E.

Bulk Modulus of elasticity and

compressibility, k (kappa)
• Compressibility or coefficient of compressibility of fluid is a
measure of how the volume of a given mass of a fluid changes
with respect to the application of external pressure.
• For most practical purpose liquids may be regarded as
incompressible. However, there are certain cases, such as
water hammer, where the compressibility should be taken into
account. If water were not compressible, then closing a value
on a pipe line could be dangerous task. The force involved will
be immense. Fortunately, water is compressible and
compresses like a spring to absorb the energy of the impact as
the value is closed. Water hammer pressure are quite large.
Therefore, engineers must design piping systems to keep the
pressure within acceptable limits.
• The compressibility of a fluid is expressed by defining a modulus
of elasticity as in done for solids. But since fluids do not possess
rigidity of form, the modulus of elasticity must be defined on the
basis of volume; such a modulus being termed Bulk Modulus of
Elasticity , K which is defined as the ratio of compressive stress
or called change in pressure to volumetric strain. Where as
Compressibility, β is the reciprocal of bulk modulus of elasticity.
• In order to define the Bulk Modulus of Elasticity, consider a
compressible fluid in a cylinder of cross - sectional area A, which
is being compressed by a piston as shown in Figure 2.1. The
cylinder and the piston are considered rigid.
Let the original volume of the fluid be Vo. The application of a
force F results in the pressure P = F/A exerted on the fluid. This
pressure reduces the fluid volume to V. A plot of dV/Vo (which is a
measure of volumetric strain) against the pressure change dP
results in a curve of negative slope as shown in Figure 2.l(b) . The
Bulk Modulus of Elasticity K of the fluid corresponding to a
pressure change dP, is defined as:
• The negative sign indicates the decrease in dv/Vo with
increase in pressure. Since dv/V, is dimensionless, the
dimension of K is the same as that of the pressure P. Water
has an average value of Kwater = 2.1 Gpa, Ksteel = 210 Gpa
and Kair = 0.1013Mpa This shows that water is about
100 times more compressible than steel, but it is
ordinarily considered incompressible.

Example 1.4
What pressure increase is required to reduce the volume of
100 c.c of water by 0.5%? K = 2.1 GPa
 F. Viscosity
• Viscosity is one of the most important physical properties of fluids.
• It is the measure of internal resistance offered by a fluid to the
flow.
• It is a measure of the internal resistance of a fluid to relative
motion such as shear and angular deformation within the fluid.
• Viscosity is due to interchange of molecules between adjacent
layers of fluids moving at different velocities.
• It affects the way fluids flow. Heavy oils have greater viscosity than
water and water is more viscous than air. More the resistance,
higher is the viscosity.
• The relationship between viscous shear stress and viscosity is
expressed by Newton's law of viscosity.
• Consider a fluid confined between two plates separated by a small
distance y as shown in Figure 2.2. The lower plate is stationary
while the upper plate is moved with a velocity v.
 Since there will not be slippage between the plates and the fluid,
particles of fluid in contact with each plate will adhere to it i.e.
fluid particles in contact with the moving plate will have a velocity
V while those in contact with the stationary plate will have zero
velocity. The effect is as if the fluid were made up of a series of
thin, parallel layers each moving a little faster relative to the
adjacent, lower layer.
• For a large number of fluids, the shear stress developed between
adjacent layers of fluid is found to be directly proportional to the
rate of change of velocity with respect to Y, which is the velocity
gradient (rate of deformation). For a layer of thickness dy at a
distance y from the stationary plate this becomes;
• Introducing a constant of proportionality µ, one obtains:

• The proportionality constant µ expresses the property of the

particular fluid and is called dynamic viscosity (absolute viscosity) .
Equation 2.2 is called Newton's Law of viscosity.
• The unit of dynamic viscosity µ is Ns / m2 or k g / ms . A smaller unit
of dynamic viscosity is called the poise. 1 poise = 1 gm/cm . s . Thus 1
poise = 0.1 kg/ms .
Kinematic viscosity (v) is the ratio of dynamic viscosity to density. v
= µ/ƍ and has units of m2/s. A smaller unit of v is the stoke. 1 stoke =
1 cm2/s. Thus 1 stoke = 1 x lo-4 m2/s.
• Water is a Newtonian fluid having a dynamic viscosity of 0.0012
Ns/m2 or 10-3 Ns/m2 or kinematic viscosity of 10-6 m2/s at 200c.
• Fluids may be classified on the basis of the relationship between the
shear stress τ and the rate of deformation (velocity gradient) as
shown in Figure 2.3.
• Fluids may be classified as Newtonian and non - Newtonian.
• In Newtonian fluids there is a linear relation between / directly
proportional to/ the magnitude of the applied shear stress τ and
the resulting rate of deformation i.e. µ is constant.
• In non - Newtonian fluids there is a non-linear relation between
the applied shear stress and the rate of angular deformation.
• A fluid which obeys Newton’s law of viscosity is known as
Newtonian fluid.
• Water, air, crude oil etc. are Newtonian fluid where as human
blood, butter, printers ink etc. are non - Newtonian.
• Ideal fluid is a fluid which is incompressible and zero viscosity. It is
a fluid for which shear stress is zero (even if there is velocity
gradient). It has uniform velocity distribution when flowing.
• Real fluid which is compressible and in which viscosity is present.
It has non – uniform velocity distribution.
• Ideal – Plastic fluid is a fluid in which shear stress is more than the
yield value and in which shear stress is directly proportional to
shear strain
• Yield stress is the stress level at which the material cease to
behave elasticity.
• The viscosity of a fluid is a function of temperature. Since the
viscosity of liquids is governed by cohesive forces between the
molecules, it decreases with increase in temperature. In gases,
however, molecular momentum transfer plays a dominant role in
viscosity and as a result the viscosity of gases increases with
increase in temperature.
 Examples
1.5. A plate separated by 0.5 mm from a fixed plate moves at 0.5 m/s
under a shear stress of 4 N/m2 . Determine the viscosity of the
fluid between the plates.

1.6. A Newtonian fluids fills the gap between a shaft and concentric
sleeve. When a force of 788N is applied to the shaft parallel to
the sleeves, the shaft attains a speed of 2 m/s. If a 1400 N force is
applied , what speed will the shaft attain? The temperature of
the sleeve remains constant.
1.7. If the velocity distribution of a viscous fluid (µ = 0.9 Ns/m2) over
a fixed boundary is given by U = 0.68y - y2 in which U is the
velocity in m/s at a distance y meters above the fixed boundary
surface, determine the shear stress at the fixed boundary surface
and at y = 0.34m.
1.8. Two large plane surfaces are 2.4 cm apart. The space between
the surfaces is filled with glycerin. What force is required to drag a
2
very thin plate of surface area 0.5 m between two large plane
surfaces at a speed of 0.6 m/sec , if the thin plate is in the middle
of the two plane surfaces. Take the dynamic viscosity of glycerin =
2
8.1 *10-1 Ns / m .
 G. Surface Tension and Capillarity
• Surface Tension and Capillarity are due to properties called
cohesion and adhesion.
• Cohesion is the property as a result of which molecules of a liquid
stick to each other whereas adhesion is the property that enables
liquids to stick or adhere to another body.
• As a result of cohesion an imaginary film capable of resisting some
tension is created at a free liquid surface. The liquid property that
creates this capability is called surface tension. It is because of
surface tension that a small pin placed gently on water surface will
not sink but remain floating being supported by the tension at the
water surface.
• The spherical shape of water drops is also due to surface tension.
Surface tension force, designated by σ, is defined as force per unit
length and has the unit N/m.
 G. Surface Tension and Capillarity…
• For water in contact with air σ varies from about 0.074 N/m at O°C
to 0.059 N/m at 100°C.
• Surface tension force is so small that it is neglected in ordinary
hydraulic problems. It is, however, a factor to be taken into
consideration in flows at small depths that occur in model studies.
• Capillarity is due to both adhesion and cohesion. If a glass tube of
small diameter and open at both ends is dipped in a container of
water, the water rises in the tube to some height above the level
of water in the container (Figure 2.4 a) . If the same tube is dipped
in a container of mercury, the level inside the tube will be lower
than that in the container (Figure 2.4 b). In the former, adhesion of
water to glass is predominant in comparison to the cohesion
whereas in the latter cohesion between mercury molecules is
predominant.
G. Surface Tension and Capillarity…
• Capillary rise or Capillary drop can be estimated by
considering the equilibrium of the liquid column of
height, h as follows:
• Consider a tube of small internal diameter D = 2r
dipped in a liquid of specific weight, γ and surface
tension force, σ .
• Let the liquid rise to a height, h in the tube as a result
of capillarity (Figure 2.5).
• The liquid column of height, h is supported by
vertical component of the surface tension force at
the liquid-air interface. For vertical equilibrium:
• This shows that the capillary rise is inversely
proportional to the diameter of the tube. Hence for
tubes of very small diameter, the capillary rise can be
considerable. Therefore, to minimize the effect of
capillarity, the tubes of manometers and piezometers
should not be less that about 10 mm in diameter. If
the surface is clean, the contact angle is 00 for water
and about 1400 for mercury.
 Example 1.9
• Calculate the capillary effect in mm in a glass tube of
6 mm diameter when immersed in (a) Water, σ = 73 x
10-3N/m and (b) Mercury, σ = 0.5 N/m. The contact
angles for Water and Mercury are zero and 130°
respectively. Take specific weights of water and
mercury to be 9810 N/m3 and 1.334 x 105 N/m3
respectively.
 Vapour Pressure
• In a closed vessel at a constant temperature, the liquid
molecules break away from the liquid surface and enter
the air space in vapour state. When the air above the
liquid surface is saturated with liquid vapour molecules
then the pressure exerted on liquid surface is called
vapour pressure.
• Vapour pressure increases with temperature.
• The low vapour pressure of mercury (along with high
density) makes it very suitable for use in barometers and
other pressure measuring devices.