1.

Lab Safety
2. Temperature Measuring devices
3. Working of Bimetallic Thermostat
4. Working of Diaphragm Thermostat
5. Study the Thermal Insulation
6. Verification of Inverse Square Law
7. Verification of Stefan Boltzmann Law
8. Study the Free Convection
9. Study the Forced Convection
10. Study heat conduction along transfer along homogenous bar

Experiment No. 1

Title:

General Laboratory Rules and Safety Precautions

Objective:

To familiarize the students with rudimentary rules and safety precautions regarding
food lab

Theory:

Personal Protection and Hygiene

1. Laboratory coats must be worn at all times in the laboratory. (However, please note
that lab coats must not be worn in common areas such as the students write up area,
toilets and in the public) Coats should be washed in laundry regularly or whenever
they are contaminated.
2. Gloves must be worn when handling chemicals, toxic compounds or biohazardous
substances. (However, all gloves should be removed before opening doors, taps or
when using the telephone)
 3. Eye protection will now be mandatory for all personnel working in or visiting the
research laboratory where hazardous materials, such as corrosive, injurious,
infectious materials are handled.
4. Any abrasions cut or open wounds in the skin should be covered with an adhesive
plaster before beginning work.
5. Mouth pipetting is strictly prohibited.

Food and Beverage Consumption

1. Eating, drinking and smoking are strictly forbidden in the laboratory.

2. Laboratory refrigerators must not be used for the storage of food and beverages.
3. Glassware or utensils, kettles and microwave oven used for laboratory operations
must not be used for preparation of food and beverages.

General Housekeeping

1. Work areas, including walkways and passages should be kept clean and free of
obstruction. The floor should also be kept dry at all times.
 2. All samples and solutions must be labeled clearly with the name of the substance,
the initials of the user and supervisor, and the date. All unlabeled containers will be
discarded without notice.
3. All laboratory reagents and chemicals must be returned to the appropriate shelves or
special storage areas (e.g., refrigerators) immediately after use.
4. Spilled chemicals must be cleaned up immediately and contaminated materials
properly disposed.
5. Laboratory benches and instruments must be thoroughly cleaned after use.

Laboratory Equipment

1. Before operating any laboratory instrument, please ensure that you are familiar with
the operation of the instrument. If in doubt, either read the instruction manual or
consult the relevant staff (Name and contact number of the person in-charge of the
equipment will be pasted on the machine).
2. If a record book is placed next to a particular laboratory instrument, all users of the
instrument must ensure that the relevant information is recorded in the book.
3. All faulty or damaged laboratory equipment must be reported to the person-in-charge.
4. Laboratory equipment must not be re-positioned unless prior approval has been
obtained from the person-in charge.
5. All users of laboratory instruments must remember to turn off their electrical switches
after use (unless stated otherwise).
6. All laboratory items (including spatulas, pipettes etc.) must be returned to their
original storage place after use.

S. Potential Hazard Mitigation

No

Circuit breakers are installed with

equipment to avoid any personal or
1 Electrical Hazard
equipment damage.

Chemical Hazards 1. Latex gloves and lab coat is

recommended to avoid any contact
1. Acid / Alkali solutions are strongly with these chemicals.
 corrosive. 2. Slow addition of acid drops in water
2. Acid may splash vigorously. is recommended.
2 3. Organic chemicals are volatile (form
vapors fast).
Biological Hazard Immediate draining of tanks is
recommended.
3 Retained water in tanks of equipment may
allow the growth of legionella Pneumophila and
other water borne microbes.

First aid kit is recommended for lab.

4 Injury from sharp glass objects.

Fire: Fire extinguisher is recommended.

5 1. Organic vapors can cause fire.

2. Electrical short circuit can cause fire.

1. Immediate evacuation of lab is

recommended if release is severe.
2. Acid / Alkali must be neutralized
with its counterpart.
3. Spillage must be confined in
affected area only.
6 Accidental Acid or Alkali release.

1. Organic chemicals should not be

kept near fire or spark.
7 Accidental contact of non-compatible chemicals. 2. Acid should not come into contact
with pure metals.

Practical # 2
Title:

To enable students to study the temperature measuring devices

Objective:

Study the different types of temperature measuring devices

Theory

Types:

1) Mechanical devices (liquid in glass thermometer, Bimetallic devices, Pressure

Thermometer)

2) Thermo resistive (RTDs and thermistor)

3) Thermo junctive (thermocouples)

4) Radioactive (infrared and optical pyrometers)

Mechanical Devices:

Liquid in glass thermometer:

A Liquid-in-Glass Thermometer is a glass capillary tube having a liquid-filled bulb

present at one end. This device is used for measuring temperature due to its
accuracy and the fact that it does not require any other equipment except the
human eye.

Principle:
Liquid in glass thermometer works based on the principle that liquid expands as
the temperature of liquid rises. The expansion causes the liquid to rise in the tube
and the rise in height of liquid is used as a measure of the temperature.

Diagram:

Temperature Range:

-200 to 600°C

Limitation:

 Cannot used for automatic reading.

 Range is Limited about 600°C
 Fragile Construction
 Limited to applications where manual reading is acceptable, e.g. a household
thermometer

Bimetallic Strip

Theory

Definition:
A bimetallic strip is used to convert a temperature change into mechanical
displacement

Working principle:

A bimetallic strip works on the principle of thermal expansion, which is defined as

the change in volume of metal with the change in temperature.

Working:

Bimetallic strip consists of two strips of different metals which expand at different
rates as they are heated, usually steel and copper, or in some cases steel and brass.
The different expansions force the flat strip to bend one way if heated, and in the
opposite direction if cooled below its initial temperature. The metal with the
higher coefficient of thermal expansion is on the outer side of the curve when the
strip is heated and on the inner side when cooled.

Diagram:

Temperature Range:
The bimetallic thermometer works typically up to 300°C to within ±1% of the
scale range.

Limitations:

 It is less accurate
 It is limited to applications where manual reading is acceptable, e.g. a
household thermometer.
 It is not suitable for very low temperatures because the expansion of metals
tend to be too smaller. So, the device becomes a rather insensitive thermometer.

Pressure thermometer

Theory
Definition:
A device used to measure temperature by measuring pressure exerted by a given
volume of gas or liquid.

Working Principle:

These thermometers works on principle of thermal expansion of the fluid with the
change in temperature is to be measured.

Working:

In pressure thermometer we can observe Temperature change using these

thermometers , which rely on pressure measurement.

Diagram:
Temperature Range:

(-260°C to 800°C)

Limitations:

• Limited linearity and prone to errors.

• The bulb size may be too large to fit the available space.

• The maximum temperature is more limited than that in some electrical

measuring systems.

• Proper Calibration of bulb, Capillary tube and Borden tube is needed.

Thermal Resistive Devices:

Thermistor:

Theory
Introduction:

 A temperature sensing element which measures temperature according to

change in resistance.
 It is usually made of a sintered semiconductor material.
 They cannot be self heated
 They use ceramic or polymer materials while RTDs use pure material

Working principle:

It works on principle that changes in resistance at a predetermined rate in response

to change in temperature.

Working:

In thermistor we can measure change in temperature by resistance. the value of

resistance can be measured by ohmmeter they are connected in series with battery.

Diagram:

Temperature range:
 −55 °C to +150 °C

Limitations:

 Non-linearity in resistance vs temperature characteristics.

 Unsuitable for wide temperature range.
 Very low excitation current to avoid self-heating.
 Need of shielded power lines, filters, etc. due to high resistance.

Resistive temperature Devices:

Theory:
Definition:

Resistance thermometers, also called resistance temperature detectors (RTDs),

are sensors used to measure temperature. Many RTD elements consist of a length
of fine wire wrapped around a ceramic or glass core but other constructions are
also used

Working principle:

resistance of a metal changes with temperature. In practice, an electrical current is

transmitted through a piece of metal (the RTD element or resistor) located in
proximity to the area where temperature is to be measured.

Working:

An RTD takes a measurement when a small DC current is supplied to the sensor.

The current experiences the impedance of the resistor, and a voltage drop is
experienced over the resistor. Depending on the nominal resistance of the RTD,
different supply currents can be used. To reduce self-heating on the sensor the
 supply current should be kept low. In general, around 1mA or less of current is
used.

Diagram:

Temperature Range:

Most RTDs are limited to a maximum temperature of 1000 degrees Fahrenheit.

Limitations:

 The RTD require more complex measurement circuit.

 It is affected by shock and vibration.
 Bridge circuit is needed with power supply.
 Slower response time than a thermocouple.


Thermocouple:
Theory

Definition:

A thermocouple is a temperature measuring device consisting of two dissimilar

conductors that conduct each other at one or more spots.It produces a voltage
when the temperature of one of the spots differs from the reference temperature
at the other parts of the circuit.

Working principle:

Thermocouple is based on the principle that two wires made of dissimilar

materials connected at either end will generate a potential between the two ends
that is a function of the materials and temperature difference between the two
ends (also called the Seebeck Effect)

Working:

. In practical use, the voltage generated at a single junction of two different

types of wire is what is of interest as this can be used to measure temperature at
very high and low temperatures. The magnitude of the voltage depends on the
types of wire being used

Diagram:
Temperature range:

-270°C to 3000°C

Limitations:

 The main limitation with thermocouples is precision; system errors of less

than one degree Celsius (°C) can be difficult to achieve.
 Thermocouples are widely used in science and industry.
 Applications include temperature measurement for kilns, gas turbine
exhaust, diesel engines, and other industrial processes.

Radioactive Devices:

Infrared Thermometer:
Theory:
Definition:
An infrared thermometer is a thermometer which infers temperature from a
portion of the thermal radiation sometimes called black-body radiation emitted by
the object being measured. ... Infrared thermometers are a subset of devices
known as "thermal radiation thermometers"
Working Principle:
The infrared thermometer has a laser that helps to aim the thermometer at a
particular area to measure the temperature of the wall or area. The laser reads the
temperature coming off of the wall or area and displays the temperature in units
on the device.
Working:
 infrared thermometers employ a lens to focus the infrared light emitting from
the object onto a detector known as a thermopile. ... When the infrared radiation
falls on the thermopile surface, it gets absorbed and converts into heat.

Diagram:

Temperature range:
Typically, the environmental temperature should be between 60.8-104 ºF (16-40 ºC)
and relative humidity below 85 percent.

Limitations:

 Only measure surface temperatures and NOT the internal temperature of food
or other materials
 Require adjustments depending on the surface being measured
 Are not thought to be as highly accurate as surface probes measurements of the
same surface

Optical Pyrometer

Theory:
Definition:

The optical pyrometer is a non-contact type temperature measuring device.

Working principle:

. It works on the principle of matching the brightness of an object to the brightness

of the filament which is placed inside the pyrometer. The optical pyrometer is
used for measuring the temperature of the furnaces, molten metals, and other
overheated material or liquids.

Working Principle:

The optical pyrometer is consists the lens which focuses the radiated energy from
the heated object and targets it on the electric filament lamp. The intensity of the
filament depends on the current passes through it. Hence the adjustable current is
passed through the lamp. . The magnitude of the current is adjusted until the
brightness of the filament is similar to the brightness of the object. When the
brightness of the filament and the brightness of the object are same, then the
outline of the filament is completely disappeared.

Diagram:

Temperature Range:

700°C to 4,000°C
 Limitations:

 The accuracy may be affected by dust, smoke and thermal background radiation.
 The optical pyrometer is not useful for measuring the temperature of clean burning
gases that do not radiate visible energy.
 It is more expensive.
 It causes human error.
Practical # 3

Title:

To study the working of adjustable bimetallic thermostat

Objective:

To enable students to learn working of Adjustable bimetallic thermostat

Theory:

Definition:

Thermostat is a device which is used to maintain a desired temperature in a system

like refrigerator, air-conditioner,iron and in a number of devices

Principle:

Thermostat works on the principle of thermal expansion of solid materials.When the

strip gets hot, one of the metals expands more than the other so the whole strip
bends very slightly

Working:

A traditional thermostat has two pieces of different metals bolted together to form
what's called a bimetallic strip (or bimetal strip). The strip works as a bridge in an
electrical circuit connected to your heating system. ... Eventually, it bends so much
that it breaks open the circuit. When the strip gets hot, one of the metals expands
more than the other so the whole strip bends very slightly. Eventually, it bends so
much that it breaks open the circuit. The “bridge is up”, the electricity
instantly switches off, the heating cuts out, and the room starts to cool

Diagram:
Temperature Range:

-45°C up to +425°C

Limitations:

 Not very accurate

 Limited to application where mannual reading is acceptable
 Not suitable for very low temperature as the metals and metallic alloys
show nearly same expansion or contraction in lower range of temperature
 Practical # 4

Title:

To enable students to learn working of Diaphragm thermostat

Objective:

To study the working of diaphragm thermostat

Theory:

Definition:

A thermal expansion valve or thermostatic expansion valve is a component in

refrigeration and air conditioning systems that controls the amount of refrigerant
released into the evaporator and is intended to regulate the superheat of the vapor
leaving the evaporator.

Working Principle:

The expansion valve removes pressure from the liquid refrigerant to

allow expansion or change of state from a liquid to a vapor in the evaporator. The
high-pressure liquid refrigerant entering the expansion valve is quite warm. This
may be verified by feeling the liquid line at its connection to the expansion valve.

Working:

It reduce the pressure of the refrigerant from the condenser pressure to the
evaporator pressure. In the condenser the refrigerant is at very high pressure. The
thermostatic expansion valve has a constriction or orifice due to which the pressure
of the refrigerant passing through it drops down suddenly to the level of the
evaporator pressure. Due this the temperature of the refrigerant also drops down
suddenly and it produces cooling effect inside the evaporator.The thermostatic
expansion valve allows the evaporator to run as per the requirements and there
won’t be any wastage of the capacity of the evaporator. The TEV constantly
modulates the flow to maintain the superheat for which it has been adjusted. It also
allows the flow of the refrigerant to the evaporator as per the load on it. This
prevents the flooding of the liquid refrigerant to the compressor and efficient
working of the evaporator and the compressor and the whole refrigeration plant.

Diagram:
Limitations of TEX

 TEV cannot be used since very small extent of superheating

 Higher Installation cost
 More expensive than capillary tubes. Requires tuning during first assembly

Temperature range:

-50°C to +25°C
 Practical # 5

Title:

To enable students to Study the thermal insulation materials

Objective:

To study the working of thermal insulation

Theory:

Definition:

Thermal insulation is the reduction of heat transfer (the transfer of thermal energy
between objects of differing temperature) between objects in thermal contact or in
range of radiative influence.

Principle:

Where there is difference in temperature of inside of a building and outside

atmosphere, heat transfer takes place from areas of higher temperature to lower
temperature. When the external temperature is low, the internal temperature
should be high so as to produce thermal comfort. It provides comfort as it keeps
room: cool in summer and hot in winter.

Types:

 Mineral wool
 Polystyrene
 Polyutherene
  Fiber glass

 cellulose

MINERAL WOOL

It is one type of fiber glass which is manufacture from recycled glass. It is also
known as glass wool. It may refer to rock wool which is a type of insulation
made from basalt. Finally it may refer to slag wool which is produce from the
slag from steel mills. It can be purchased in bats or as a loose material. High-
temperature mineral wool is used primarily for insulation and lining of
industrial furnaces and foundries to improve efficiency and safety. It is
also used to prevent the spread of fire.

Diagram:

Polystyrene

It is also known as Styrofoam. It is water proof thermoplastic foam which is

excellent sound and temperature insulation material. It comes in 2 types:
Expanded and Extruded. These two types are differing in performance and
cost. It is insulation has a unequally smooth surface which no other type of
insulation possesses. Light weight polystyrene foam provides excellent
thermal insulation in numerous applications, such as building walls and
roofing, refrigerators and freezers, and industrial cold storage facilities.
 Diagram:

Polyutherene Foam

It is most excellent form of insulation. Nowadays, it is used non-

chlorofluorocarbon gas for use as a blowing agent. This helps to decrease the
amount of damage to the ozone layer. The material contains low conductivity
gas in its sells. Polyurethane insulation is available as a liquid sprayed form and
rigid foam board.

Diagram:
Fiberglass

Fiber glass is the most common insulation used in modern times. Because of
how it is made, by effectively weaving fine strands of glass into an insulation
material, fiberglass is able to minimize heat transfer. The main downside of
fiberglass is the danger of handling it. These can cause damage to the eyes,
lungs, and even skin if the proper safety equipment isn’t worn. when the
proper safety equipment is used, fiberglass installation can be performed
without incident.

Diagram:

Cellulose

Cellulose insulation is one of the most eco- friendly forms of insulation. It is

made from recycled cardboard, paper, and other similar materials and comes in
loose form. Some recent studies it shown that it might be an excellent product
for use in minimizing fire damage. Because of It contains next to no oxygen
within it. Without oxygen within the material, this helps to minimize the
amount of damage that a fire can cause. It is also one of the most fire resistant
forms of insulation.
Diagram: