the wire as their number is extremely large (= 108) - a i Tring ace electrons at one point affects the production at other points. wa the electrons quicnh ee put POse of triggering the release of an avalanche of secondary gectrons slow! uickly reach the anode and cause ionization current. The positive ions aoe Oe ate jefom anode and they form a sheath around the anode for a short while. ey reduce the potential difference between the electrodes to a very low value because ion speath depresses electric field near anode. The current therefore, stops. In this way brief pulse of urent flows through resistance R. This current creates a potential difference across R. The pulse is amplified and fed to counter circuit. As ea the sme oncoming parties San rat AS 8 7 incoming particle produces a pulse, hence. the ~ Voltage Characteristic Curve : The suctssful operation of G.M. counter depends upon the oper voltage to the electrodes. Below diagram represents the counts per minute as a function of voltage. It is obvious from the figure that if the voltage is less than 100 volt, there is no discharge, ie, no secondary ionization. When the voltage is increased, secondary ionization takes place. Now the number of impulses increases almost linearly with applied voltage. As already discussed, this region is most Suitable for proportional counters. As the applied voltage is further increased to atout 1200 volts, the number of impulses remains constant over a certain region known as phteau. In this region, the magnitude of impulses becomes independent of the amount of original ‘ization and is a function of potential, nature of gas, resistance R and geometrical-condition of gparatus. This region is most suitable of G.M. counter..If the voltage is increased above this ‘ion, a continuous discharge will take place. This is undersirable and hence avoided. Threshold waltag® prateau Count per minute—> 7000 1200 1600 \Voltago—> : itive ions reach the cathode, they detach secondary electrons from Hitchin: When the postive tons red large kinetic energies. These electrons travel to the ode and du fresh avalanches, |.e., unwanted pulse. The counter is now kept in the state of mtinuouse ne ath "fin this state, measurements are made, the counter will confuse the two eg SUS avalanching: ‘FIM Ts avalanching and the other due to fresh event. The process of rent feo cous avalanching and the other due to fresh event. The process of preventing Neon ing the continuous is known as quenching. The self-quenching is obtained by adding a engtuous avalanching is KNAO te tube. Alcohol has low lonization potential (11.3 eV). The agg nd agent like alcohol vapPe” "15,7 ev) on their journey to the cathode are practically all trans (having ionization potern from the alcohol molecules. Now only alcohol ions reach. the thoy 2d by acquiring an elec! rom cathode and becomes neutral alcohol molecules. Though Beane, They acquire electrons. °° inetic energy yet this Is used for dissociation into alcohol ‘alhol molecules still posses oe cecondary electrons by colling with cathode. Thus, the ne'S and not for the production eee ed,Counting rate : The G.M. counter can count about 500 te - -M. cou! particles per second. The counting rat depends upon (j) dead time, (I) recovery time and (i) paralysis time. The slowly moving postive is take about 100 microseconds to reach the cathode. This time is known as dead time. if 2 second particle enters the tube during this time, it will not be recorded as the potential difference across the electrodes is very low. After dead time, the tube takes nearly 100 microseconds before it regains its original working conditions. This time interval is known as recovery time, The sum o dead time and recovery time is known as paralysis time which, of course, is 200 microseconds, The tube respond fully to the second incoming particle after 200 microseconds. Thus, the tube cn count nearly 500 particles per second.q 5 1 Liquid drop model of the nucleus was proposed by Bohr. According to this model, the nucleus of the atom is similar to a small electrically charged liquid drop. In this model, the forces acting on the nucleus are assumed to be analogous to the molecular forces in a droplet of a liquid. The Nucleus is in spherical shape in the stable state like a liquid drop. © A potential barrier at the surface of the nucleus like. A Force due to surface Tension acts on the surface of the Liquid drop. The density of nucleus is Independent of volume like the density of liquids is Independent of volume, 7. Liquid Drop Model:- (V.V.IMP) & % The nucleons have nearest neighbour interaction like in the liquid, the atoms will also have Nearest neighbour interaction. Nucleons in the nucleus are attracted by short range forces like atoms in the liquid are attracted by short range surface Tensional forces. # Radio activity property of nucleus like liquids exhibits the phenomenon of evaporation.ery proportional to mass UMDER Ay HES oo SH is directly Propane reg the mass number ‘| © The Bi nergy of the Nucleu pat The Binding Eneray Crate arop is avec” Proper on Conse oe orm wn as semi- empirical ties nena pctesacxer proposed a formula leer mass kro se fererula, The various. Terms contributing to binding energy i) Volume Energy ii) Surface Energy iii) Coulombic Energy iv) Asymmetric Energy v) Pairing Energy he i) Volume Eneray:- The nucleons in the nucleus are attracted to a by Shot rm forces. The binding energy arising due to these attractive forces is dir Number of nucleons present in the nucleus and itis assumed that the binding energy is property athe volume occupied by the nucleons present in it. ‘Since the shape of nuc! phere, volume of sphere is given by ya4nr * 3 . R= ra = Radius of the Nucleus v= inR}A 3 +. Binding Energy, By 0 4 Ey =ad Where, a is constant i) Surface Eneray:- A Nucleon inside the nucleus is surrounded by other nucleons from all: Therefore, net force acting on this nucleon is zero. but in the case of nucleons on the surfe nucleus, a net downward force act on the nucleons, as a result, a decrease in binding e occurs. x (a) Binding Energy is directly proportional to the surface Area Es «- Area Eg =a;4nR* 1p Es =a,4n| Ryd > ——) Where, ag and b are proportionality constants - Coul i is i) Coulombic Eneray:- A nucleus consists of Z protons and (A-Z) neutrons. The protons rience coulombic repulsion, hence, thé bindi i 4 : ing energy of a proton wil The coulombic energy term is equal to the electrostatic pheriial omens lee tion that a ni +. The coulombic energy is given by ‘ay of Z-protons.Wj and 2. The negative sign indi mmetric Enert fave same number of proton: 32(Z=1)e? (3) dicated by, 2 ag An22) A E, (4) Where, 'd' is proportionality constant The negative sign indicates the weakening in the binding energy caused by asymmetry in N ray:- The nuclides with even number of protons and neutrons are most stable. Nuclei with odd number of both protons and neutrons are the least stable, While nuclei for which either proton or neutron number is odd are intermediate in stability. +8, for even-even nuclei (5) = 40, for even -odd (or) odd-even nuclei -8, for odd-odd nuclei a Where, 8==5 AS “The empirical formula for binding Energy Is given by BE = Ey + Es tEct E+ Ep % CZ? _d(4-2zy pes aap ~S-s8 ——(6) w A ‘The Binding Energy per nucleon is given by but, The mass of the nucleus Is given by cates the decrease of binding energy due to repulsion effect. z= With regard to the number of nucleons in the nucleus, some nuclei will 's and neutrons (N=Z), where as in some nuclei there will be more number of neutrons than the protons (N>Z). The nuclei with same number of neutrons and protons have more stability while the nuclei with N>Z are least stable. The reduction in binding energy due toasymmetric arrangement of neutrons i:ee BE 7 ee Mil = mp A-Z) yong of mass __ The semi empirical mass formula is given by x gM fl = amp +(A-Z) im, [oem a xy 7 MA =zmp +(A-Z)m, —ad +d te + weCrystal systems i ‘On the basis of the length and directions of the axes of thi I assified into the following seven systems. of he yet aN ates: cubic crystal: Inthis crystal all the three lengths of the unit cell are ‘equal and are at right angles to each other. a a=b=e and a=B=7=90° Ex: NaCl, CaF, NaCl didmond ete. ii) Te ional azb casper! ‘Tetragonal Crystal * In this erystal the two lengths of the unit cell are equal while the third one is longer. The three @xes are perpendicular. 5 =90° a=bee and o Ex : NiSO4, SNOz_etCr_ TEVARIGARIA Dliveire CEnAA BVATTIAT| pei Pe aepee espe" ormomantic est In this crystal the lengths of unit cell are different but three axes are perpendicular to each oth, azbec and a=B=7=90° Ex : KNO3, BaSO, etc. ‘iv) Monoclinic crysti atbec = 909 27 Monoclinic Crystal In this crystal the lengths of unit cell are different. Two a: is obliquely inclined. %eS are at right angles and the third azbec and a=B=90° xy Ex : Na2SOq, FeSO, etc. (W) Triclinic cryst cL [7 acpee ae her= 90"crystar une en . i ervcat we ths of unit cel peo a Bey fn s are di © different and oblique to each other. cuS04, K2Cr07 ete, * pohedral crystal 1 Totragonat Crystal inthis crystal all the three | 2 ; lengths of unit cell are equal, and they-are e¢ ually inclined to each eat an angle other than 90°. : es eb=c and a=Bey=90° fx: CaSO4, quartz, calcite ete ygHexagonal crystal Inthis crystal the two lengths of unit cell are equal in one i plane at 120° with eact uuth axis is perpendicular to this plane. ie =90%, 7=120° Relation of lengths of axes of unit cell Name of the crystal Relation of angle between system axes Cubic Tetragonal 3. | Orthorhombic. 4, | Monoclinic 5, | Triclinie a Bey 290° 6. | Rhombohedral (Trigonal) @ =B=y290° 7. | Hexagonal 90° and y =120°6, Structure. of NaCl (Soaium cniorige): 7 - The NaCl structure is shown in fig. In NaCl, . pr = its hn a and acquires an ex it Ss nile the Cl atom gains one electron and so acquires an excess of lspci ciel now [au to the electrostatic attraction forces between their excess charges, ete charges Mey each other. Further, due to the strong forces of repulsion as their outer tlectron shells come into close proximity, the two ioe ‘cannot approach each other to within less than a certain distance. When attraction and repulsion lance, equilibrium, is attained. Now the ions cannot approach’further, NaCLhas the geometrical e ructure ofa simple cube, with ions of Na and Cl arranged alternatively at the corners of a Ie a = shown in fig.NaCl is a face centred ae Fee Bee consists of Na atom and one Cl atom separated by one-half the body , Glagonal_of unit cube. There are four molecules of NaCl in each unit cube, with ions in the “ Positions. oe otZ. Structure of CsCl (cesium chloride ost gst Che CSCI structure is shown in fig. The CS ions are situated at the corn and Cl ions at the body centre. CsCl co-ordination number is '6', the distance lers of the cubic cel is ‘a’, QO The'¢o-ordinates of nearest neighbours are (#8, 0, 0), (0, +a, 0),(0, 0, + a). Q CsCl isa simple cubic structure (Sc) ._qyacture of zinc blende (zn Zn atoms O Satoms @ Zns structure is shown in fig. If the two face centered cubic sub-lattices are occupied by diferent elements, then the resultant structure is the zns. It has equal number of zn and 's' ions fistributed on a diamond lattice so that each has four of the opposite kind as néarest neighbours. this structure is an example of a lattice with a basis, Which must be so described both because o! ion of the ions and because two types of ions occur. tha nanmatrical nnN N XCRAY DIFFRACTION : 1c rt of electro X-rays wéré discovered by rontgen. These are Pa F inter ns in the order of interaton, 0 -rays have Wé suggested that a cry" -wavelength from 0,02A° to 100A°. Since X-rays ids. Laue St Ysty distances, they aré highly useful to explore the structure ee jetoms can serve the Purpose g which consists of a three-dimensional array of regularly SP: fers from the ordinary ravity in the sense th: ifrace? i ity in the St that the diffrac aa. The crystal dl he ordinary diffraction gravity bind avelengtl acts as a SI centres in the crystal are not in one plane. Hence the a (v.V.IMP) 1. Bragg's law [Diffraction of x-rays by crystals. ‘gach atom becomes 2 Source when a beam of monochromatic x-rays falls on Sa nee. the scattering Of X-Fays roy, scattering radiations. the atoms form the planes at equidistot these planes can be looked upon as reflections from these ple reflections from these sets of parallel planes are in phi maximum intensity nes. At certain glancing angle: fh other and hence they produ, ase with eack consider a set of parallel lattice planes of a crystal separared by a distance ‘d’ apart. let? narrow beam of x-rays of wavelength 2, be incident upon these plane at an angle ‘9 ’as shownit fig. the beam will be reflected in all directions‘by the atoms of various atomic planes. consider a ray PA reflected at atom A in the direction AR from plane I and another ray reflected at another atom B in the direction BS. Inorder to calculate the path difference, we drat two perpendiculars ACand AD on the incident ray QB and reflected ray BS respectively from t atom ‘A.then path difference between these two rays is (CB+BD). we know that the co/dition maximum in the integral multiple of wavelength( 7). ieCB+BD+m ~~ (1) from!" ACB, We get : vs AB sing=$ = CB= ABsin0 ~ ’and fromA® ADB , we get sino = 22 + AB => BD=ABsin§ --(3) “Sub; eq'ns (2)and(3)in eq’n(1),thenABsin®+ ABsin0 = tm 2ABsin@ = +n), “. from fig; AB=d the above equation is known as Bragq’s law.