Fundamentals od Instrumentation and Control  uses a metal pointer on a circular scale to indicate

Engineering – Finals temperature instruments.

 main components: needle and temperature
TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT sensor
 monitors and measures the temperatures of
Platinum Resistance Thermometer samples or solutions.
 Resistance thermometers are made of a pure  stainless steel with easy-to-read dials
metal, such as platinum, nickel, or copper.  Accuracy: 1.5% to 3% of its full-scale reading; can
 Also known as Resistance Temperature Detectors measure from -60 to 600 degrees Celsius.
(RTDs) or Pt100 Sensors
 Platinum is highly corrosion and oxidation Dial Thermometer with Capillary
resistant and stable over a wide temperature  consists of a temperature-sensing probe, a
range (-250°C to 850°C). capillary tube, and a dial display
 PRT is a versatile instrument for temperature  commonly used in industrial and laboratory
measurement in the range from -200° to 1000°C. settings where precise temperature
 Resistance thermometers work by changing measurements are required.
resistance with a change in temperature in a
repeatable manner. Advantages
 PRT has a piece of platinum wire which - Quick Response Time
determines the temperature by measuring its - Durability
electrical resistance. it is referred to as a - Cost-effective
temperature sensor.
Disadvantages
Thin-Film Resistance Temperature Detector - Surface temperature only
- This type of resistance temperature detector - Limited Range
(RTD), is a thin film device made of platinum, - Inaccuracy
which is used for measuring temperature.
(With Capillary) Advantages
Wire-Wound Resistance Temperature Detector - Versatility
- In the wire-wound type of RTD, the sensing - Accuracy
element is comprised of a small coil of ultra-thin - Flexibility
wire (typically platinum)
(With Capillary) Disadvantages
- Slow Response time
- Fragility
- Cost

To calibrate a thermometer:
1. Test its accuracy in a substance with a known
temperature.
2. Adjust the thermometer to match the
temperature.

Advantages
Thermocouple
- High Accuracy
 This sensor has two different metal wires, welded
- Stability over Long periods of Time
at one part and connected to a particular device
- Temperature sensor can easily install and
at the other section.
replaced
 Minimum - 50°C, Maximum - 200°C
 Self-powered and need no external form of
Disadvantages
inducing in contrast to other methods of
- Costly
measurement.
- Require Additional equipment for power supply

Beaded Wire
Dial Thermometer
 simplest form of thermocouple
 also known as bimetal probe thermometer
 two thermocouple wires connected by a welded
bead.
 Thermocouple Probe Digital Thermometer
 consists of two different types of metals, joined  Digital thermometers work by using heat sensors
together at one end. that determine body temperature.
 They can be used to take temperature readings in
Surface Probe the mouth, rectum, or armpit.
 used to measure the surface temperature of  It has two important elements: a temperature
many objects. sensor in which some change occurs with a
change in temperature; and some means of
converting this change into a numerical value.

Advantages
- Very convenient and easy to use
- Provide accurate readings
- Inexpensive and just require very little
maintenance

Advantages Disadvantages
Fast response Expensive wire Disadvantages
Self-powered Less stable - Get damaged easily if dropped
Large temperature Small output - The battery powering them eventually runs out
range
- Slow response
Has several types or Lowest Accuracy
styles
Thermowell
 Also known as "protection tubes"
Infrared Thermometer  Thermowells are used to guard temperature
 It utilizes the concept of infrared radiation to sensors such as thermocouples, thermistors, and
determine the surface temperature of objects bimetal thermometers against damage from
without any physical contact. excessive pressure, material velocity and
 We may not be able to see infrared radiation, we corrosion.
can still sense it in the form of heat.  almost always made from stainless steel to
prevent rusting.
Clinical non-contact IR Thermometer  it also protects environment and operators.
 produce highly accurate measurements over a
very narrow range of temperatures.
 ideal distance is 6 inches.
 best place to measure temperature is wrist
Temperature Measuring Strip
Industrial IR Thermometer  A temperature sensor strip is an adhesive
 produce slightly less accurate measurements thermometer that measures a flat object's surface
over an enormous range of temperatures. temperature.
 ideal distance is approximately 100 feet or 30  Consist of different mixtures of chemicals, which
meters. are produced on special absorptive paper
 Emissivity is a measure of how effectively a substrates.
surface emits infrared energy. For most materials,  Depending on the kind you choose, these tools
emissivity is the opposite of reflectivity. can stick to surfaces made from various materials,
including metals and glass.
Advantages  Depending on your applications, you can purchase
- Convenient, fast, and easy to use. reusable or one-time-use sensor strips.
- Reads temperature from a distance.
- Measures moving parts Advantages
- Temperature strips are highly versatile, compact,
Disadvantages lightweight, flexible and adhesive or magnetic.
- Only takes the surface temperature. - Versatile
- May require adjustments.
- Not as accurate as surface probes
 Disadvantages PRESSURE MEASUREMENT
- Not very accurate and they are not suitable for
measuring lower temperature as the metals and Pressure is one of the key thermodynamic
metallic alloys show nearly same expansion or parameters. It is an intensive property. Pressure is
contraction in lower range of temperature. defined as a ratio between a force and a unit area,
perpendicular to the direction of that force, on
Constant Volume Gas Thermometer which the force acts. Mathematically this
definition is expressed as
𝐹
𝑃 =
𝐴

In its most basic form, pressure is defined

as the amount of force being applied to an area.
As this force is distributed over a specific area, a
change in movement of the defined area
is occurring. It is important to remember that a
force is just an occurrence that is causing an object
to move, either accelerating or decelerating. The
amount of movement from that object is based
 A constant volume gas thermometer is composed
upon the amount of force.
of a bulb filled with a fixed amount of a dilute gas
So why is pressure important? In everyday
that is attached to a mercury manometer.
activities, pressure may not be a concern
 A manometer is a device used to measure
whatsoever, however, in a process environment,
pressure.
pressure is a key component to keeping a system
 The mercury manometer has a column partially
functional.
filled with mercury that is connected to a flexible
tube that has another partially filled column of
mercury, called a reservoir, attached to the other
end.
Pressure of a Fluid (P)
 The height of the mercury in the first column is
All fluid molecules will be in constant and
set to a reference point or pressure P that it must
random motion called “Brownian motion”, due to
stay at, while the mercury in the reservoir is
which fluid at rest in a vessel, does exerts force on
allowed to move up and down in relation to a
all the walls of the vessel, with which it is in
scale or ruler.
contact.
 From the Law of Gay-Lussac, we know that when
the temperature of an ideal gas increases, that
Total pressure of a fluid in a nominated point
there is a corresponding increase in pressure.
consists of two elements:
 Conversely, when the temperature decreases, so
does the pressure
1. Static pressure - Also referred as “hydrostatic
pressure” is the pressure of a fluid at rest.
2. Dynamic pressure – the pressure of a fluid
moving.

Fluid - Any substance that does not conform to a

fixed shape such as liquid or gas.

Static pressure
 Defined as a pressure not associated with the fluid
motion, but its state. It is the pressure which
would be indicated by a gauge moving together
with the fluid.
 Dynamic Pressure Most common types of Pressure Measurement
 A measurement of kinetic energy of a moving In function of the reference, the pressure
fluid and depends on its velocity and density. measurement can be classified as: gauge,
absolute and differential or relative.
Pressure Measurement
At the end of the 16th century, the Italian  Absolute pressure: it is measured with relation to
Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) was granted the perfect vacuum, namely, the pressure difference
patent for a water pump system used on at a given measurement point by the vacuum
irrigation. Galileo Galilei found that 10 meters pressure (absolute zero). Normally the ABS
was the limit to which the water would rise in the notation is used when this greatness is indicated.
suction pump but had no explanation for this Example: The absolute pressure applied by the
phenomenon. Scientists were then devoted to atmosphere at sea level is760mmHg.
find the cause for this. In 1643, the Italian  Differential pressure : it is the pressure difference
physicist Evangelista Torricelli (1608-1647) measured between two points. When any point
invented the barometer, with which he could other than vacuum or atmosphere is used as
evaluate the atmospheric pressure. His research reference it means differential pressure. For
about mercury columns pave way to his discovery example, the differential pressure found on an
of vacuum. orifice plate.
 Gauge pressure : it is measured in relation to the
Five years later, French physicist Blaise ambient pressure, namely, in relation to the
Pascal used the barometer to show that the air atmosphere. It is always important to register on
pressure was smaller at the top of the mountains. the notation that it is a relative measurement.
He also determined the weight of air and called it Example: 10Kgf/cm2 Relative Pressure.
“pressure”. In 1849, Eugène Bourdon was
granted the Bourdon Tube patent, used until
today in relative pressure measurements.
Manometers
- A very simple device used to measure pressure is
the manometer: a fluid-filled tube where an
applied gas pressure causes the fluid height to
shift proportionately. As you can see, a
manometer is fundamentally an instrument of
differential pressure measurement, indicating the
difference between two pressures by a shift in
liquid column height.

The Four common reason why we measure

pressure:

1. Safety
– Prevent pressurized pipes and vessels from
Bursting

2. Process efficiency
– Variation of pressure below or above a set-point
will result in scrap rather than usable product in
some manufacturing process

3. Cost saving

4. Inferred measurement of another variable Working Principle of Manometer:

 The term manometer is derived from the ancient
Greek words 'manós', meaning thin or rare, and
'métron'.
 A manometer works on the principle of Raised Well Manometers
hydrostatic equilibrium and is used for measuring  It is similar to a well type manometer in
he pressure (static pressure) exerted by a still construction. The only difference being that the
liquid or gas. vertical column limb is inclined at an angle θ.
 Hydrostatic equilibrium states that the pressure Inclined manometers are used for accurate
at any point in a fluid at rest is equal, and its value measurement of small pressure.
is just the weight of the overlying fluid.
 In its simplest form, a manometer is a U-shaped
tube consisting of an incompressible fluid like
water or mercury. It is inexpensive and does not
need calibration.

Manometer Types
Manometers come in a variety of forms, and they
are as follows:
1. U-Tube Manometers
2. Well Manometers
3. Raised-Well Manometers
4. Inclined Manometers

U-Tube Manometers Sphygmomanometer and Digital Manometer

 It consists of a glass tube bent like the letter 'U'.  A sphygmomanometer, a type of manometer, is
In this type of manometer, balancing a column of commonly used to check blood pressure in
liquid is done by another column of same or other humans. Systolic pressure reading is the mercury
liquid. One end of the U-tube is attached to the reading on the pressure gauge when the pulse is
point where pressure is to be measured, while first heard, while diastolic pressure reading is
the other end is open to atmospheric pressure. when the pulse can first no longer be heard.
 A digital manometer uses a microprocessor and
pressure transducer to sense slight changes in
pressure. It gives the pressure readout on a digital
screen. It measures differential pressure across
two inputs. An analog/digital output in proportion
to the instantaneous pressure can be obtained.

Mechanical Pressure Elements

Mechanical pressure-sensing elements
Well Manometers
include the bellows, the diaphragm, and the
 As shown in the figure, the well area is larger than
bourdon tube. Each of these devices converts a
the area of the tube, denoted by A. The rise in
fluid pressure into a force.
liquid level in the tube is considered while that in
the well is ignored. If p1 and p2 are absolute
pressures applied as shown in figure

Bellows
 Bellows resemble an accordion constructed
from metal instead of fabric. Increasing
pressure inside a bellows unit causes it to
elongate.
 They are thin-walled metallic cylinders, with deep  The Bourdon tube is the namesake of Eugéne
convolutions, of which one end is sealed and the Bourdon, a French watchmaker and engineer who
other end remains open. The closed end can invented the Bourdon gauge in 1849. Over the
move freely while the open end is fixed. years, the Bourdon tube has entrenched itself as
Bellows Principle of Operation: the elastic element in most pressure gauges in
- When pressure is applied to the closed end, the application today.
bellows will be compressed. The closed end will
move upwards and the link, which is the rod in Bourdon Tube Working Principle:
between the closed end of the bellows and the - The Bourdon pressure gauge operates on the
transmission mechanism, will go up and rotate principle that, when pressurized, a flattened tube
the pointer. tends to straighten or regain its circular form in
cross-section. When a gauge is pressurized, the
Bourdon creates the dial tip travel to enable
pressure measurement. The higher the pressure
requirement of the application, the stiffer the
Bourdon tube needs to be.

Diaphragms
 A diaphragm is nothing more than a thin disk of
material which bows outward under the
influence of a fluid pressure.
 Many diaphragms are constructed from metal,
which gives them spring-like qualities. Some
diaphragms are intentionally constructed out of
materials with little strength, such that there is
negligible spring effect. These are called slack
Electrical Pressure Elements
diaphragms, and they are used in conjunction
 Several different technologies exist for the
with external mechanisms that produce the
conversion of fluid pressure into an electrical
necessary restraining force to prevent damage
signal response.
from applied pressure.
 These technologies form the basis of electronic
pressure transmitters: devices designed to
Diaphragm Principle of Operation:
measure fluid pressure and transmit that
- A fluid in contact with a flexible membrane
information via electrical signals such as the 4-
pushes on that membrane, bending it. The
20mA analog standard, or in digital form such as
pressure is a measure of how hard it pushes.
HART or FOUNDATION Fieldbus
When the outside preference is low, the
reference pressure bends the membrane out. As
Piezoresistive Sensors
the outside pressure increases, it pushes back on
 Piezoresistive means “pressure-sensitive
the membrane, bending it back the other way. By
resistance,” or a resistance that changes value
measuring how far the membrane bends, the
with applied pressure.
gauge can detect the outside pressure.
 The strain gauge is a classic example of a
piezoresistive element: A Strain gauge is a sensor
whose resistance varies with applied force.
 It converts force, pressure, tension, weight, etc.,
into a change in electrical resistance which can
then be measured.
Bourdon Tubes  A strain gauge is an elastically deformable
 Bourdon tubes are made of spring-like metal transducer that transforms an applied
alloys bent into a circular shape. Under the force or a mechanical displacement into a
influence of internal pressure, a bourdon tube change in resistance. It is the underlying
“tries” to straighten out into its original shape mechanism for the working of a strain
before being bent at the time of manufacture. gauge load cell.
 Strain Gauge Working Principle:
 When external forces are applied to a stationary
object, stress and strain are the result. Stress is
defined as the object's internal resisting forces,
and strain is defined as the displacement and
deformation that occur.

 A classic example of a pressure instrument based

on the differential capacitance sensor is the
Rosemount model 1151 differential pressure
transmitter, shown in assembled form in the
Applications of the Strain Gauges following photograph:

The strain gauges are used for two main

purposes:
1) Measurement of strain: Whenever any
material is subjected to high loads, they come
under strain, which can be measured easily with
the strain gauges. The strain can also be used to
carry out stress analysis of the member.
 The concentric corrugations in the metal of the
diaphragm allow it to easily flex with applied
2) Measurement of other quantities: The
pressure, transmitting process fluid pressure
principle of change in resistance due to applied
through the silicone fill fluid to the taut sensing
force can also be calibrated to measure a number
diaphragm inside the differential capacitance cell.
of other quantities like force, pressure,
displacement, acceleration etc. since all these
Differential pressure transmitters
parameters are related to each other.
 One of the most common, and most useful,
pressure measuring instruments in industry is the
Differential capacitance sensors
differential pressure transmitter.
 Another common electrical pressure sensor
 This device senses the difference in pressure
design works on the principle of differential
between two ports and outputs a signal
capacitance. Like the strain gauge, differential
representing that pressure in relation to a
capacitance sensors use a change in electrical
calibrated range.
characteristics to infer pressure.
 Here a change in capacitance is used to infer
pressure measurement. A capacitor is a device
that stores electrical charge. It consists of two
metal plates separated by an electrical insulator.
 The metal plates are connected to an external
electrical circuit through which electrical charge
can be transferred from one metal plate to the
other.
 In this design, the sensing element is a taut metal  Regardless of make or model, every differential
diaphragm located equidistant between two pressure (“DP”, “d/p”, or ΔP) transmitter hast two
stationary metal surfaces, forming a pressure ports to sense different process fluid
complementary pair of capacitances. An pressures. One of these ports is labeled “high” and
electrically insulating fill fluid (usually a liquid the other is labeled “low”.
silicone compound) transfers motion from the  This labeling does not necessarily mean that the
isolating diaphragms to the sensing diaphragm, “high” port must always be at a greater pressure
and also doubles as an effective dielectric for the than the “low” port. What these labels represent
two capacitors:
is the effect that a pressure at that point will have
on the output signal.
Flow Measurement the spindles is proportional to the volume flow
over a very wide range.
Flow Profiles
 Laminar Flow b) Rotating Lobe
 Turbulent Flow A flowmeter is an instrumentation device
used to measure and record the flow rate of a gas
Laminar Flow or fluid. A rotating vane flow meter is a type of
- Characterized by concentric layers of positive displacement meter in which the fluid
fluid moving in parallel down the length passed through a rotating set of vanes. The
of a pipe. passage between each set of vanes delivers a
specific volume of fluid to the outlet side of the
Turbulent Flow meter, allowing the flow rate to be determined
- Characterized by a fluid motion that has based on the rotational rate of the vanes.
local velocities and pressures that
fluctuate randomly. c) Paddle wheel
The working principle of a paddle wheel
flowmeter is simple. A paddle wheel probe is in
Factors affecting Flow rates in pipes. contact with the process fluid and, as the fluid
1. Fluid Velocity or Head (+) flows in the flowmeter, it makes the paddle wheel
- Depends on the head pressure which is rotate at a speed proportional to the flow rate.
forcing the fluid through the pipes.
2. Viscosity (-) 2. Velocity Flow meters
- is the molecular friction w/in a fluid?
3. Frictional Resistance (-) a) Turbine flow meter
- the friction of the fluid in contact w/ the - The unit consists of a multiple bladed
pipe rotor mounted with a pipe,
perpendicular to the liquid flow. The
Four Types of Flowmeters rotor spins as the liquid passes through
1. Volumetric the blades. The rotational speed is a direct
- Directly measures” Q” by repeatedly function of flow rate and can be sensed by
trapping a sample of the fluid. magnetic pickup, photoelectric cell, or
- PD meters, Helical screw meter, rotating gears.
lobe meter, paddle wheel meter
2. Velocity Applications
- Measures the velocity; ie. Turbine, vortex  The turbine meters are widely used for
shedding, electromagnetic, ultrasonic military applications. They are particularly
3. Inferential/Indirect useful in blending systems for the
- Differential pressure or head meters. Ie; petroleum industry. They are effective in
orifice plates, venturi tubes, flow tubes, aerospace and air borne applications for
flow nozzles, pitot tubes, elbow tap energy-fuel and cryogenic flow
meters, rotameters, target meters measurements
4. Mass
- Measures mass directly. i.e, mass coriolis,
thermal b) Vortex
 Vortex flow meters operate under the
1. Volumetric Flowmeters vortex shedding principle, where an
oscillating vortex occur when a fluid such
a. Helical screw as water flow past a bluff (as opposed to
The helical (spindle) flow meter (SRZ) streamlined) body. The frequency that the
operates by way of the displacement principle. vortexes are shed depend on the size and
Two circular helical axes with geometric profiles shape of the body.
are in a cylindrical housing. Through the enclosed
measuring chambers between the spindle and c) Electromagnetic
the wall of the housing, the liquid is transported,  Electromagnetic Flowmeters are based on
causing the spindles to rotate. The spin speed of Faraday's Law of Electromagnetic
 Induction. In an Electromagnetic significant measurement error and/or cause the
Flowmeter, the magnetic field is flowmeter to fail.
generated by a set of coils. As the
conductive liquid passes through the 3. Indirect/Inferential Flow meters
electromagnetic field, an electric voltage
is induced in the liquid which is directly a) Orifice
proportional to its velocity. An Orifice Meter is basically a type of flow
 This induced voltage is perpendicular to meter used to measure the rate of flow of Liquid
both, the liquid flow direction and the or Gas, especially Steam, using the Differential
electromagnetic field direction. The Pressure Measurement principle. It is mainly used
voltage sensed by the electrodes is for robust applications as it is known for its
further processed by the transmitter to durability and is very economical.
give standardized output signal or
displayed in appropriate engineering Principle:
unit.  When a liquid / gas, whose flow-rate is to
 The flux density of the electromagnetic be determined, is passed through an
field in a given Flowmeter and the Orifice Meter, there is a drop in the
distance between the electrodes are pressure between the Inlet section and
constant. Outlet Section of Orifice Meter. This drop
 The induced voltage is not affected by the in pressure can be measured using a
physical properties of liquids like differential pressure measuring
temperature, viscosity, pressure, density, instrument.
and conductivity as long as the  Since this differential pressure is in direct
conductivity of the measured liquid is proportion to the flow-rate as per the
above the minimum threshold level. For Bernoulli's Equation hence the differential
reliable measurement, the pipe must be pressure instrument can be configured to
completely full of liquid. display flow-rate instead of showing
differential pressure.
d) Ultrasonic  The working principle of Orifice Meter is
- Ultrasonic flowmeters use sound waves the same, as that of Venturi meter.
to determine the velocity of a fluid
flowing in a pipe. At no flow conditions,  Orifice meters are built in different forms
the frequencies of an ultrasonic wave depending upon the application specific
transmitted into a pipe and its reflections requirement, The shape, size and location
from the fluid are the same. Under of holes on the Orifice Plate describes the
flowing conditions, the frequency of the
reflected wave is different due to the Orifice Meter Specifications as per the following:
Doppler effect. When the fluid moves • Concentric Orifice Plate
faster, the frequency shift increases • Eccentric Orifice Plate
linearly. The transmitter processes • Segment Orifice Plate
signals from the transmitted wave and its • Quadrant Edge Orifice Plate
reflections to determine the flow rate.

For transit time ultrasonic flowmeters, be

sure that the fluid can adequately conduct
ultrasonic waves, because the flowmeter will not
measure when the ultrasonic waves cannot
penetrate the flow stream between the
transducers.
Similarly, ultrasonic waves must be able to
penetrate the fluid for Doppler flowmeters to
operate accurately. When the fluid is relatively
opaque and does not penetrate the fluid, Doppler
flowmeters tend to measure the velocity of the
fluid at or near the pipe wall, which can cause
Concentric Orifice Plate limitations in the vena-contracta length
 It is made up of SS and its thickness varies for an Orifice Plate.
from 3.175 to 12.70 mm. The plate  Unlike Venturi meter, downstream
thickness at the orifice edge should not pressure cannot be recovered in Orifice
be exceeded by any of following Meters. Overall head loss is around 40%
parameters: to 90% of the differential pressure.
• 1 - D/50 where, D = The pipe inside diameter  Flow straighteners are required at the
• 2 - d/8 where, d = orifice bore diameter inlet and the outlet to attain streamline
• 3 - (D-d)/8 flow thereby increasing the cost and
• *Beta Ratio(β): It is the ratio of orifice bore space for installation.
diameter (d) to the pipe inside diameter  Orifice Plate can get easily corroded with
(D). time thereby entails an error.
 Discharge Co-efficient obtained is low
Quadrant Edge Orifice Plate
 This type of orifice plate is used for flow Indirect/Inferential Flowmeters
such as crude oil, high viscosity syrups or b) Venturi
slurries etc. It is conceivably used when - When a fluid, whose flowrate is to be
the line Reynolds Numbers* range from determined, is passed through a Venturi
100,000 or above or in between to 3,000 meter, there is a drop in the pressure
to 5,000 with a accuracy coefficient of between the Inlet section and Cylindrical
roughly 0.5% Throat of Venturi meter.
- The drop in pressure can be measured
Eccentric Orifice Plate using a differential pressure measuring
• It is similar to Concentric Orifice plate other instrument. Since this differential
than the offset hole, which is bored tangential to pressure is in direct proportion to the
a circle, concentric with the pipe and of a flowrate as per the Bernoulli's Equation
diameter equal to 98% of that of the pipe. It is hence the differential pressure
generally employed for measuring fluids instrument can be configured to display
containing. flowrate instead of showing differential
• Media having Solid particles pressure
• Oils containing water
• Wet steam Application of Venturi meter:
 It is used where high-pressure recovery is
Segment Orifice Plate required.
• It has a hole which is a semi-circle or a segment  Can be used for measuring flow rates of
of circle. The diameter is customarily 98% of the water, gases, suspended solids, slurries
diameter of the pipe. and dirty liquids.
 Can be used to measure high flow rates in
Advantages of Orifice meter: pipes having diameters in a few meters.
 The Orifice meter is very cheap as
compared to other types of flow meters. Advantages of Venturi meter:
 Less space is required to Install and hence  The Venturi tubes can be used to handle
ideal for space constrained applications. fluids that contain slurries / sludges (for
 Operational response can be designed example: Sugar Cane Mill) , because these
with perfection. Venturi tubes contain no sharp corners
 Installation direction possibilities: and do not project into the fluid stream.
Vertical / Horizontal / Inclined.  Negligible possibility of clogging with
deposits or sludge.
Limitations of Orifice meter:  A higher Coefficient of discharge
 Easily gets clogged due to impurities in obtainable.
gas or in unclear liquids.  Operational response can be designed
 The minimum pressure that can be with perfection.
achieved for reading the flow is  Installation direction possibilities: Vertical
sometimes difficult to achieve due to / Horizontal / Inclined
Limitations of Venturi meter:  Maintenance is high.
 Venturi meters are expensive  Installation is difficult when compared to
 Cannot be used in space constrained orifice flow meter.
application because of their significant
size. d) Pitot Tubes
 Flow straighteners are required at the  The basic pitot tube consists of a tube
inlet and the outlet to attain streamline pointing directly into the fluid flow.
flow thereby increasing the cost and  As this tube contains fluid, a pressure can
space for installation further. be measured; the moving fluid is brought
 Minimum line size for Installation of to rest (stagnates) as there is no outlet to
Venturi meter is limited to 1/2" (0.5 inch) allow flow to continue. This pressure is
the stagnation pressure of the fluid, also
c) Flow nozzle known as the total pressure or
(particularly in aviation) the pitot
Flow Nozzle Principle. pressure.
 When a flow nozzle is placed in a pipe
carrying whose rate of flow is to be  How it operates is that flow moving down
measured, the flow nozzle causes a the pipe encounters the front side of the
pressure drop which varies with the flow T-shaped bar which creates high-pressure
rate. This pressure drop is measured above the pipe static pressure, which is
using a differential pressure sensor and picked up by slots in the Annubar sensor.
when calibrated this pressure becomes a  These slots capture the flow profile across
measure of flow rate. the bar to get a more accurate
measurement of the flow rate. Low
Description of Flow Nozzle pressure, below the pipe static pressure,
 The main parts of flow nozzle is created on the back side of the bar. The
arrangement used to measure flow rate differential pressure (DP) transmitter
are as follows: reads these pressure values.
- A flow nozzle which is held between
flanges of pipe carrying the fluid whose 4. Mass Flowmeters
flow rate is being measured. The flow a) Coriolis
nozzle’s area is minimum at its throat.  A Coriolis flow meter contains a tube
- Openings are provided at two places 1 which is energized by a fixed vibration.
and 2 for attaching a differential pressure When a fluid (gas or liquid) passes
sensor (u-tube manometer, differential through this tube the mass flow
pressure gauge etc.,) as show in the momentum will cause a change in the
diagram. tube vibration, the tube will twist
resulting in a phase shift.
Applications of Flow Nozzle
 It is used to measure flow rates of the What Is the Coriolis Effect?
liquid discharged into the atmosphere.  Coriolis flow meters are named after
 It is usually used in situation where Gaspard Gustave de Coriolis, a French
suspended solids have the property of mathematician and engineer. In 1835,
settling. Coriolis wrote a paper in which he
 Is widely used for high pressure and described the behavior of objects in a
temperature steam flows. rotating frame of reference. While this is
sometimes called the Coriolis Force, it is
Advantages of flow Nozzle more accurately called the Coriolis Effect,
 Installation is easy and is cheaper when since it is not the result of a force acting
compared to venturi meter. directly on the object, but rather the
 It is very compact. perceived motion of a body moving in a
 Has high coefficient of discharge. straight line over a rotating body or frame
of reference.
Disadvantages of flow Nozzle
 Pressure recovery is low.
b) Thermal
 Thermal mass flow meters are designed
to accurately monitor and measure mass
flow (as opposed to measuring
volumetric flow) of clean gases, a
parameter that is not temperature
dependent.
 Therefore, the thermal mass flow meter
does not require a correction for changes
in gas temperature, pressure, viscosity,
and density.

Thermal Mass Flow Meter Advantages

 Measure gas mass flow rate directly
 Suitable for applications where
temperature and pressures fluctuate.
 Highly accurate and repeatable
measurements with a typical accuracy of
±1% FS
 Able to measure accurately low gas flow
rates or low gas velocities.
 Excellent turn down ratio, typically 50:1
 No moving parts

Thermal Mass Flow Meter Limitations

 Gas mass meter use is limited to clean,
non-abrasive fluids.
 Presence of moisture or droplets can lead
to measurement inaccuracy.
 Thermal properties must be known
variation from calibrated values can
cause inaccuracies.
 Relatively high initial cost

Thermal Flow Meter Applications

Thermal mass flow meters are suitable

for a variety of processes requiring mass flow
measurement and are frequently used for the
regulation of low gas flows.

Some common gas flow applications for thermal

mass flow meters include:
 Compressed air flow and distribution
 Natural gas consumption eg for burner
and boiler feed control
 Monitoring and control of stack or flue
gas (where composition known)
 Landfill gas recovery
 Flare gas measurement
 Gas flow mixing & blending
 Gas leak testing and detection
Analytical Measurement 2. Decision making
 Proof in criminology, medical diagnostics
 It deals with the measurement and  Evaluation of toxic emissions from
control of various physical and chemical facilities (threshold limit)
properties.  Determination of fees and penalties (e.g.,
Wastewater emissions, solid waste
Example of Measurement Properties disposal, atmospheric emissions)
- Ph  Quality control testing of raw material
- Conductivity upon receipt from suppliers
- Density
- Viscosity 3. Ensuring the protection of people and the
- octane number environment
- flash point  Warning systems (e.g., gas detection
- distillation curve systems)
- Chemical composition  Foodstuff inspections
 Quality control of pharmaceuticals,
Calibration and Validation of Analytical chemicals, fuels, and other materials.
Instruments
4. Monitoring, process supervision, and process
Calibration regulation
 a process by which ensure that an  Process supervision of foodstuff,
instrument reading are accurate with pharmaceutical, chemical, and material
reference established standards. production.
 Emissions monitoring of environmentally
Validation relevant facilities
 a detailed process of confirming that the
instrument is installed correctly, that it is Titrations
operating effectively, and that it is  A technique where a solution of known
performing without error. concentration us used to determine the
concentration of an unknown solution
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ANALYTICAL using analytical method.
INSTRUMENTATION (AI) AND ANALYTICAL
CHEMISTRY (AC)

Analytical Instrumentation (AI)

- Real time analysis
- Continuous sampling
- Probe location is in the plant.

Analytical Chemistry (AC)

- Results are delayed.
- Grab sampling.
- Probe locations is in the laboratory.

Purpose and Uses of Analysis

Analytical Instruments
1. Detection of harmful agents and screening
 Spectrometers
 Preventive medical examinations (e.g.,
 Rheometers
blood sugar, test sticks)
 Elemental Analyzer
 Toxicology and forensic medicine:
 Chromatographs
identification of poisons and drugs.
 Thermal Analyzers
 Toxin identification and cause
determinations in environmental  Ph meter
incidents
Spectrometers Parts of a Spectrometer
 Instruments used to gauge properties of
light over a particular portion of the
electromagnetic spectrum,
characteristically used in spectroscopic
analysis to detect materials. The variable
measured is usually the light's intensity
or the polarization state.
 A spectrometer is used in spectroscopy
for generating spectral lines and gauging
their wavelengths and intensities.

 Components
- An emission source which produces the
Rheometer
spectrum.
 A rheometer measures flow. More
- An optical system which collimates and
specifically, rheometers measures the
disperses the spectrum.
forces (like shear) associated with a
- The detecting device to measure the
flowing substance. Typically, the flowing
emitted lines intensities.
substance is much thicker than a liquid.
It is an instrument that measures both
Main Features
viscosity and viscoelasticity of fluids,
 Aperture - depends on the dimension of
semi-solids and solids.
the source and the characteristics of the
spectrometer.
How does it work?
 Transmittance – depends on the spectral
 Rheometer works by relating a materials
range and the optical components.
property from how hard it’s being
 Adaptation to Environment - takes into
pushed, to how far it moves: by
account the arrangement of
commanding torque (stress) and
components, their material, and the
measuring angular displacement (strain)
environment, such as humidity, pressure.
by commanding angular displacement
(strain) and measuring torque (stress).
Spectrometers Range of Operation:
 From Gamma Rays & X-Ray
It can provide information about the material’s:
 To Far into the Infrared Spectrum Viscosity
 Measures in Relative Unit  defined as a material’s resistance to
deformation and is a function of shear
Common Types: rate or stress, with time and temperature
1. UV Spectrometers - uses ultraviolet light
dependence.
2. IR Spectrometers - device sends a range of IR
Viscoelasticity
wavelengths through the sample to record the
 A property of a material that exhibits both
absorbance
viscous and elastic character.
3. Mass Spectrometers - analytical technique
Measurements of G’, G”, tan δ with
that ionizes chemical species and sorts the ions
respect to time, temperature, frequency,
based on their mass –to – charge ratio
and stress/strain are important for
4. Colorimeters – used for determining the
characterization.
concentration of a known substance in solution,
by measuring a sample's transmittance or
Geometry Options
absorbance at a fixed wavelength and comparing
the result to a calibration curve.
 Parts of Rheometer
This rheometer has three main
components:
(1) the main unit mounted on a cast metal stand
that supports the geometry,
(2) an electronic control circuitry contained in a
separated box (electronic box), and
(3) the sample holder (Peltier plate)

Two types of rheometers

ROTATIONAL RHEOMETER
 It is an instrument used to determine
how a liquid or slurry flows. Rotational
rheometers can measure viscosity,
thixotropy, shear stress, and shear strain.
 Used in the plastics, petroleum,
cosmetic, food, and pharmaceutical
industries, rotational rheometers help to
maintain parameters such as consistency CHN/O ANALYZER (Elemental Analyzer)
and fluidity, which in turn allow  a scientific instrument which can
predictions to be made about stability, determine the elemental composition of
texture, and shelf life. a sample. The name derives from the
three primary elements measured by the
device: carbon (C), hydrogen (H) and
nitrogen (N) and oxygen (O). Sulfur (S) can
also be measured.

BASIC PRINCIPLES
 The capsule is injected into a high
temperature (1000°C) furnace and
combusted in pure oxygen under static
conditions. At the end of the combustion
EXTENSIONAL RHEOMETER period, a dynamic burst of oxygen is
added to ensure total combustion of all
 It focuses on pulling on a piece of
material in a purely extensional manner, inorganic and organic substances.
i.e. no shear.  The resulting combustion products pass
through specialized reagents to produce
carbon dioxide (CO2), water (H2O) and
Nitrogen (N2) and oxides of nitrogen.
These reagents also remove other
interferences including halogens, sulfur
and phosphorus. The gases are then
passed over copper to scrub excess
oxygen and reduce oxides of nitrogen to
elemental nitrogen.
 After scrubbing, the gases enter a mixing
volume chamber to ensure a
homogeneous mixture at constant
temperature and pressure. The mixture
then passes through a series of high-
precision thermal conductivity detectors,
each containing a pair of thermal
conductivity cells. Between the first two
cells is a water trap.
  The differential signal between the cells Chromatograph
is proportional to the water  a device for separating substances that
concentration, which is a function of the are volatile enough to be vaporized. It
amount of hydrogen in the original consists of an injection system for
sample. Between the next two cells is a introducing the sample, a column in
carbon dioxide trap for measuring which the separation occurs, and a
carbon. Finally, nitrogen is measured detector.
against a helium reference (Figure 2).  The mixture is dissolved in a fluid called
the mobile phase, which carries it through
Advantages: a structure holding another material
- can combust the widest range of sample called the phase.
type, from volatiles to refractories.
- Fully automated.
- Rapid analysis for high productivity -
analysis time of less than 5 minutes per
sample.
- Stable thermal conductivity detector
provides linear response with superior
precision and accuracy.
- Horizontal sample injection removes
interfering residue between each sample
run.

Application:
 pharmaceuticals, chemicals, oil-related
products, catalysts and food.
 In the oil industry, an important
application is the regular monitoring of
coke build-up on refinery catalysts to
ensure that regeneration procedures Chromatography equipment includes all
(involving controlled burning of the the components needed for separation: columns,
carbon) are executed at optimal intervals. frits, flow cells, pumps, detector, collectors, and
Since many of these catalyst systems software to complete systems used for High
involve large quantities of noble metals Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC), Gas
such as platinum, palladium and chromatography (GC) and Liquid Chromatography
rhenium, mismanagement of this testing and Mass Spectrophotometers (LC-MS).
would entail serious financial losses. It is based on the principle where
 In food analysis, the determination of molecules in mixture applied onto the surface or
nitrogen (as a surrogate for protein) is into the solid, and fluid stationary phase (stable
very important for pricing grain and phase) is separating from each other while moving
evaluating meat products and is with the aid of a mobile phase.
increasingly undertaken by combustion
analysis.
Gas Chromatograph
 used to separate and measure various
Characterization of Polymers and Plastics Using types of gases.
an Elemental Analyzer  It is a sensitive technique, can analyze
small samples, and can be automated, but
is also relatively expensive and requires
technical knowledge.
 Basic Parts
 Sample holder
 Sensors
 Enclosure within which the experimental
parameter may be controlled.
 Computer to control data colletion and
processing.
Liquid Chromatograph
 used to isolate the individual
components of a mixture.
 This involves mass transfer of a sample
through a polar mobile phase and non-
polar stationary phase.

Advantages
- can be controlled by a single person.
- rapid and precise
- works on a broad range of samples.
- continuous operation Advantages
- very few samples volume/quantity is - Even at very high temperature, the
required for analysis. instruments can be used.
- a complex mixture can separate. - Reaction or transition temperatures can
be determined accurately.
Disadvantages - The instruments that are used have highly
- expensive sensitive features.
- high operational pressure is required. Disadvantages
- require high power consumption. - Reaction or transition estimations is only
- periodic maintenance and parts need to 20% to 50% DTA
be changed. - Uncertainty in heats of fusion
- prone to error
- sensitive Application:
- used to measure the fibre content of
Thermal Analyzers composites by heating a sample to
 Thermal analysis can be used to measure remove the resin by application of heat
the energy absorbed or released as a and then determining the mass
function of time or a controlled remaining.
temperature profile. - determination of phase diagrams, heat
 Other methods include measuring change measurements and
weight changes as a function of decomposition in various atmospheres.
temperature or time, evolved gas - power dissipation in present-day PCB
analysis. Measuring expansion of small design widely used in the pharmaceutical
components and low expansion rates of and food industries.
circuit boards, component materials, and
much more. pH
 These instruments can also be utilized to  A quantitative unit of measurement
determine sample decomposition, which describes the degree of acidity or
oxidation or loss of solvent or water. To alkalinity of a substance. It is measured on
measure expansion, contraction, a scale of 0 to 14. The pH of a solution
penetration, softening of the sample. measures the degree of acidity or
 alkalinity relative to the ionization of
water sample. In practice, it is the
hydrogen ion activity that is measured,
rather than its concentration. The activity
is a measure of the “effective
concentration”.

Importance of pH
 Many important properties of a solution
can be determined from an accurate
measurement of pH including the acidity
of a solution and the extent of a reaction
in the solution.
 Many chemical processes and properties,
such as the speed of a reaction and the Reference Electrode
solubility of a compound, can also  The reference electrode provides a
depend greatly on the pH of a solution. constant potential regardless of the
 In application ranging from industrial composition of the solution it is placed in.
operations to biological processes, it is  The voltage difference between the
important to have an accurate and reference and measuring electrodes is a
precise measurement of pH. function of the pH value of a solution.
 Common reference systems in use are
Silver/ Silver chloride (Ag/ AgCl) and
Methods of pH Measurement Mercury/ Calomel (Hg2Cl2).
 pH – Paper 0-14  The Silver/ Silver Chloride reference is far
 Methyl orange 3.14 – 4.4 the most frequently employed because it
 pH – indicators has universal applicability, a wide
 pH – meters operating temperature range and is
relatively non-toxic.
 Phenolphthalein 8.2 – 9.6

pH TEMPERATURE COMPENSATION
pH Meter
 A pH meter is an electronic instrument  The pH of any solution is a function of its
used to measure the pH (acidity or temperature. Voltage output from the
alkalinity) of a liquid through special electrode changes linearly in relationship
probes is sometimes used to measure the to changes in pH, and the temperature of
pH of semi –solid substances. the solution determines the slope of the
graph.
 Typical pH meter consists of a special
measuring probe (a glass electrode)  One pH unit corresponds to 59.16 mV at
connected to an electronic meter that 25°C, the standard voltage and
temperature to which all calibrations are
measures and displays the pH reading.
referenced. The electrode voltage
decreases to 54.20 mV/pH unit at 0.0°C
BASIC PARTS OF pH METER and increases to 74.04 mV/pH unit at
100.0°C.
 Main body component holding
containing circuitry for conversion of
pH Meter Calibration
analogy signals into digital display.
 Before the pH meter can give you
 Ph – electrode
accurate readings, it needs to index itself
 Automatic Temperature Compensation
against at least two solutions of a known
(ATC) probe
pH.
 Most pH meters are set up to perform 2-
point calibrations using a pair of the three
built-in calibration points – usually pH
4.00, 7.01 and 10.01 - depending on what
you’ll be measuring.
Annual Calibration of pH meter then offset by 7 volts to give a reading on
 To fully demonstrate that all component the pH scale.
of the pH measuring system are  At acid pH, the voltage at the probe's
functioning correctly, the following steps output ranges from -0.7 volts to < 0. So for
should be performed: a sample of pH 4 (3 pH units below
1. The performance of the temperature neutral), -3 * +0.059 = - 0.18 volts, the
probes should be compared to a certified output of the meter's amplifier is -0.18 *
reference thermometer. 17 + 7 = 4
2. The pH meter and electrode should be
calibrated using certified, traceable pH Advantages
buffers. - fast and simple process of measurement
3. The correct performance of the pH - portable
electrode should be verified using certified, - accurate results and precise pH value
traceable and control standards.
Disadvantages
pH Buffers - often needed to calibrate.
 Most modern pH meters are supplied - there is a possibility of breaking due to
with the facility for automatic buffer fragile glass electrodes.
recognition. The manufacturer will have - deposits on the electrode membrane can
programmed in a pH versus temperature interrupt the processes.
profile into a memory for a specific type
of buffer such as DIN or NIST. Application:
- very crucial in Agriculture industry for soil
Buffer Solution evaluation.
 Buffer solutions are used as a means of - mandatory for chemical and
keeping pH at a nearly constant value in a pharmaceutical industries.
wide variety of chemical applications. - pH level monitoring is essential in water
treatment plants and RO water purifiers.
Importance of pH buffers - industrial applications
 Buffers are important for process and/or - chemical production
reactions which require specific and - electronics production
stable pH ranges.

pH Meter Measurement
 The meter circuit is fundamentally no
more than a voltmeter that displays
measurements in pH units instead of
volts.
 At neutral pH (pH 7) the voltage at the
probe's output is 0 volts. 0 * 17 + 7 = 7.
 At alkaline pH, the voltage at the probe's
output ranges from > 0 to +0.41 volts (7*
0.059 = 0.41).
 So for a sample of pH 10 (3 pH units from
neutral), 3 * 0.059 = 0.18 volts), the
output of the meter's amplifier is 0.18
*17 + 7 = 10
 The circuit of a sample pH meter usually
consists of operational amplifiers in an
inverting configuration, with a total
voltage gain of about -17.
 The inverting amplifier converts the small
voltage produced by the probe (-0.059
volt/pH in basic solutions, +0.059 volt/pH
in acid solutions) into pH units, which are
LEVEL MEASUREMENT Example of Level Instruments
Level may be defined as the height or  Non-contacting
vertical distance of a material from a datum or a - Non-contacting radar
fixed referenced point. - Ultrasonic
- Nuclear
Normally, the reference point is the
bottom of the tank or vessel that contains a
material.  Contacting
- Pressure Transmitter
- Guided Radar Wave
Units of Level: - Capacitance
1- as DISTANCE- Inches, Meters, etc - Magnetic LG
2- as % of level span (40%,90%, etc.) - Displacer
- Level Switches
How is level measured? - Vibrating Pork
Level is measured at the position of the
interface between phases, where the phases are
I. VISUAL METHODS OF MEASURING LEVEL
liquid/gas, solid/gas, or immiscible liquid/liquid.
DIPSTICK
- oldest form of level measuring device
Manners of Level Measurement
that is essentially a stick or rod that is
INNAGE
calibrated to indicate level.
the datum line is at the bottom of the
tank, vessel, or container. The measurement is
Working Principle
taken in the liquid from the datum line to the - Dipstick is lowered vertical into a tank or vessel
surface of the liquid. until it reaches a reference point.
OUTAGE OR ULLAGE - Usually, the bottom of the tank is used to ensure
the datum line is located above the
that the stick is inserted to thecorrect depth.
position of the surface of the liquid or solid.
- The dipstick is then withdrawn, and the level is
the measurement is taken out of the
read by determining where the interface made
liquid from the datum line to the surface of the
contact with the dipstick.Reading the scale on the
liquid or solid.
dipstick indicates the level measurement.

Methods of level measurement

LEAD LINES
- A lead line acts in the same way as a dipstick. A
DIRECT steel measuring tape with a weight attached, the
- Simple, almost straightforward, and lead line can beused in the most places that the
economical; it uses a direct
measurement of the distance (usually dipstickcan.
height) from the datum line and used Advantages:
primarily for local indication. - easier to handle than dipsticks.
INDIRECT - can measure much higher levels than dipsticks.
- This type of method level is measured in
terms of the variables which changes Disadvantages:
with change in level of liquid. Such - it requires action be performed
variables are hydrostatic pressure, - no continuous representation of process
attenuation of radioactive energy, measurement
electrical properties.

GAUGE AND SIGHT GLASSES

GENERAL TYPES OF LEVEL MEASUREMENT
1. Point Level: interest is only at a certain level or  Provides continuous measurement and
depth. can also be employed in both open and
2. Continuous Level: interest is over a range of closed tank applications.
levels or depth, typically) to 100% on operating
range.
TYPES OF LEVEL GAUGES Usually, a stilling well is provided to
1. Transparent Level Gauge - Employ two ensure that the interface is not
transparent glasses fitted with a liquid chamber disturbed and to prevent false
on either side. The liquid level is indicated as a measurement.
result of difference in the transparent properties
of the two media. For water / steam applications, CONDUCTANCE AND RESISTANCE TYPE
an illuminator is mounted on the rear side of the  The terminals of the electrodes are
gauge with its light rays deflected upward into connected to relays, which transmit
the water column. signals to a display or control device. If
the process level contacts any portion
2. Magnetic Level Gauge -A float-containing of the electrode that extends to the
magnet follows liquid level in the liquid chamber, minimum level, a conductive path is
which corresponds to the level in the tank. established through the grounded tank
Position of the float inside the chamber is to the electrode.
indicated outside by bi-colored flapper  If the level falls below this electrode,
embedded with magnet by 180 Deg rotation and the path is interrupted given that the
setting into uniform color along the traverse of gas or vapor is nonconductive.
the float.  The level condition may then activate a
device, which sounds an alarm or
3. Reflex Level Gauge -Use glasses having the energizes a control device to operate a
face fitted towards the chamber shaped to have pump, feed controller or other
prismatic grooves with section angle of 90°. processing equipment.
When in operation, the chamber is filled with
liquid in the lower part and gases or vapors in the V. CAPACITANCE METHOD
upper part. Capacitance of a capacitor is directly
proportional to the dielectric constant, and this
II. FLOAT METHOD principle is utilized in the capacitance level
A float is a device that follow the indicator. As material contacts the probe, the
level variations of the liquid and transmit radio frequency shifts indicating an increase in
these variations to a pointer through capacitance C.
cable or tape, which passes over a pulley Application: Liquids
to as counterweight. The float itself must
be substantially lesser density than the
substance of interest, and it must not
corrode or otherwise react with the
substance.

 Float Switch - Float switches are CAPACITANCE LEVEL MEASUREMENTS

inexpensive way to detect level of liquid • Rotating Paddle Switch • Vibration Fork
at a specific level.
ROTATING PADDLE SWITCH
III. DISPLACER METHOD  is used to detect the presence and
 Archimedes’ Principle: A body absence of solids in a process tank.
immersed in a liquid will be buoyed up
by a force equal to the weight of the  The device makes use of a motor which
liquid it displaces. This upward pressure slowly rotates a paddle in the absence
acting on the area of the displacer ofmaterial and rotates itself to actuate
creates the buoyant force. a switch when the paddle is prevented
from turning by the presence of
IV. CONDUCTIVITY METHOD material.
- Two electrodes are positioned in a tank.  They may be used for both high and
One extends to the minimum level; the low-level point control.
other is positioned so that its lower Typical application- Lime silos
edgeis at the maximum level.
- The tank is grounded and functions as
the common, or third electrode.
 Rotating paddle: As the level in the vessel rises, the
pressure exerted by the hydrostatic head on the
 Industry: Water and wastewater diaphragm increases in direct proportion. The
 Application: Lime silo measurement,
diaphragm will continue to flex until the pressure
Hi andreorder levels
of thegas in the box and the gage line is equal to
VIBRATION FORK the pressure exerted by the level of the liquid on
- are point level switches that are designed to the bottom of the diaphragm.
detect low or high levels of liquids. It is based on
the vibrating tuning fork principle, using VIII. BUBBLERMETHOD
piezoelectric crystals. The switch vibrates at a  The simple level measurement has a dip
resonant frequency. When the tuning fork is tube installed with the open end close to the
submerged in the product, the frequency bottom of the process vessel. A flow of gas, usually
changes. This change is detected by the air or nitrogen passes through the tube and
integrated oscillator and converted into a resultant air pressure in the tube corresponds to
switching output. the hydraulic head of the liquid in the vessel.The
- This type of control features a tuning fork as a air pressure in the bubbler tube varies
sensing probe. proportionally with the change in head pressure.
- A piezoelectric crystal vibrates the probe when
there is no material surrounding it. When BUBBLER TUBE PURGE OF LEVEL
material contacts the probe, the circuitry detects MEASUREMENT
its presence and operates a contact closure.  One method of monitoring/controlling
- The natural frequency of oscillation is approx. liquid level in a tank is the use of Bubbler Tubes
1300Hz and 1400 hz. with Pressure or Differential Pressure
 Vibratory controls can be used for both high- and Transmitters.
low-level detection.  A small but uninterrupted flow of air or
inert gas is forced down through a dip tube which
VI. DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE METHOD extends to near the bottom of the tank.
- Level measurement using hydrostatic  The pressure transmitter takes the back
principle with differential pressure pressure and converts it to an analog signal that is
transmitter. Application: almost in all sent to the control room. The plant operator will
applications, especially between then be able to monitor the exact level in the tank.
gaseous and liquid interface such in
boilers. IX TIME OF FLIGHT
– Ultrasonic Level Measurement
– Radar Level Measurement

ULTRASONIC LEVEL MEASUREMENT

 Ultrasonic devices operate on the echo
principle. When sound waves contact
solid or liquid surfaces, only a small
VII. DIAPHRAGMBOX proportion of the sound energy in the
Another open tank level measuring
wave penetrates the surface.
instrument which uses the hydrostatic head
 Most of the sound is reflected. The
principle is the diaphragm box.
reflected sound wave is an echo. A sound
 The diaphragm box is submerged in the process
wave is usually generated at afrequency
liquid and connected to a pressure gage by gage
of about 20kHz.
line. The hydrostatic head produced by the level
- Application: Liquids and Slurries.
of the liquid in the tank exerts pressure on the
bottom of the diaphragm causing it to flex
 Continuous ultrasonic level
upward.
measurement systems are designed to
 This action compresses the gas in the box and the
measure the time of flight of a reflected
gage line.
sound wave. In other words, it measures
 The pressure is applied to a gage or other
the time required for an ultrasonic sound
pressure element that is part of an indicator
wave to travel to the process surface and
assembly calibrated to indicateliquid level units.
be reflected back to the receiver. The
genetic name for such device is sonar.
 RADAR LEVEL MEASUREMENTS X. NUCLEONIC METHOD
 Radar method- radar instruments operate by
transmitting a high frequency (GHz) Nuclear Level Measurement
electromagnetic radiation and timing the transit  One of the most effective methods of
time to the level surface and back. shielding against gamma ray radiation is
Principle: The two technologies on the market with very dense substance such as lead
are: or concrete. That is why the source boxes
holding gamma-emitting radioactive
Frequency Modulated Continuous Wave pellets are lined with lead, so the
(FMCW) radiation escapes only in the direction
 Continuously emit a swept frequency signal and intended.
distance is inferred from the difference in  These “sources” may be locked out for
frequency between the transmit and receive testing and maintenance by moving a
signals at any point in time. FMCW is therefore lever that hinges a lead shutter over the
the only method that is suitable for the high window of the box. This lead shutter acts
accuracy’s demanded for tank gauging. as an on/off switch for the radioactive
source.
Pulsed Wave Time of Flight (PWTF)  Nuclear continuous level measurement
 Emit a microwave burst towards the process works by directing a narrow fan of
material, this burst is reflected by the surface of radiation through the vessel to a
the material and detected by the same sensor detector. As the process level rises, it
which nowacts as a receiver. Level is inferred from shields the detector from the radiation.
the time of flight (transmission to reception) of The more radiation the detector “sees”
the microwave signal. Microwave “echoes” are the lower the process level (discernable
evaluated bysampling and building up a historical to 1% of span). The less radiation
profile of the echoes. detected, the higher the process level.

Radar Type (Non-contact)

- Radar level instruments send radio waves out
through open space to reflect off the process
material. The instruments relying on open space
for signal propagation are called non- contact
radar.

Radar Type Guided-wave Radar (GWR)

- Radar level instruments use waveguide “probes”
to guide the radio waves into the process liquid.
The instruments using wave guided-wave are
called guided- wave radar instruments.
Temperature Measurement 1821 - Thomas Seebeck discovered the principle
behind the thermocouple the existence of the
 Temperature (sometimes called thermoelectric current.
thermodynamic temperature) is a 1821 -Sir Humphry Davy noted the temperature
measure of how hot or cold something dependence of metals.
is: specifically, a measure of the average 1932 - C.H. Meyers built the first Resistance
kinetic energy of the particles in a Temperature Detector (RTD).
system. While there is no maximum 1948 – the name centigrade scale was change to
theoretically reachable temperature, Celsius
there is a minimum temperature, known 20th century - The development of temperature
as absolute zero, at which all molecular sensors fully developed.
motion stops. Temperature is by far the
most measured parameter. It impacts Temperature measurement, also known
the physical, chemical and biological as thermometry, describes the process of
world in numerous ways. measuring a current local temperature for
immediate or later evaluation. Temperature
 All matter is made of particles – atoms or measurement can be classified into a few general
molecules – that are in constant motion. categories:
Because the particles are in motion, they a) Thermometers
have kinetic energy. The faster the b) Probes
particles are moving, the more kinetic c) Non-contact
energy they have. The more kinetic
energy the particles of an object have,  Conduction - the process by which heat
the higher is the temperature of the or electricity is directly transmitted
object. The higher the temperature, the through a substance when there is a
faster the molecules of the substance difference of temperature or of electrical
move, on the average. potential between adjoining regions,
without movement of the material.
History about Temperature  Convection - the movement caused
1592 - Galileo Galilei invented the liquid-in-glass within a fluid by the tendency of hotter
thermometer. and therefore less dense material to rise,
1643 - Athanasius Kircher invented the first and colder, denser material to sink under
mercury thermometer. the influence of gravity, which
1714 - Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit invented both consequently results in transfer of heat.
the mercury and the alcohol thermometer with "The final transfer of energy to the
Fahrenheit scale. surface is by convection."
1742 - Anders Celsius proposed a centigrade  Radiation - the emission of energy as
scale electromagnetic waves or as moving
1800’s - William Thomson (later Lord Kelvin) subatomic particles, especially high-
postulated the existence of an absolute zero. energy particles which cause ionization.
International Practical Temperature Scale having a range of 100 to 1000°F (−73
 The International Practical Temperature to537°C).
Scale is the basis of most present-day - Solids tend to expand when heated. The
temperature measurements. The scale amount that a solid sample will expand
was established by an international with increased temperature depends on
commission in 1948 with a text revision the size of the sample, the material it is
in 1960. A revision of the scale was made of, and the amount of temperature
formally adopted in 1990 and still being rise.
used today. - One way to amplify the motion resulting
from thermal expansion is to bond two
strips of dissimilar metals together, such
as copper and iron. If we were to take
two equally-sized strips of copper and
iron, lay them side-by-side, and then
heat both of them to a higher
temperature, we would see the copper
strip lengthen slightly more than the iron
strip:

- If we bond these two strips of metal

Nonelectric Temperature Sensors
together, this differential growth will
 Liquid-in-Glass Thermometers
result in a bending motion that greatly
- Most versions have used mercury as the
exceeds the linear expansion. This device
liquid. The element mercury is liquid in
is called abi-metal strip:
the temperature range of about −40 to
700°F (−38.9to 356.7°C). As a liquid,
mercury expands as it gets warmer; its
expansion rate is linear. Because of
mercury’s toxicity and the strict
governing laws, the use of the mercury-  This bending motion is significant
in-glass thermometer has declined. enough to drive a pointer mechanism,
activate an electromechanical switch, or
 Bimetallic Thermometers perform any number of other
- Bonding two dissimilar metals with mechanical tasks, making this a very
different coefficients of expansion simple and useful primary sensing
produces a bimetallic element. These are element for temperature.
used in bimetallic thermometers,
temperature switches, and thermostats
 is totally filled to provide a constant
volume.
 Expansion of the fluid in the tube is
converted to pressure. This pressure
expands the Bourdon tube which moves
the pointer on the scale. The filling fluid
is usually an inert hydrocarbon, such
 Filled-bulb Systems.
asxylene.
- Filled system thermometers have been
used for decades. They have a useful
range of -125°Fto 1200°F.
- Filled-bulb systems exploit the principle
of fluid expansion to measure
temperature. If a fluid is enclosed in a
sealed system and then heated, the
molecules in that fluid will exert a
greater pressure on the walls of the
Vapor Filled Systems Temperature
enclosing vessel. By measuring this
Sensors (Class II)
pressure, and/or by allowing the fluid to
 The vapor filled system uses a volatile
expand under constant pressure, we
liquid/vapor combination to generate a
may infer the temperature of the fluid.
temperature dependent fluid expansion.
This form of measurement is based on
There are basically four types of filled bulb
the vapor-pressure curves of the fluid
temperature sensors in use in industrial
and measurement occurs at the
applications They are:
transition between the liquid and vapor
phases.

Liquid Filled Systems Temperature

Sensors (Class I)
 Class I systems use a liquid fill fluid. Here,  This transition occurs in the bulb, and
the volumetric expansion of the liquid will move slightly with temperature, but
drives an indicating mechanism to show it is the pressure that is affected and
temperature as shown. The steel bulb, causes the measurement. If the
stem and indicator are completely filled temperature is raised, more liquid will
under pressure with a liquid. The system vaporize, and the pressure will increase.
A decrease in temperature will result in
 condensation of some of the vapor, and
the pressure will decrease.

Gas Filled Systems Temperature Sensors

(Class III)
 Here, the change in pressure with the
temperature allows us to sense the
bulb’s temperature. As the volume is
kept constant, the pressure varies in
direct proportion to the absolute
temperature.
 Gas filled systems do provide a faster  Bistate/Phase Change Sensors
response than other filled devices, and - These low-cost nonelectric sensors are
as it converts temperature directly into made from heat- sensitive fusible
pressure it is particularly useful in crystalline solids that change decisively
pneumatic systems. Nitrogen is quite from a solid to a liquid with a different
commonly used with gas filled systems. color at a fixed temperature depending
on the blend of ingredients. They are
available as crayons, lacquers, pellets, or
labels over a wide range of temperatures
from 100to3000°F (38to1650°C).

All these devices undergo a change in color

or appearance depending upon the temperature
variations. “They are used, for instance, with
steam traps – when a trap exceeds a certain
temperature, a white dot on a sensor label
attached to the trap will turn black. Response
Mercury Filled Systems Temperature time typically takes minutes, so these devices
Sensors (Class V) often do not respond to transient temperature
 Mercury expansion systems are different changes.”
from other liquid filled systems because The major uses are where a quick check of
of the properties of the metal. Mercury the temperature of an object is desired, or, in the
is toxic and can affect some industrial case of the temperature labels or stickers, a
processes and is used less in filled record of whether the object has exceeded a
system. Mercury filled system provides certain temperature.
the widest range of operation (-40°C to
650°C)
Electronic Thermometers/Sensors 3) Seebeck Effect - When two dissimilar metals
 Thermocouples with different temperatures and they’re
- A thermocouple is an assembly of two touching, they produce an emf or voltage.
wires of unlike metals joined at one end
designated the hot end.
- At the other end, referred to as the cold
junction, the open circuit voltage is
measured. Called the Seebeck voltage,
this voltage (electromotive force)
depends on the difference in
temperature between the hot and the
cold junction and the Seebeck coefficient
of the two metals.
When two dissimilar metal wires are
joined together at one end, a voltage is produced
Principles of Operation
at the other end that is approximately
proportional to temperature. That is to say, the
1.) Peltier Effect - If the junctions of a
junction of two different metals behaves like a
thermocouple are at the same temperature and
temperature-sensitive battery.
a current is passed through the circuit of the
thermocouple, HEAT is produced at one junction
and ABSORBED at the other.

This phenomenon provides us with a

simple and direct way to electrically infer
temperature: simply measure the voltage
produced by the junction, and you can tell the
temperature of that junction.
2.) Thompson Effect- The absorption or
evolution of heat when current is passed through
an unequally heated conductor.
3 Thermocouple junctions - Thermopile detectors are thermal
detectors that utilize the Seebeck effect
1. Grounded Junction in which a thermal electromotive force is
 Wires are physically attached or welded generated in proportion to the incident
to the inside of the probe wall. infrared light energy.
 Good heat transfer from the outside - Thermopile detectors themselves have
 Faster response than the ungrounded no wavelength dependence and so are
junction type used with various types of window
 Demerits: low accuracy, noise problems materials for diverse applications such as
temperature measurement, human
2. Ungrounded Junction body sensing, and gas analysis.
 Thermocouple junction is detached from
the probe wall. Three Laws that Apply to Thermocouples
 Recommended for measurements in ➢ Law of Intermediate Metals
corrosive environments. This law is interpreted to mean that the
 Demerits: Slow response addition of different metals to a circuit will not
affect the voltage the circuit creates. The added
3. Exposed Junction junctions are to be at the same temperature as
 Thermocouple protrudes out of the tip the junctions in the circuit. For example, a third
of the sheath. metal such as copper leads may be added to help
 Offers the best response time. take a measurement. This is why thermocouples
 Limited in use to non-corrosive and non- may be used with digital multi-meters or other
pressurized applications. electrical components. It is also why solder may
 Demerits: Noise problem, damage to be used to join metals to form thermocouples.
circuit, no protection for use in harsh
environment, low accuracy. ➢Law of Homogenous Materials
This law states that a thermocouple
Thermopile circuit that is made with a homogeneous wire
- Several thermocouples connected in cannot generate an emf, even if it is at different
series or parallel. temperatures and thicknesses throughout. In
- Passive radiation sensing voltage- other words, a thermocouple must be made
generating device from at least two different materials in order to
- Does not emit any radiation and require generate a voltage. A change in the area of the
cooling or bias. cross section of a wire, or a change in the
- As a SENSOR and a GENERATOR temperature in different places in the wire, will
not produce a voltage.

➢Law of Intermediate Temperature

This law allows a thermocouple that is
calibrated with a reference temperature to be
used with another reference temperature. It also
allows extra wires with the same thermoelectric which means that at 0° C the RTD
characteristics to be added to the circuit Without element should demonstrate 100 Ω of
affecting its total emf. resistance.

Thermocouple Types
 Thermocouples exist in many different
types, each with its own color codes for
the dissimilar-metal wires.

Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTD) Thermistors

 A Resistance Temperature Detector or  Like the RTD, the thermistor is also a
simply RTD is a temperature sensor resistive device that changes its
which measures temperature using the resistance predictably with temperature.
principle that the resistance of a metal Its benefit is a very large change in
changes with temperature. For most resistance per degree change in
metals the change in electrical resistance temperature, allowing very sensitive
is directly proportional to its change in measurements over narrow spans. Due
temperature and is linear over a range of to its very large resistance, lead wire
temperatures. This constant factor called errors are not significant.
the temperature coefficient of electrical
resistance is the basis of RTDs. Difference between RTDs and Thermistors
 Thermistors are devices made of metal
 RTDs work on a basic correlation oxide which either increase in resistance
between metals and temperature. As the with increasing temperature (a positive
temperature of a metal increases, the temperature coefficient) or decrease in
metal's resistance to the flow of resistance with increasing temperature
electricity increases. Similarly, as the (a negative temperature coefficient).
temperature of the RTD resistance RTDs are devices made of pure metal
element increases, the electrical (usually platinum or copper) which
resistance, measured in ohms (Ω), always increase in resistance with
increases. increasing temperature. The major
 RTD elements are commonly specified difference between thermistors and
according to their resistance in ohms at RTDs is linearity: thermistors are highly
zero degrees Celsius (0° C). The most sensitive and nonlinear, whereas RTDs
common RTD specification is 100 Ω, are relatively insensitive but very linear.
Pyrometers thermistor or photomultiplier tubes. Thus, the
 Pyrometers also called as Radiation heat energy is converted to its corresponding
Thermometers was invented by Josiah electrical signal by the detector and is sent to the
Wedgwood. They are non-contact output temperature display device.
temperature sensors that measure
temperature from the amount of B. Optical Pyrometer
thermal electromagnetic radiation - Optical Pyrometers work on the basic
received from a spot on the object of principle of using human eye to match
measurement. Pyrometers are mainly the brightness of the hot object to the
divided to two types: brightness of the calibrated lamp
a.) Radiation Pyrometers filament inside the instrument.
b.) Optical Pyrometers - In an optical pyrometer, a brightness
comparison is made to measure the
 Pyrometers are used to measure the temperature. As a measure of the
temperature which is difficult to reference temperature, a color change
measure. They are non-contact devices, with the growth in temperature is taken.
used to measure temperature above The device compares the brightness
1500 degree Celsius, contact devices produced by the radiation of the object
may melt at this temperature. whose temperature is to be measured,
with that of a reference temperature.
A. Radiation Pyrometers - The reference temperature is produced
- A radiation pyrometer also referred as by a lamp whose brightness can be
infrared (IR) thermometer is a adjusted till its intensity becomes equal
noncontact radiant energy detector. to the brightness of the source object.
Every object in the world radiates IR The radiation
energy. The amount of radiant energy - The radiation from the source is emitted
emitted is proportional to the and the optical objective lens captures it.
temperature of an object. Noncontact The lens helps in focusing the thermal
thermometers measure the intensity of radiation on to the reference bulb. The
the radiant energy and produce a signal observer watches the process through
proportional to the target temperature. the eye piece and corrects it in such a
The physics behind this broadcasting of manner that the reference lamp filament
energy is called Planck’s Law of Thermal has a sharp focus and the filament is
Radiation. super-imposed on the temperature
source image.
As shown in the figure, the radiation pyrometer - The observer starts changing the
has an optical system, including a lens, a mirror rheostat values and the current in the
and an adjustable eye piece. The heat energy reference lamp changes. This in turn,
emitted from the hot body is passed on to the changes its intensity.
optical lens, which collects it and is focused on to
the detector with the help of the mirror and eye
piece arrangement. The detector may either be a
 This change in current can be observed in INFRARED SENSORS: can be used to measure
three different ways. temperature higher than of any other devices
1. The filament is dark. That is, cooler than the and without direct contact with the surface being
temperature source. measured. However, they are not as accurate
2. Filament is bright. That is, hotter than the and are sensitive to surface radiation efficiency.
temperature source.
3. Filament disappears. Thus, there is equal
brightness between the filament and
temperature source. At this time, the current
that flows in the reference lamp is measured, as
its value is a measure of the temperature of the
radiated light in the temperature source, when
calibrated.

 Mechanical Temperature Measuring

Devices are simple to use but limited in
application due to the construction,
temperature range and function. Quite
durable and in some extent reliable.

Summary:

THERMOCOUPLE: Generally, can measure

temperatures over wide temperature ranges,
inexpensively and are very rugged, but they are
not as accurate or stable as RTD’s and
Thermistors.

RTD’s: are stable and have a fairly wide

temperature range but not as rugged and
inexpensive as thermocouples. Since they
require the use of electric current to make
measurements, RTD’s are subjective in
accuracies from self-heating.

THERMISTOR: tend to be more accurate than

RTD’s or thermocouples, but they have a much
more limited temperature range. They are also
subject to self heating.