Length Volume

1 meter = 3.28 feet 1 quart = 2 pints

= 1.093 yard 1 (US) Gallon = 231 in3
1 foot = 12 inches = 3.7854 li
1 yard = 3 feet = 4 quarts
1 inch = 2.54 cm 1 British Gal = 277.42 in3
1 rod = 5.5 yards 1 m3 = 1,000 li
1 mile = 5280 feet = 264.2 gallon
1 nautical mile = 6080 feet = 35.29 ft3
1 fathom = 6 feet 1 ganta = 3 li
= 8 chupas
1 cavan = 25 gantas

Area Angle
1 hectare = 10,000 m2 3600 = 1 rev
= 11,960 yd2 = 2π radians
1 acre = 4,047 yd2 = 6,400 mils
1 m2 = 10. 76 ft2 900 = 100 grad
= 1.195 yd2 10 = 60 minutes
1 minute = 60 seconds

Mass Force and Weight

1 kilogram = 2.205 lbm 1 Newton = 1 kg∙m/s2
1 lbm = 0.4535 kg 1 lbf = 32.17 lbm∙ft/s2
= 16 ounces 1 kip = 1,000 lbf
1 slug = 32.17 lbm 1 kgf = 9.81 kg∙m/s2
1 metric ton = 1,000 kg 1 dyne = 10-5 N
= 2,205 lbm
1 ton = 2,000 lbm
1 long ton = 2,240 lbm
Work and Energy Pressure
1J = 1 N∙m 1 Pascal = 1 N/m2
1 Cal = 4.187 J 1 kPa = 1,000 Pa
1 kJ = 1,000 N∙m 1 Bar = 100 kPa
1 Btu = 1.055 kJ 1 atm = 101.325 kPa
= 778 ft∙lbf = 14.7 psi
= 252 cal = 760 mm Hg
1 Erg = 1 Dyne∙cm = 29.92 in Hg
= 10-7 J = 1.033 kg/cm2
P = ρgh
Pabs = Patm + Pgage

Power Temperature
1 Watt = 1 J/s Δ0C = ΔK
1 kW = 3,412.3 Btu/h Δ0F = ΔR
= 737.3 ft∙lbf/s Δ0F = 1.8Δ0C
1 hp = 550 ft∙lbf/s K = 0C + 273.15
= 2,545 Btu/h R = 0F + 460
0F
= 0.746 kW = 1.80C + 32
1 mhp = 0.736 kW
1 ton ref = 12,000 Btu/hr
1 Boiler HP = 33,480 Btu/hr
= 35,322 kJ/hr

Viscosity
1 Poise = 0.1 Pa∙s
1 Stoke = 0.0001 m2/s
 Energy
First Law of Thermodynamics
- Energy is always conserved
- The change in energy of a system is equal to the net energy
transfer in the system
∆𝐸𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 = 𝐸𝑖𝑛 − 𝐸𝑜𝑢𝑡
Common Types of Energy
Mass Flow 𝑚̇ = 𝜌𝑉̇ (kg/s)
1 2
Kinetic Energy 𝐾𝐸 = 𝑣̇ (J/kg)
2
Potential Energy 𝑃𝐸 = 𝑔ℎ (J/kg)
Electrical Energy 𝐸𝐸 = 𝑉𝐼 (W)
Work 𝑊 = ∫ 𝐹𝑑𝑠 (J)
Shaft Work 𝑊𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡 = 2𝜋𝑛̇ 𝑇 (W)
1
Spring Work 𝑊𝑠𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 = 𝑘(𝑥2 2 − 𝑥1 2 ) (J)
2
Heat 𝑄 = 𝑄̇∆𝑡 (J)
𝑃
Flow Energy 𝐸𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 = = 𝑃𝑣 (J/kg)
𝜌

Properties of Substance
Quality (Dryness) Saturated Mixture Property
𝑚𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑟
𝑥= 𝑦 = 𝑦𝑓 + 𝑥𝑦𝑓𝑔
𝑚𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙
Ideal Gas Equation Gas Constant
𝑅
𝑃𝑣 = 𝑅𝑇 𝑅= 𝑢
𝑀
𝑘𝐽
𝑃𝑉 = 𝑚𝑅𝑇 Ru = 8.3145
𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙∙𝐾
Specific Heat Ratio Specific Heat - Gas Constant Relation
𝑐𝑝
𝑘= 𝑐𝑝 = 𝑐𝑣 + 𝑅
𝑐𝑣
Internal Energy Enthalpy Entropy
u h = u + Pv s
Water Properties
At Barometric Pressure
Latent Heat of Vaporization - 2257 kJ/kg
Latent Heat of Fusion - 333.7 kJ/kg
Specific Heat - 4.187 kJ/kg
At Critical Pressure
Temperature - 373.95 0C
Pressure - 22.06 MPa
Specific Volume - 0.0031 m3/kg

Other Substances
Substance R cp cv k M
Air 0.287 1.005 0.718 1.4
Carbon 12
Helium 1.667 4
Hydrogen (H2) 1.4 2
Nitrogen (N2) 1.4 28
Oxygen (O2) 1.4 32
Sulfur 32
Carbon dioxide (CO2) 1.29 44
Carbon monoxide (CO) 1.4 28
Ammonia (NH3) 17
Steam (H2O) 1.327 18
Methane (CH4) 0.5182 1.3 16
Ethane (C2H6) 0.2765 1.186 30
Propane (C3H8) 0.1885 1.126 44
Octane (C8H18) 1.044 114
 Closed System

∆𝑚 = 0
∆𝐸 = 𝐸𝑖𝑛 − 𝐸𝑜𝑢𝑡
Boundary Work
2
𝑊𝑏 = ∫1 𝑃𝑑𝑉
Isometric (Constant Volume)
𝑊𝑏 = 0
Isobaric (Constant Pressure)
𝑊𝑏 = 𝑃∆𝑉
Polytropic (Pvn = c)
𝑃2 𝑉2 −𝑃1 𝑉1
𝑊𝑏 =
1−𝑛
Isothermal (n = 1; Pv = c)
𝑉2
𝑊𝑏 = 𝑃1 𝑉1 ln
𝑉1
𝑉2
𝑊𝑏 = 𝑚𝑅𝑇 ln
𝑉1
Change in Internal Energy
∆𝑢 = 𝑢2 − 𝑢1
∆𝑢 = 𝑐𝑣 (𝑇2 − 𝑇1 )
 Open System

Steady Flow
𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑡
∆𝐸𝑖𝑛 = ∆𝐸𝑜𝑢𝑡
Unsteady Flow
∆𝑚 = 𝑚𝑖𝑛 − 𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑡
∆𝐸 = 𝐸𝑖𝑛 − 𝐸𝑜𝑢𝑡
Change in Enthalpy
∆ℎ = ℎ2 − ℎ1
∆ℎ = 𝑐𝑝 (𝑇2 − 𝑇1 )
 Second Law of Thermodynamics
- Processes occur in a certain direction, not in any direction
- Processes must satisfy both first and second law of
thermodynamics
- Energy has quantity and quality

Thermal Efficiency of Heat Engine

𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝑒= =1−
𝑄𝑖𝑛 𝑄𝑖𝑛
Coefficient of Performance
𝑄𝑖𝑛 1
𝐶𝑂𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 = = 𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 −1
𝑄𝑖𝑛
𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡 1
𝐶𝑂𝑃ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑝𝑢𝑚𝑝 = = 𝑄
𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 1− 𝑖𝑛
𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡
Kelvin-Planck Statement
- It is impossible for any device that operates on a cycle to
receive heat from a single reservoir and produce a net
amount of work.
Clausius Statement
- It is impossible to construct a device that operates in a cycle
and produces no effect other than the transfer of heat from
a lower-temperature body to a higher-temperature body.
Reversible Process
- A process that can be reversed without leaving any trace to
the surrounding
Irreversible Process
- A process that is not reversible
Carnot Cycle

1-2 Reversible Isothermal Expansion

2-3 Reversible Adiabatic Expansion
3-4 Reversible Isothermal Compression
4-1 Reversible Adiabatic Compression
Reversed Carnot Cycle

Carnot Efficiency COP Reversed Carnot

𝑇 1
𝑒 =1− 𝐿 𝐶𝑂𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 = 𝑇𝐻
𝑇𝐻 −1
𝑇𝐿
1
𝐶𝑂𝑃ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑝𝑢𝑚𝑝 = 𝑇
1− 𝐿
𝑇𝐻
 Entropy
- Quantitative measure of microscopic disorder of a system
- Entropy increases or remains constant, but never decreases
for an isolated system

Change of Entropy Isentropic Process

∆𝑠 = 𝑠2 − 𝑠1 𝑠2 = 𝑠1
Incompressible Substances
𝑇2
∆𝑠 = 𝑐 ln  𝑇2 = 𝑇1 (Isentropic)
𝑇1

Ideal Gas (Pvk = c)

𝑇 𝑣
∆𝑠 = 𝑐𝑣 ln 2 + 𝑅 ln 2
𝑇1 𝑣1
𝑇2 𝑃2
∆𝑠 = 𝑐𝑝 ln − 𝑅 ln
𝑇1 𝑃1

Isentropic Relation of Ideal Gases

𝑇2 𝑣 𝑃2 𝑘−1
= ( 1 )𝑘−1 =( ) 𝑘
𝑇1 𝑣2 𝑃1

Reversible Steady Flow Work

2
𝑤𝑟𝑒𝑣 = ∫1 𝑣𝑑𝑃 + ∆𝐾𝐸 + ∆𝑃𝐸

Reversible Compression of Ideal Gas

𝑘𝑅(𝑇2 −𝑇1 ) 𝑘𝑅𝑇1 𝑃2 𝑘−1
Isentropic 𝑤= = [( ) 𝑘 − 1]
𝑘−1 𝑘−1 𝑃1
𝑛𝑅(𝑇2 −𝑇1 ) 𝑛𝑅𝑇1 𝑃2 𝑛−1
Polytropic 𝑤= = [( ) 𝑛 − 1]
𝑛−1 𝑛−1 𝑃1
𝑃2
Isothermal 𝑤 = 𝑅𝑇 ln
𝑃1

Multi-stage Compression (Intercooling)

𝑃𝑥 = √𝑃1 𝑃2
General Form of Entropy Balance
∆𝑠 = 𝑠2 − 𝑠1 + 𝑠𝑔𝑒𝑛
 Internal Combustion Engines
Otto Cycle
-heat addition and rejection at constant volume

1
𝑒 =1−
𝑟 𝑘−1
𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥
Compression Ratio - 𝑟 =
𝑉𝑚𝑖𝑛
Diesel Cycle Dual Cycle

1 𝑟𝑐 𝑘 −1 1 𝑟𝑝 𝑟𝑐 𝑘 −1
𝑒 =1− 𝑘−1 [ ] 𝑒 =1− 𝑘−1 [ ]
𝑟 𝑘(𝑟𝑐 −1) 𝑟 𝑘𝑟𝑝 (𝑟𝑐 −1)+𝑟𝑝 −1
𝑉3 𝑉
Cut-off Ratio - 𝑟𝑐 = Pressure Ratio - 𝑟𝑝 = 𝑥
𝑉2 𝑉 2

Sterling and Ericsson Cycles

𝑇𝐿
𝑒 =1−
𝐻
Brayton Cycle

1
𝑒 =1− 𝑘−1
𝑟𝑝 𝑘
𝑃2
Pressure Ratio - 𝑟𝑝 =
𝑃1
𝑊𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝
Back Work Ratio - 𝐵𝑊𝑅 =
𝑊𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑒
Brayton Cycle with Regeneration

𝑘−1
𝑇1
𝑒 = 1 − ( )𝑟𝑝 𝑘
𝑇3
Regenerator Efficiency
𝑇5 −𝑇2
𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 =
𝑇4 −𝑇6
Clearance Ratio Mean Effective Pressure
𝑉𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡
𝑐= 𝑀𝐸𝑃 =
𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 −𝑉𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 −𝑉𝑚𝑖𝑛
Clearance Ratio and Compression Ratio Relation
1+𝑐
𝑟=
𝑐
 Diesel Engine Performance
Heat Generated by Fuel
𝑄 = 𝑚𝑓 𝑄ℎ
mf - fuel consumption rate
Qh - heating value of fuel
Air Fuel Ratio
𝑚𝑎
𝐴𝐹 =
𝑚𝑓
ma - air consumption rate
Piston Displacement
𝜋
𝑉𝐷 = 𝐷 2 𝐿𝑛𝑁
4
D - bore
L - length of stroke
n - angular speed (for 2-stroke)
𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑
- (for 4-stroke)
2
N - number of cylinders
Piston Speed
𝑉𝑝𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑛 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 = 2𝐿𝑛
Indicated Power (IP)
- Power developed inside the cylinder
Brake Power (BP)
- Power developed by the engine
Friction Power (FP)
- Power required to overcome friction
𝐹𝑃 = 𝐼𝑃 − 𝐵𝑃
𝐵𝑃
𝑀𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 =
𝐼𝑃
𝐺𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡
𝐺𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 =
𝐵𝑃
Thermal Efficiency Volumetric Efficiency
𝐼𝑃,𝐵𝑃,𝑜𝑟 𝐺𝑃 𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝐴𝑖𝑟
𝑒= 𝑒𝑉 =
𝑚𝑓 𝑄ℎ 𝑉𝐷
Volumetric Efficiency
𝑉1 𝑃2 1 𝑣
𝑒𝑣 = ; 𝑒𝑣 = 1 + 𝑐 − 𝑐( )𝑘 ; 𝑒𝑣 = 1 + 𝑐 − 𝑐( 1 )
𝑉𝐷 𝑃1 𝑣2
Specific Fuel Consumption Heat Rate
𝑚𝑓 ×3600 𝑚𝑓 ×3600×𝑄ℎ
𝑚= 𝐻𝑅 =
𝐼𝑃,𝐵𝑃,𝑜𝑟 𝐺𝑃 𝐼𝑃,𝐵𝑃,𝑜𝑟 𝐺𝑃
Power at Altitude Generator Speed
𝑃𝑎𝑙𝑡 𝑇𝑎𝑙𝑡 120𝑓
𝑃 = 𝑃𝑠 √ 𝑁=
29.92 520 𝑝
ℎ (𝑓𝑡)
𝑃𝑎𝑙𝑡 = 29.92 − p - number of poles
1000
3.6ℎ (𝑓𝑡)
𝑇𝑎𝑙𝑡 = 520 − f - frequency (60 Hz)
1000
Chemical Balance for Hydrocarbon fuel
Theoretical
𝐶𝑛 𝐻𝑚 + 𝑥𝑂2 + 3.76𝑥𝑁2 → 𝑦𝐶𝑂2 + 𝑧𝐻2 𝑂 + 3.76𝑥𝑁2
Actual Balance with Excess Air
𝐶𝑛 𝐻𝑚 + 𝑥(1 + 𝑒)𝑂2 + 3.76𝑥(1 + 𝑒)𝑁2 → 𝑦𝐶𝑂2 + 𝑧𝐻2 𝑂 + 3.76𝑥(1 + 𝑒)𝑁2 + 𝑒𝑥𝑂2
Chemical Balance for Solid Fuel
𝑂
𝐴𝐹 = 11.5𝐶 + 34.5 (𝐻 − ) + 4.3𝑆
8
Heating Value
Solid Fuel
𝑂
𝑄ℎ = 33,820𝐶 + 144,212 (𝐻 − ) + 9,304𝑆 kJ/kg
8
Hydrocarbon Fuel
𝑄ℎ = 13,500𝐶 + 60,890𝐻 Btu/lbm
C - Carbon weight to total weight
H - Hydrogen weight to total weight
Petroleum Products
𝑆𝐺𝑡 = 𝑆𝐺15.6℃ [1 − 0.0007(𝑡 − 15.6)]
141.5
°𝐴𝑃𝐼 = − 131.5
𝑆𝐺@15.6℃
𝑄ℎ = 41,130 + 139.6(°𝐴𝑃𝐼) kJ/kg
𝑄ℎ = 51,715 − 8,793.8(𝑆𝐺)2 kJ/kg
Gas Mixture
𝑚𝑖 𝑁𝑖 𝑃𝑖 𝑉𝑖 𝑀𝑖
𝑚𝑓 = 𝑦𝑓 = = = 𝑚𝑓 = 𝑦𝑓
𝑚𝑡 𝑁𝑡 𝑃𝑡 𝑉𝑡 𝑀𝑡
 Rankine Cycle

𝑤𝑛𝑒𝑡
𝑒=
𝑄𝑖𝑛
Reheat Rankine Cycle

Regenerative Rankine Cycle (Open Feedwater)

𝑤𝑛𝑒𝑡 = (ℎ5 − ℎ6 ) + (1 − 𝑦)(ℎ6 − ℎ7 ) − (1 − 𝑦)(ℎ2 − ℎ1 ) − (ℎ4 − ℎ3 )

𝑄𝑖𝑛 = ℎ5 − ℎ4
Regenerative Rankine Cycle (Closed Feedwater)

𝑤𝑛𝑒𝑡 = (ℎ6 − ℎ7 ) + (1 − 𝑦)(ℎ7 − ℎ8 ) − (1 − 𝑦)(ℎ2 − ℎ1 ) − 𝑦(ℎ4 − ℎ3 )

𝑄𝑖𝑛 = ℎ6 − ℎ4
Cogeneration Plant

𝑤𝑛𝑒𝑡 +𝑄𝑝
𝜖𝑢 =
𝑄𝑖𝑛
𝑄𝑝 = 𝑚4 ℎ4 + 𝑚5 ℎ5 − 𝑚7 ℎ7
𝑄𝑖𝑛 = ℎ1 − ℎ10
𝑤𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝑚3 (ℎ3 − ℎ5 ) + 𝑚6 (ℎ5 − ℎ6 ) − 𝑚6 (ℎ9 − ℎ8 ) − 𝑚7 (ℎ10 − ℎ7 )
Combined Cycle
Specific Fuel Consumption Heat Rate
𝑚𝑓 ×3600 𝑚𝑓 ×3600×𝑄ℎ
𝑚= 𝐻𝑅 =
𝐼𝑃,𝐵𝑃,𝑜𝑟 𝐺𝑃 𝐼𝑃,𝐵𝑃,𝑜𝑟 𝐺𝑃
Rated Boiler Horsepower
𝐻𝑆(𝑚2 ) 𝐻𝑆(𝑓𝑡 2 )
Water Tube 𝑅𝐵𝐻 = 𝑅𝐵𝐻 =
0.91 10
𝐻𝑆(𝑚2 )
Fire Tube 𝑅𝐵𝐻 =
1.1
Developed Boiler Horse Power
𝑚(ℎ3 −ℎ2 ) 𝑚(ℎ3 −ℎ2 )
𝐷𝐵𝐻𝑃 = 𝑘𝐽 𝐷𝐵𝐻𝑃 = 𝐵𝑡𝑢
35,322 33,480
ℎ𝑟 ℎ𝑟
Factor of Evaporation Percent Rating
ℎ3 −ℎ2 ℎ3 −ℎ2 𝐷𝐵𝐻𝑃
𝐹𝐸 = 𝑘𝐽 𝐹𝐸 = 𝐵𝑡𝑢 𝑃𝑅 =
2,257 970.3 𝑅𝐵𝐻
𝑘𝑔 𝑙𝑏𝑚

Indicated Power (IP)

- Power developed inside the cylinder
Brake Power (BP)
- Power developed by the engine
𝐵𝑃 = 2𝜋𝑇𝑁̇
Friction Power (FP)
- Power required to overcome friction
𝐹𝑃 = 𝐼𝑃 − 𝐵𝑃
𝐵𝑃
𝑀𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 =
𝐼𝑃
𝐺𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡
𝐺𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 =
𝐵𝑃
𝐼𝑃
𝐼𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 =
𝑄𝐻
𝐵𝑃
𝐵𝑟𝑎𝑘𝑒 𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 =
𝑄𝐻
𝐺𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡
𝑂𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 =
𝑄𝐻
 Geothermal Power Plant
Single Flash

Double Flash
 Fluid Mechanics
Viscosity (Absolute) Kinematic Viscosity
𝜏 𝜇
𝜇 = 𝑑𝑉 𝜇𝑘 =
𝜌
𝑑𝑦
Bulk Modulus of Compressibility
∆𝑃
𝑘 = ∆𝑉
𝑣
Speed of Sound Mach Number
𝑉
𝑐 = √𝑘𝑅𝑇 𝑀𝑎 =
𝑐
Capillary Effect Cavitation Pressure
4𝜎 cos 𝜃
ℎ= 𝑃 = 𝑃𝑠𝑎𝑡
𝜌𝑔𝐷
Stagnation Enthalpy Stagnation Temperature
𝑉2 𝑉2
ℎ0 = ℎ1 + 𝑇0 = 𝑇 +
2 2𝑐𝑝
Stagnation Pressure Head Loss (Darcy)
𝑘
𝑃0 𝑇0 𝑓𝐿𝑉 2
=( ) 𝑘−1 ℎ𝐿 =
𝑃 𝑇 2𝑔𝐷
Head Loss (Morse) Hydraulic Diameter Hydraulic Radius
2𝑓𝐿𝑉 2 𝐴 𝐴
ℎ𝐿 = 𝐷=4 𝑅=
𝑔𝐷 𝑃𝑤𝑒𝑡 𝑃𝑤𝑒𝑡
Manometer Buoyancy

𝑃1 + 𝜌1 𝑔(𝑎 + ℎ) − 𝜌2 𝑔ℎ − 𝜌1 𝑔𝑎 = 𝑃2 𝐹𝐵 = 𝜌𝑓 𝑔𝑉
Head
𝑃2 −𝑃1 𝑉2 2 −𝑉1 2
ℎ= + (𝑧2 − 𝑧1 ) + + ℎ𝐿
𝛾 2𝑔
Reynolds Number
𝑉𝐷 𝜌𝑉𝐷
𝑅𝑒 = =
𝜇𝑘 𝜇
Laminar - 𝑅𝑒 ≤ 2,300
Transitional - 2,300 ≤ 𝑅𝑒 ≤ 4,000
Turbulent - 𝑅𝑒 ≥ 4,000
Specific Speed of Centrifugal Pump
𝑁√𝑄 3.658×10−4 𝑁√𝑄
𝑁𝑠 = 3 𝑁𝑠 = 3
𝐻4 𝐻4
N = speed, rpm N = speed, rpm
Q = discharge, gpm Q = discharge, m3/s
H = head, ft H = head, m
Net Positive Suction Head
𝑁𝑃𝑆𝐻 = ±𝐻𝑠 ± 𝐻𝑃 − 𝐻𝐿
Hs - static level above or below pump centreline
Hp - absolute pressure on liquid surface suction supply
HL - frictional losses
Similar Pumps
- Same efficiency, and same specific speed
𝑄1 𝑁 𝐷 𝐻1 𝑁 𝐷 𝑃2 𝜌 𝑁 𝐷
= 1 ( 1 )3 = ( 1)2 ( 1)2 = 2 ( 2)3 ( 2)5
𝑄2 𝑁2 𝐷2 𝐻2 𝑁2 𝐷2 𝑃1 𝜌1 𝑁1 𝐷1
Same Pump (Constant Impeller Diameter)
𝑄1 𝑁1 𝐻1 𝑁1 2 𝑃1 𝑁1 3
= =( ) =( )
𝑄2 𝑁2 𝐻2 𝑁2 𝑃2 𝑁2
Same Pump (Constant Speed)
𝑄1 𝐷1 𝐻1 𝐷1 2 𝑃1 𝐷1 3
= =( ) = ( )
𝑄2 𝐷2 𝐻2 𝐷2 𝑃2 𝐷2
Pumps in Parallel Pumps in Series

𝑄 = 𝑄1 + 𝑄2 𝑄 = 𝑄1 = 𝑄2
𝐻 = 𝐻1 = 𝐻2 𝐻 = 𝐻1 + 𝐻2
𝑃 = 𝑃1 + 𝑃2 𝑃 = 𝑃1 + 𝑃2
Fans and Blowers

Static Pressure Head Velocity Head

ℎ𝑤 𝑑𝑤 𝑉𝑜 2
ℎ𝑠 = ℎ𝑣 =
𝑑𝑎 2𝑔
da = 1.2 kg/m3
Total Head Power
ℎ = ℎ𝑠 + ℎ𝑣 𝑃 = 𝑄𝛾𝑎 ℎ
Bernoulli Equation applied to Fan
(ℎ𝑤2 −ℎ𝑤1 )𝛾𝑤 𝑉2 2 −𝑉1 2
ℎ= +
𝛾𝑎 2𝑔
Fan Laws (Constant Size, Constant Density)
𝑄1 𝑁1 𝐻1 𝑁1 2 𝑃1 𝑁1 3
= =( ) =( )
𝑄2 𝑁2 𝐻2 𝑁2 𝑃2 𝑁2
Fan Laws (Constant Size, Constant Speed)
ℎ1 𝛾1 𝑃1 𝛾1
𝑄1 = 𝑄2 = =
ℎ2 𝛾2 𝑃2 𝛾2
Static Efficiency Mechanical Efficiency
ℎ𝑠 𝑃𝑎𝑖𝑟
𝑒𝑠 = 𝑒𝑚 ( ) 𝑒𝑚 =
ℎ 𝑃𝑏𝑟𝑎𝑘𝑒
 Hydroelectric Power

Impulse Turbine (Pelton)

- High head, low flow
Reaction Turbine (Francis)
- Low head, high efficiency
Reaction Propeller Turbine (Kaplan)
- Very low head, efficiency lower than Francis
Water Power
𝑃 = 𝑉̇ 𝛾ℎ
𝑘𝑁
𝛾 − 9.81 3
𝑚
Head
𝑃2 −𝑃1 𝑉2 2 −𝑉1 2
ℎ= + (𝑧2 − 𝑧1 ) + + ℎ𝐿
𝛾 2𝑔
Head Loss
𝑓𝐿𝑉 2
ℎ𝐿 =
2𝑔𝐷
Effective Head Penstock Efficiency
ℎ
ℎ = ℎ𝐺 − ℎ𝐿 𝑒=
ℎ𝑔
Relative Speed for Pelton Turbine
𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝜋𝐷𝑁
𝜃= =
𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝐽𝑒𝑡 √2𝑔ℎ
Specific Speed of Hydraulic Turbine
𝑁√𝐻𝑃 0.2623𝑁√𝑘𝑊
𝑁𝑠 = 1.25 𝑁𝑠 =
ℎ ℎ1.25
h - feet h - meters
Selection of Turbine based on Head
Up to 70 ft Propeller
70 to 110 ft Propeller or Francis
110 to 800 ft Francis
800 to 1300 ft Francis or Impulse
1300 ft and above Impulse
 Refrigeration Cycle

Coefficient of Performance
𝑄𝐿
𝐶𝑂𝑃 =
𝑊𝑖𝑛
Energy Efficiency Ratio
𝐸𝐸𝑅 = 3.412𝐶𝑂𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑓
Product Load
𝑄 = 𝑄1 + 𝑄2 + 𝑄3
Q1 - heat to cool from initial to freezing temperature
Q2 - heat to freeze completely
Q3 - heat to cool from freezing to final temperature
Water Properties
𝑘𝐽
𝑐𝑖𝑐𝑒 = 2.093
𝑘𝑔×𝐾
𝑘𝐽
𝐿𝑓 = 335
𝑘𝑔
Volume Displacement
𝜋
𝑉𝐷 = 𝐷2 𝐿𝑁𝑛
4
Volumetric Efficiency
𝑉1 𝑃2 1 𝑣
𝑒𝑣 = ; 𝑒𝑣 = 1 + 𝑐 − 𝑐( )𝑘 ; 𝑒𝑣 = 1 + 𝑐 − 𝑐( 1 )
𝑉𝐷 𝑃1 𝑣2
Air Refrigeration Cycle

Coefficient of Performance
𝑄𝐿
𝐶𝑂𝑃 =
𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡
𝑘𝑃1 𝑉1 𝑃2 𝑘−1
𝑊𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝 = [( ) 𝑘 − 1]
𝑘−1 𝑃1
𝑘𝑃3 𝑉3 𝑃4 𝑘−1
𝑊𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏 = [( ) 𝑘 − 1]
𝑘−1 𝑃3
 Air Conditioning
Pressure Humidity Ratio
𝑚𝑣 𝑃𝑣
𝑃𝑡 = 𝑃𝑎 + 𝑃𝑣 𝑤= = 0.622
𝑚𝑎 𝑃𝑡 −𝑃𝑣
Relative Humidity Specific Volume
𝑃𝑣 𝑅𝑎 𝑇
𝑅𝐻 = 𝑣=
𝑃𝑠𝑎𝑡 𝑃𝑡 −𝑃𝑣
Enthalpy Degree of Saturation
𝑤 𝑃𝑡 −𝑃𝑠𝑎𝑡
𝐻 = 𝑐𝑝 𝑡 + 𝑤ℎ𝑔 𝐷= = 𝑅𝐻( )
𝑤𝑠𝑎𝑡 𝑃𝑡 −𝑃𝑣
Enthalpy of Water Vapor Pressure Difference
𝑓𝐿𝑉 2
ℎ𝑔 = 2500.9 + 1.82𝑇 ∆𝑃 =
2𝐷
Air Mixing
Mass Balance Energy Balance
𝑚1 + 𝑚2 = 𝑚3 𝑚1 ℎ1 + 𝑚2 ℎ2 = 𝑚3 ℎ3
Moisture Balance
𝑚1 𝑤1 + 𝑚2 𝑤2 = 𝑚3 𝑤3
Recirculated and Outside Air (Unmixed)
𝑄 = 𝑚𝑜 (ℎ3 − ℎ1 ) + 𝑚𝑟 (ℎ2 − ℎ1 )
Recirculated and Outside Air (Mixed)
𝑚𝑟 ℎ𝑟 + 𝑚𝑜 ℎ𝑜 = 𝑚𝑡 ℎ
Dryer
Gross Weight = Bone-dry Weight + Moisture Weight
𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑀𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒
𝑀𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡 =
𝐺𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑀𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒
𝑅𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛 =
𝐵𝑜𝑛𝑒−𝑑𝑟𝑦 𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
Sensible Heat Load
𝑄𝑠 = 𝑚𝑠 𝑐𝑝 (𝑡2 − 𝑡1 )
Latent Heat Load Total Heat Load
𝑄𝐿 = 𝑚2 (𝑤2 − 𝑤1 )ℎ𝑣 𝑄𝑡 = 𝑄𝑠 + 𝑄𝐿
Sensible Heat Ratio Bypass Factor
𝑄𝑠 𝑇𝑎 −𝑇𝐻
𝑆𝐻𝑅 = 𝐵𝑃𝐹 =
𝑄𝑠 +𝑄𝐿 𝑇𝑎 −𝑇𝐿
Cooling Tower

Range
𝑇𝑅 = 𝑇𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑚 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 − 𝑇𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑙 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
Approach
𝑇𝐴 = 𝑇𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑙 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 − 𝑇𝑤𝑏 𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑖𝑛𝑙𝑒𝑡
Cooling Tower Efficiency
𝑇𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑚 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 −𝑇𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑙 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝑒=
𝑇𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑚 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 −𝑇𝑤𝑏 𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑖𝑛𝑙𝑒𝑡
 Heat Transfer
Conduction through Plain Wall

𝑇2 −𝑇1
𝑄 = 𝑘𝐴
𝐿
Conduction through Composite Walls

Conduction through Parallel Composite Walls

Conduction through Pipes

Conduction through Composite Pipes

𝑇∞1 −𝑇∞2
𝑄=
𝑅𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙
𝑟 𝑟 𝑟
1 ln 2 ln 3 ln 4 1
𝑟1 𝑟2 𝑟3
𝑅𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = + + + +
ℎ 1 𝐴1 2𝜋𝐿𝑘1 2𝜋𝐿𝑘2 2𝜋𝐿𝑘3 ℎ1 𝐴4
Conduction through Sphere
Critical Radius of Insulation

Convection

𝑄 = ℎ𝐴𝑠 (𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇∞ )
Radiation

𝑇𝑠 −𝑇∞
𝑄=
𝑅
1
𝑅=
ℎ𝐴
ℎ = 𝜀𝜎(𝑇𝑠 2 + 𝑇∞ 2 )(𝑇𝑠 + 𝑇∞ )
Heat Transfer
 Chimney

Draft Pressure
ℎ𝑑 = 𝑔𝐻(𝑑𝑎 − 𝑑𝑔 ) (kPa)
ℎ𝑑 = 𝐻(𝑑𝑎 − 𝑑𝑔 ) (kg/m2)
Density of Air Density of Flue Gas
𝑃 𝑃
𝑑𝑎 = 𝑑𝑔 =
𝑅𝑎 𝑇𝑎 𝑅𝑔 𝑇𝑔

Average Temperature of Flue Gas

𝑇1 +𝑇2
𝑇𝑔 =
2

Velocity of Flue Gas Volume of Flue Gas

𝑉 = √2𝑔
ℎ𝑤
̇𝑉 = 𝑚𝑔 𝑅𝑔 𝑇𝑔
𝑑𝑔 𝑃
𝑉𝑎 = 𝑐𝑣 𝑉
cv = 0.4
 Variable Loads

Reserve Over Peak Average Load

𝑘𝑤−ℎ𝑟𝑠 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦
𝑅𝑂𝑃 = 𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 − 𝑃𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝐴𝐿 =
𝑛𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠

Load Factor
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑
𝐿𝐹 =
𝑃𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑
Annual Capacity Factor Use Factor
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑
𝐴𝐶𝐹 = 𝑈𝑆𝐹 =
𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 ×8760 ℎ𝑟𝑠 𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 ×𝑛𝑜.𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠
Demand Factor Diversity Factor
𝑃𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑆𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝐼𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝐷𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑
𝐷𝐸𝐹 = 𝐷𝐼𝐹 =
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑆𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝐷𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑

Plant Factor Utilization Factor

𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑃𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑
𝑃𝐹 = 𝑈𝑇𝐹 =
𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦

Operation Factor
𝐷𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑆𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑖𝑐𝑒
𝑂𝐹 =
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐷𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑
 Machine Foundation

Length of Foundation
𝐿 = 𝐿𝐵 + 2𝑐
LB - length of bedplate
Upper Width of Foundation
𝑎 = 𝑤𝐵 + 2𝑐
wB - width of bedplate
Weight of Foundation
𝑊𝑓 = 3 𝑡𝑜 5 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑊𝑒
𝑊𝑓 = 𝑒 × 𝑊𝑒 × √𝑁
Lower Width of Foundation
𝑁(𝑊𝑒 +𝑊𝑓 )
𝑏=
𝑆𝐵 𝐿
SB - soil bearing capacity
N - factor of safety
Volume of Foundation
𝑎+𝑏
𝑉𝑓 = ( ) ℎ𝐿
2
Weight of Steel Bar Reinforcements
𝑊𝑆𝐵 = 0.5% 𝑡𝑜 1% × 𝑊𝑓
 Miscellaneous Equations
𝑄 = 50𝑚𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑁𝑝𝑒𝑜𝑝𝑙𝑒
𝑁𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 =
220