Branches of Geology

A BASIC TOUR THROUGHOUT THE BRANCHES OF GEOLOGY

Fady Adel Kamal | Geology | September 30, 2018

Table of Contents
Geology .............................................................................................................................................................. 3
Geology of Earth............................................................................................................................................. 3
Economical Geology .................................................................................................................................... 3
Mining Geology ........................................................................................................................................... 4
Petroleum Geology ...................................................................................................................................... 4
Biogeology ................................................................................................................................................... 4
Engineering Geology ................................................................................................................................... 4
Environmental Geology ............................................................................................................................... 5
Geochemistry .............................................................................................................................................. 6
Geologic Modelling...................................................................................................................................... 6
Geomorphology ........................................................................................................................................... 7
Geophysics................................................................................................................................................... 8
Historical Geology....................................................................................................................................... 8
Hydrogeology .............................................................................................................................................. 8
Mineralogy .................................................................................................................................................. 9
Paleontology................................................................................................................................................ 9
Petrology ..................................................................................................................................................... 9
Sedimentology ............................................................................................................................................ 10
Stratigraphy ............................................................................................................................................... 10
Structural geology ...................................................................................................................................... 10
Volcanology................................................................................................................................................. 11
Marine geology ............................................................................................................................................ 11
Planetary Geology ......................................................................................................................................... 12
Geology of Mercury .................................................................................................................................... 12
Geology of Venus........................................................................................................................................ 12
Geology of the Moon .................................................................................................................................. 13
Geology of Mars ......................................................................................................................................... 13
Geology of Jupiter ....................................................................................................................................... 13
Geology of Saturn ....................................................................................................................................... 14
Geology of Uranus ...................................................................................................................................... 14

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Geology of Neptune .................................................................................................................................... 14

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Geology
Geology (from the Ancient Greek γῆ, gē, i.e. "earth" and -λoγία, -logia, i.e. "study of, discourse" (Harper,
n.d.)) is an earth science concerned with the solid Earth, the rocks of which it is composed, and the
processes by which they change over time. Geology can also refer to the study of the solid features of any
terrestrial planet or natural satellite such as Mars or the Moon. Modern geology significantly overlaps all
other earth sciences, including hydrology and the atmospheric sciences, and so is treated as one major
aspect of integrated earth system science and planetary science.

GEOLOGY OF EARTH
Economical Geology
Economic geology is concerned with earth materials that can be used for economic and/or
industrial purposes. These materials include precious and base metals, nonmetallic minerals,
construction-grade stone, petroleum minerals,
coal, and water. Economic geology is a
subdiscipline of the geosciences; according to
Lindgren (1933) it is “the application of
geology”. Today, we might call it the scientific
study of the Earth’s sources of mineral raw
materials and the practical application of the
acquired knowledge. The term commonly
refers to metallic mineral deposits and mineral
resources. The techniques employed by other
earth science disciplines (such as
geochemistry, mineralogy, geophysics, An open pit uranium mine in Namibia
petrology and structural geology)
might all be used to understand, describe, and
exploit an ore deposit.

Economic geology is studied and practiced by geologists. Economic geology may be of interest to other
professions such as engineers, environmental scientists, and conservationists because of the far-reaching
impact that extractive industries have on society, the economy, and the environment.

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Mining Geology
Mining geology is an applied science which combines
the principles of economic geology and mining
engineering to the development of a defined mineral
resource. Mining geologists and engineers work to
develop an identified ore deposit to economically
extract the ore

Petroleum Geology
Petroleum geology is the study of origin, occurrence,
movement, accumulation, and exploration of
hydrocarbon fuels. It refers to the specific set of
geological disciplines that are applied to the search Surface coal mining
for hydrocarbons (oil exploration).

Biogeology
Biogeology is the study of the interactions between the
Earth's biosphere and the lithosphere.

Biogeology examines biotic, hydrologic, and terrestrial

systems in relation to each other, to help understand the
Earth's climate, oceans, and other effects on geologic
systems.

For example, bacteria are responsible for the formation of

some minerals such as pyrite, and can concentrate
economically important metals such as tin and uranium.
Pyrite
Bacteria are also responsible for the chemical composition
of the atmosphere, which affects weathering rates of rocks.

Engineering Geology
Engineering geology is the application of the geology to engineering study for the purpose of assuring
that the geological factors regarding the location, design, construction, operation and maintenance of
engineering works are recognized and accounted for. Engineering geologists provide geological and
geotechnical recommendations, analysis, and design associated with human development and various
types of structures. The realm of the engineering geologist is essentially in the area of earth-structure
interactions, or investigation of how the earth or earth processes impact human made structures and
human activities.

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Engineering geology studies may be performed during
the planning, environmental impact analysis, civil or
structural engineering design, value engineering and
construction phases of public and private works
projects, and during post-construction and forensic
phases of projects. Works completed by engineering
geologists include; geological hazard assessments,
geotechnical, material properties, landslide and slope
stability, erosion, flooding, dewatering, and seismic
investigations, etc. Engineering geology studies are
performed by a geologist or engineering geologist that
is educated, trained and has obtained experience
An engineering geologist logging rock core in
related to the recognition and interpretation of natural
the field, Western Australia.
processes, the understanding of how these processes
impact human made structures (and vice versa), and knowledge of methods by which to mitigate against
hazards resulting from adverse natural or human made conditions. The principal objective of the
engineering geologist is the protection of life and property against damage caused by various geological
conditions.

Environmental Geology
Environmental geology, like hydrogeology, is an applied science concerned with the practical application
of the principles of geology in the solving of environmental problems. It is a multidisciplinary field that is
closely related to engineering geology and, to a lesser extent, to environmental geography. Each of these
fields involves the study of the interaction of humans with the geologic environment, including the
biosphere, the lithosphere, the hydrosphere, and to some extent the atmosphere. In other words,
environmental geology is the application of geological information to solve conflicts, minimizing possible
adverse environmental degradation or maximizing possible advantageous condition resulting from the
use of natural and modified environment.

Environmental geology includes:

 managing geological and hydrogeological resources such as fossil fuels, minerals, water (surface
and ground water), and land use.
 studying the earth's surface through the disciplines of geomorphology, and edaphology;
 defining and mitigating exposure of natural hazards on humans
 managing industrial and domestic waste disposal and minimizing or eliminating effects of
pollution, and
 performing associated activities, often involving litigation.

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Geochemistry
Geochemistry is the science that uses the tools and principles of chemistry to explain the mechanisms
behind major geological systems such as the Earth's crust and its oceans. The realm of geochemistry
extends beyond the Earth, encompassing the entire Solar System, and has made important contributions
to the understanding of a number of processes including mantle convection, the formation of planets and
the origins of granite and basalt.

Geological mapping software displaying a screenshot of a structure map generated for an 8500ft deep gas
& Oil reservoir in the Erath field, Vermilion Parish, Erath, Louisiana. The left-to-right gap, near the top of
the contour map indicates a Fault line. This fault line is between the blue/green contour lines and the
purple/red/yellow contour lines. The thin red circular contour line in the middle of the map indicates the
top of the oil reservoir. Because gas floats above oil, the thin red contour line marks the gas/oil contact
zone.

Geologic Modelling
Geologic modelling, Geological modelling or Geomodelling is the applied science of creating
computerized representations of portions of the Earth's crust based on geophysical and geological
observations made on and below the Earth surface. A Geomodel is the numerical equivalent of a three-
dimensional geological map complemented by a description of physical quantities in the domain of
interest. Geomodelling is related to the concept of Shared Earth Model; which is a multidisciplinary,
interoperable and updatable knowledge base about the subsurface.

Geomodelling is commonly used for managing natural resources, identifying natural hazards, and
quantifying geological processes, with main applications to oil and gas fields, groundwater aquifers and

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ore deposits. For example, in the oil and gas industry, realistic geologic models are required as input to
reservoir simulator programs, which predict the behavior of the rocks under various hydrocarbon
recovery scenarios. A reservoir can only be developed and produced once; therefore, making a mistake by
selecting a site with poor conditions for development is tragic and wasteful. Using geological models and
reservoir simulation allows reservoir engineers to identify which recovery options offer the safest and
most economic, efficient, and effective development plan for a particular reservoir.

Geomorphology
Geomorphology (from Ancient Greek: γῆ, gê, "earth"; μορφή, morphḗ, "form"; and λόγος, lógos, "study")
is the scientific study of the origin and evolution of topographic and bathymetric features created by
physical, chemical or biological processes operating at or near the Earth's surface. Geomorphologists seek
to understand why landscapes look the way they do, to understand landform history and dynamics and to
predict changes through a combination of field observations, physical experiments and numerical
modeling. Geomorphologists work within disciplines such as physical geography, geology, geodesy,
engineering geology, archaeology, climatology and geotechnical engineering. This broad base of interests
contributes to many research styles and interests within the field.

Badlands incised into shale at the foot of the North Caineville Plateau, Utah, within the pass carved by the
Fremont River and known as the Blue Gate. GK Gilbert studied the landscapes of this area in great detail,
forming the observational foundation for many of his studies on geomorphology.

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Geophysics
Geophysics /dʒiːoʊfɪzɪks/ is a subject of natural science concerned with the physical processes and
physical properties of the Earth and its surrounding space environment, and the use of quantitative
methods for their analysis. The term geophysics sometimes refers only to the geological applications:
Earth's shape; its gravitational and magnetic fields; its internal structure and composition; its dynamics
and their surface expression in plate tectonics, the generation of magmas, volcanism and rock formation.
However, modern geophysics organizations use a broader definition that includes the water cycle
including snow and ice; fluid dynamics of the oceans and the atmosphere; electricity and magnetism in
the ionosphere and magnetosphere and solar-terrestrial relations; and analogous problems associated
with the Moon and other planets.

Historical Geology
Historical geology or paleogeology is a discipline that uses the principles and techniques of geology to
reconstruct and understand the geological history of Earth. It focuses on geologic processes that change
the Earth's surface and subsurface; and the use of stratigraphy, structural geology and paleontology to tell
the sequence of these events. It also focuses on the evolution of plants and animals during different time
periods in the geological timescale. The discovery of radioactivity and the development of several
radiometric dating techniques in the first half of the 20th century provided a means of deriving absolute
versus relative ages of geologic history.

Economic geology, the search for and extraction of fuel and raw materials, is heavily dependent on an
understanding of the geological history of an area. Environmental geology, including most importantly
the geologic hazards of earthquakes and volcanism, must also include a detailed knowledge of geologic
history.

Hydrogeology
Hydrogeology (hydro- meaning water, and -geology meaning the study of the Earth) is the area of
geology that deals with the distribution and movement of groundwater in the soil and rocks of the Earth's
crust (commonly in aquifers). The terms groundwater hydrology, geohydrology, and hydrogeology are
often used interchangeably.

Groundwater engineering, another name for hydrogeology, is a branch of engineering which is concerned
with groundwater movement and design of wells, pumps, and drains. The main concerns in groundwater
engineering include groundwater contamination, conservation of supplies, and water quality.

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Mineralogy
Mineralogy is a subject of geology specializing in the scientific study of
chemistry, crystal structure, and physical (including optical) properties of
minerals and mineralized artifacts. Specific studies within mineralogy
include the processes of mineral origin and formation, classification of
minerals, their geographical distribution, as well as their utilization.

Paleontology
Paleontology or palaeontology (/ˌpeɪliɒnˈtɒlədʒi, ˌpæli-, -ən-/) is the Mineralogy is a mixture of
scientific study of life that existed prior to, and sometimes including, the chemistry, materials science,
physics and geology.
start of the Holocene Epoch (roughly 11,700 years before present). It
includes the study of fossils to determine organisms' evolution and interactions with each other and their
environments (their paleoecology). Paleontological observations have
been documented as far back as the 5th century BC. The science became
established in the 18th century as a result of Georges Cuvier's work on
comparative anatomy, and developed rapidly in the 19th century. The
term itself originates from Greek παλαιός, palaios, "old, ancient", ὄν, on
(gen. ontos), "being, creature" and λόγος, logos, "speech, thought, study".

Paleontology lies on the border between biology and geology, but differs
from archaeology in that it excludes the study of anatomically modern Tyrannosaurus rex, Palais de la
humans. It now uses techniques drawn from a wide range of sciences, Découverte, Paris.
including biochemistry, mathematics, and engineering. Use of all these
techniques has enabled paleontologists to discover much of the evolutionary history of life, almost all the
way back to when Earth became capable of supporting life, about 3.8 billion years ago. As knowledge has
increased, paleontology has developed specialised sub-divisions, some of which focus on different types
of fossil organisms while others study ecology and environmental history, such as ancient climates.

Petrology
Petrology (from the Greek πέτρος, pétros, "rock" and λόγος, lógos, "subject matter", see -logy) is the
branch of geology that studies rocks and the conditions under which they form. Petrology has three
subdivisions: igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary petrology. Igneous and metamorphic petrology are
commonly taught together because they both contain heavy use of chemistry, chemical methods, and
phase diagrams. Sedimentary petrology is, on the other hand, commonly taught together with
stratigraphy because it deals with the processes that form sedimentary rock.

Lithology was once approximately synonymous with petrography, but in current usage, lithology focuses
on macroscopic hand-sample or outcrop-scale description of rocks while petrography is the specialty that
deals with microscopic details.

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Sedimentology
Sedimentology encompasses the study of modern sediments such as sand, silt, and clay, and the
processes that result in their formation (erosion and weathering), transport, deposition and diagenesis.
Sedimentologists apply their understanding of modern processes to interpret geologic history through
observations of sedimentary rocks and sedimentary structures.

Sedimentary rocks cover up to 75% of the Earth's surface, record much of the Earth's history, and harbor
the fossil record. Sedimentology is closely linked to stratigraphy, the study of the physical and temporal
relationships between rock layers or strata.

Stratigraphy
Stratigraphy is a branch of geology concerned with the study of rock layers (strata) and layering
(stratification). It is primarily used in the study of sedimentary and layered volcanic rocks. Stratigraphy
has two related subfields: lithostratigraphy (lithologic stratigraphy) and biostratigraphy (biologic
stratigraphy).

Structural geology
Structural geology is the study of the three-dimensional
distribution of rock units with respect to their deformational
histories. The primary goal of structural geology is to use
measurements of present-day rock geometries to uncover
information about the history of deformation (strain) in the
rocks, and ultimately, to understand the stress field that
resulted in the observed strain and geometries. This
understanding of the dynamics of the stress field can be linked
to important events in the geologic past; a common goal is to
understand the structural evolution of a particular area with
respect to regionally widespread patterns of rock deformation
(e.g., mountain building, rifting) due to plate tectonics.
A volcanic sand grain seen under the
microscope, with plane-polarized light
in the upper picture, and cross polarized
light in the lower picture. Scale box is
0.25 mm.

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Volcanology
Volcanology (also spelled vulcanology) is the study of
volcanoes, lava, magma, and related geological,
geophysical and geochemical phenomena. The term
volcanology is derived from the Latin word vulcan.
Vulcan was the ancient Roman god of fire.

A volcanologist is a geologist who studies the eruptive

activity and formation of volcanoes, and their current
and historic eruptions. Volcanologists frequently visit
volcanoes, especially active ones, to observe volcanic
eruptions, collect eruptive products including tephra
(such as ash or pumice), rock and lava samples. One
major focus of enquiry is the prediction of eruptions;
there is currently no accurate way to do this, but
predicting eruptions, like predicting earthquakes, A volcanologist sampling lava using a rock hammer and
could save many lives. a bucket of water

Marine geology
Marine geology or geological oceanography is the study of the
history and structure of the ocean floor. It involves
geophysical, geochemical, sedimentological and
paleontological investigations of the ocean floor and coastal
zone. Marine geology has strong ties to geophysics and to
physical oceanography.

Marine geological studies were of extreme importance in

providing the critical evidence for sea floor spreading and
plate tectonics in the years following World War II. The deep
ocean floor is the last essentially unexplored frontier and
detailed mapping in support of both military (submarine)
Oceanic crust is formed at an oceanic ridge,
objectives and economic (petroleum and metal mining) while the lithosphere is sub-ducted back into
objectives drives the research. the asthenosphere at trenches.

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PLANETARY GEOLOGY
Planetary geology, alternatively known as astrogeology or exogeology, is a planetary science discipline
concerned with the geology of the celestial bodies such as the planets and their moons, asteroids, comets,
and meteorites. Although the geo- prefix typically indicates topics of or relating to the Earth, planetary
geology is named as such for historical and convenience reasons; applying geological science to other
planetary bodies. Due to the types of investigations involved, it is also closely linked with Earth-based
geology.

Planetary geology includes such topics as determining the internal structure of the terrestrial planets, and
also looks at planetary volcanism and surface processes such as impact craters, fluvial and aeolian
processes. The structures of the giant planets and their moons are also examined, as is the make-up of the
minor bodies of the Solar System, such as asteroids, the Kuiper Belt, and comets.

Geology of Mercury
The geology of Mercury is the least understood of all
the terrestrial planets in the Solar System. This stems
largely from Mercury's proximity to the Sun which
makes reaching it with spacecraft technically
challenging and Earth-based observations difficult.

After having completed the first solar day of its

mission in September 2011, more than 99% of
Mercury's surface had been mapped by NASA's
MESSENGER probe in both color and monochrome
with such detail that scientists' understanding of
Mercury's geology has eclipsed the level achieved
following the Mariner 10 flybys of the 1970s.
Double-ring impact on the surface of Mercury

Geology of Venus
The surface of Venus is not easily accessible because of the
extremely thick atmosphere (some 90 times that of Earth's)
and the 470 °C (878 °F) surface temperature. Much of what is
known about it stems from orbital radar observations, because
the surface is permanently obscured in visible wavelengths by
cloud cover. In addition, a number of landers have returned
data from the surface, including images.

Radar global map of the surface of Venus

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Geology of the Moon
The geology of the Moon (sometimes called selenology,
although the latter term can refer more generally to "lunar
science") is quite different from that of Earth. The Moon lacks
a significant atmosphere, which eliminates erosion due to
weather; it does not have any form of plate tectonics, it has a
lower gravity, and because of its small size, it cooled more
rapidly. The complex geomorphology of the lunar surface has
been formed by a combination of processes, especially impact
cratering and volcanism. The Moon is a differentiated body,
with a crust, mantle, and core.

False-color image of the Moon taken by

Galileo oribiter showing geological
Geology of Mars features.

The geology of Mars is the scientific study of the surface, crust, and
interior of the planet Mars. It emphasizes the composition, structure,
history, and physical processes that shape the planet. It is analogous to
the field of terrestrial geology. In planetary science, the term geology
is used in its broadest sense to mean the study of the solid parts of
planets and moons. The term incorporates aspects of geophysics,
geochemistry, mineralogy, geodesy, and cartography. A neologism,
areology, from the Greek word Arēs (Mars), sometimes appears as a
synonym for Mars's geology in the popular media and works of
science fiction (e.g. Kim Stanley Robinson’s Mars trilogy)

Mars as seen by the Hubble Space

Telescope
Geology of Jupiter
Jupiter is thought to consist of a dense core with a mixture of elements, a surrounding layer of liquid
metallic hydrogen with some helium, and an outer layer predominantly of molecular hydrogen. Beyond
this basic outline, there is still considerable uncertainty. The core is often described as rocky, but its
detailed composition is unknown, as are the properties of materials at the temperatures and pressures of
those depths (see below). In 1997, the existence of the core was suggested by gravitational measurements,
indicating a mass of from 12 to 45 times that of Earth, or roughly 4%–14% of the total mass of Jupiter. The
presence of a core during at least part of Jupiter's history is suggested by models of planetary formation

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that require the formation of a rocky or icy core massive enough to collect its
bulk of hydrogen and helium from the protosolar nebula. Assuming it did
exist, it may have shrunk as convection currents of hot liquid metallic
hydrogen mixed with the molten core and carried its contents to higher
levels in the planetary interior. A core may now be entirely absent; as
gravitational measurements are not yet precise enough to rule that
possibility out entirely.

Animation of four images

showing Jupiter in infrared
light as seen by NASA's
Infrared telescope facility
on May 16, 2015

Geology of Saturn
Despite consisting mostly of hydrogen and helium, most of Saturn's mass is not in the gas phase, because
hydrogen becomes a non-ideal liquid when the density is above 0.01 g/cm3, which is reached at a radius
containing 99.9% of Saturn's mass. The temperature, pressure, and density inside Saturn all rise steadily
toward the core, which causes hydrogen to be a metal in the deeper layers.

Geology of Uranus
Uranus's mass is roughly 14.5 times that of Earth, making it the least massive of the giant planets. Its
diameter is slightly larger than Neptune's at roughly four times that of Earth. A resulting density of 1.27
g/cm3 makes Uranus the second least dense planet, after Saturn. This value indicates that it is made
primarily of various ices, such as water, ammonia, and methane. The total mass of ice in Uranus's interior
is not precisely known, because different figures emerge depending on the model chosen; it must be
between 9.3 and 13.5 Earth masses. Hydrogen and helium constitute only a small part of the total, with
between 0.5 and 1.5 Earth masses. The remainder of the non-ice mass (0.5 to 3.7 Earth masses) is
accounted for by rocky material.

Geology of Neptune
Neptune's internal structure resembles that of Uranus. Its atmosphere forms about 5% to 10% of its mass
and extends perhaps 10% to 20% of the way towards the core, where it reaches pressures of about 10 GPa,
or about 100,000 times that of Earth's atmosphere. Increasing concentrations of methane, ammonia and
water are found in the lower regions of the atmosphere.

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