Alexander Mhizha

Department of Civil Engineering

University of Zimbabwe,
Harare, Zimbabwe.
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Compressibility

 Compressibility is the compression (decrease in volume

for the same mass) of fluids on application of pressure and
expansion (increase in volume for the same mass) on the
removal of the pressure.
• Thus Compressibility is the change in volume due to
a change in pressure
• When fluids compress due to pressure increases this
result in an increase in density.
Compressibility
 Compressibility is expressed in terms of the volume modulus of
elasticity of the fluid.
 Compressibility ( 𝛽) is inversely proportional to volume modulus
of elasticity (𝐸𝑣 ) of the fluid.
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 𝛽=
𝐸𝑣

 Where: dp
E   
d
 -ve because an increase in pressure lead to a decrease in volume

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 ( specific volume)


p is pressure
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Compressibility of liquids (1)
● Bulk (volume) modulus of elasticity, Ev (kPa)

● Ev represents the Δp required to produce a unit change

in specific volume (Δv/v)

Bulk modulus of elasticity can be seen as: Ratio of pressure

change to volumetric strain and has the same units of
measurement as those of pressure.
Which are?
𝑁
2 , Note that volumetric strain is dimensionless.
𝑚
● Ev = f(T,p) for liquids
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Density and specific weight
● Density, or mass density, ρ [rho] = mass per unit
volume (kg/m3)

● Specific weight, γ [gamma] = weight per unit volume

(N/m3,)

● Related by

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 Specific volume and specific
gravity
● Specific volume, v: is volume per unit mass (m3/kg)

● Specific gravity for a liquid is the dimensionless ratio

where ρL = density of liquid, ρW = density of water at a standard temperature (either 4oC,
or 60oF)

  g  liquid
● For gases, the referencee density is not standard. It must
S  
be specified. liquid liquid

 water  water g  water

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Effect of change of pressure
and temperature on bulk
modulus of elasticity
 𝐸𝑣 increases with increase in pressure

 This is because an increase in pressure leads to reduced

volumetric strain as the fluid particles offer more
resistance to further packing.
Compressibility of liquids (3)
For a fixed mass of liquid at constant temperature, the
bulk modulus does not change much on a moderate
range of temperature.

● In this case, we can write:

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 Perfect Gas Law
 The mass density of a gas varies with its absolute pressure p
and absolute temperature T.
 For a perfect gas,

p/ρ = p⋅v = R⋅T

where p = absolute pressure, ρ = density, v = 1/ρ, T = absolute

temperature, and R = gas constant

● For air, R = 287 m2/(s2⋅K)

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Continuum Concept
 Convenient to assume fluids are continuously distributed
throughout the region of interest i.e. the fluid is treated as a
continuum.

 This continuum model allows us to not have to deal with

molecular interactions directly. Such interactions are considered
indirectly through viscosity principle.

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 Viscosity
 Viscosity can be described as the internal stickiness of a fluid

 Representative of internal friction in fluids

 Internal friction forces in flowing fluids result from cohesion and

momentum interchange between molecules.

 Viscosity of a fluid depends on temperature:

 In liquids, viscosity decreases with increasing temperature (i.e. cohesion

decreases with increasing temperature)
 In gases, viscosity increases with increasing temperature (i.e. molecular
interchange between layers increases with temperature setting up strong internal
shear)

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Applications of viscosity
 Viscosity is important, for example,
 in determining amount of fluids that can be transported in a
pipeline during a specific period of time
 determining energy losses associated with transport of fluids
in ducts, channels and pipes

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 There are cohesion forces among fluid particles, while there
are adhesion forces among fluid particles and solid wall.

Adhesion forces are usually greater than cohesion force

except mercury.

dynamic viscosity
Consider two parallel plates, placed a small distance Y
apart, the space between the plates being filled with the fluid.
Y
 U v
F

The lower surface is assumed to be stationary, while

upper one is moved parallel to it with a velocity U by the
application of a force F, corresponding to some area A of the
moving plates
The particles of the fluid in contact with each plate will
adhere to it. The velocity gradient will be a straight line. The
action is much as if the fluid were made up of a series of thin
sheets.
 U v
F

dy
Y

u du
y

Experiment has shown that for a large class of fluids

du
Ff  A
dy
If a constant of proportionality μ is now introduced, the
shearing stress τ between any two thin sheet of fluid may be
expressed by
du
  (1)
dy
 The above equation is called Newtow’s equation of
viscosity and in transposed form it serves to define the
proportional constant



du / dy

which is called the dynamic viscosity.

The viscosity is the inherent property of fluids, but shown

only in fluid flow.
The viscosity is a measure of its resistance to shear or angle
deformation.
The viscosity accounts for energy losses associated with the
transport of fluids in ducts and pipes.
 The friction forces in fluid flow result from the cohesion and
momentum interchange between molecules in the fluid.

As temperature increases, the viscosity of all liquids

decreases, while the viscosity of all gases increase.

This is because the force of cohesion, which diminishes

with temperature, predominates with liquids; while with gases
the predominating factor in the interchange of molecules
between layers of different velocity.
Kinematic Viscosity
 In many problems including viscosity there frequently
appear the value of viscosity divided by density. This is
defined as kinematic viscosity





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Newton’s equation of viscosity
du
Shear stress due to viscosity at a point:   
dy

 - kinematic
 - viscosity (coeff. of viscosity) 
 viscosity

fluid surface

y
u( y) (velocity profile)

Fixed no-slip plate

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As engineers, Newton’s Law of Viscosity is very useful
to us as we can use it to evaluate the shear stress (and
ultimately the shear force) exerted by a moving fluid
onto the fluid’s boundaries.

 du 
 at boundary    
 dy  at boundary

Note y is direction normal to the boundary

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 Viscometer
Coefficient of viscosity  can be measured
empirically using a viscometer

Example: Flow between two concentric cylinders

(viscometer) of length L

r h r - radial coordinate

Moving fluid R y
O
Fixed outer 
,T
cylinder x
Rotating inner
z
cylinder 22
 Non-Newtonian and Newtonian fluids

Non-Newtonian
fluid Newtonian fluid (linear relationship)

 (duetovis cosity)

Non-Newtonian fluid
(non-linear
relationship)

du / dy

• In this course we will only deal with Newtonian fluids

• Non-Newtonian fluids: blood, paints, toothpaste
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Non-Newtonian and Newtonian fluids
Non-Newtonian and Newtonian fluids

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Cohesion and Adhesion
 Cohesion is the property of like molecules (of the same
substance) to stick to each other due to mutual attraction.
 Adhesion is the property of different molecules or
surfaces to cling to each other.
 Water has both cohesive and adhesive properties. Water
molecules stick to each other to form a sphere. This is the
result of cohesive forces.
 When contained in a tube, the water molecules touching
the surface of the container are at a higher level
(see Meniscus).
 This is due to the adhesive force between the water
molecules and the molecules of the container.

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Effect of cohesion on a liquid
surface
 Cohesion enables a liquid surface to resist tensile stress
 Surface Tension
 A liquid, being unable to expand
freely, will form an interface with a
second liquid or gas.
 The cohesive forces between liquid
molecules are responsible for the
phenomenon known as surface
tension.
 Force per unit length (N/m) or of
energy per unit area (J/m2).
• Υair‐water = 0.073 N/m;
Υair‐mercury = 0.48 N/m

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Surface Tension
 ST, σ,results from the attractive forces between
molecules,

 It is measured as a force per unit length

 It allows droplets to form, and small droplets and bubbles

to be spherical.

 Stability is maintained when force due to surface tension

balances the forces due to inside pressure.

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 Consider the free-body diagram of a spherical droplet and a bubble.
 The pressure force inside the droplet balances the force due to surface
tension around the circumference i.e.

 Note that in a bubble there are two surfaces so that the force balance
becomes

 So, if the internal pressure is desired, it is important to know if it is a

droplet or a bubble.

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Capillarity
 A second application where surface tension causes an
interesting result is in the rise of a liquid in a capillary
tube.
 ST acting an angle to point of contact in the tube results in
upward pull.
 The upward pull is resisted by a downward force caused
by the weight of the fluid.

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Deriving capillary rise

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 Vapor pressure of liquids
• All liquids tend to evaporate when placed in a closed container

• Vaporization will terminate when equilibrium is reached between

the liquid and gaseous states of the substance in the container

i.e. # of molecules escaping liquid surface =

# of incoming molecules
• Under this equilibrium we call the vapor pressure the saturation
pressure

• At any given temperature, if pressure on liquid surface falls below the

the saturation pressure, rapid evaporation occurs (i.e. boiling)

• For a given temperature, the saturation pressure is the boiling

pressure 35