Procedure;

 Place a sheet of paper on top of a bar magnet.

 Sprinkle iron filings thinly and evenly onto the paper.
 Tap the paper gently.

Observations:
The iron filings should form patterns of the lines of force. Each filing turns in the direction of the field
when the paper is tapped.This method is quick but no use for weak fields.
Typical Field Patterns

a) Single bar magnet

b) Combined magnetic field due to two neighbouring magnets can also be plotted to give patterns
like those shown below.

In figure a, where two like poles are facing each other, the
point X is called neutral point.
At X the field due to one magnet cancels out that due to
other and there are no lines of force.

ELECTROMAGNETS

An electromagnet is a coil of wire wound on a soft iron or Mumetal core.

NB. If an electric current is passed through a wire, a weak magnetic field is produced. The field has three
features:

 The magnetic field lines are circular

 The field is strongest close to the wire
 Increasing the current increases the strength of the field

The direction of the

magnetic field
produced by a
current is given by
RIGHT HAND
GRIP RULE, as on
the figure above.
A current produces a
stronger magnetic
field in a solenoid
than in one straight
wire. The magnetic

72
field by a current-carrying coil has these features:

 The field is similar to that of a bar magnet, and there are magnetic poles at the ends of the
coil.
 Increasing the current increases the strength of magnetic field
 Increasing the number of turns on the coil increases the strength of the field

Unlike an ordinary permanent magnet, an electromagnet can be switched on or off. When current flows
through the coil, it produces a magnetic field. This
magnetizes the core, creating a magnetic field about a
thousand times stronger the coil by itself. With an iron or
Mumetal core, the magnetism is only temporary, and is lost
as soon as the current is switched off. Steel would not be
suitable as a core because it would become permanently
magnetized.

USES OF ELECTROMAGNETS

a) The magnetic relay

When the switch S in the input

circuit is closed, a current flows
through the electromagnet. This
pulls the iron armature towards
it, which closes the contacts C.
As a result the current flows
through the motor.

b) The circuit breaker

A circuit breaker is an automatic switch which cuts off the current in a

circuit if this rises above a specified value. It has the same effect as a fuse
but, unlike a fuse, can be reset after it has tripped.
In the type shown here, the current flows through two contacts and also
through an electromagnet. If the current gets too high, the pull of the
electromagnet becomes strong enough to release the iron catch, so the
contacts open and stop the current. Pressing the reset button closes the
contacts again.

73
c) Electric bell

An electric bell contains an electromagnet that repeatedly switches itself off and on rapidly, moving the bell
hammer as it does so. The arrangement is called a ‘make or break’ circuit. When you press the switch,
current flows through the electromagnet, which pulls the hammer across so that it strikes the gong. The
movement separates the contacts and switches off the electromagnet. So the hammer springs back, the
contacts close, the electromagnet pulls the hammer across again….. and so on.

USES OF PERMANENT MAGNETS

 Loudspeakers
 Generators
 Ammeter
 Electric drill

MAGNETIC SHIELDING

Magnetic materials affect magnetic field

in which it is placed. The lines of force
are drawn towards the magnetic
material as shown below. For diagrams
a) and b) the bar magnet induces
magnetism in the soft iron materials. In
diagram c) the lines of force moves
along the material of the iron ring and
do not pass through the space in the
middle of the ring. A plotting compass
placed in the middle of the ring does not
experience any magnetic effect of the
bar magnet. This effect is called
magnetic shielding.

74
Exercises:

Q1. The diagram below shows an electromagnet and I is the convectional current flowing in the circuit.

a) What is the method used to locate the poles of the bar magnet called?
b) Describe the method identified above in (a).
c) Use the method to label the poles resulting in the iron bar.
d) What factors affect the strength of an electromagnet?

Q2. The diagrams below show the direction of magnetic force between two ends of bar magnets.

a) What are the polarities at

(i) a is ----------------------pole
(ii) b is ----------------------pole
b) What is position X called?
c) Describe and explain what would happen when a few iron filings are placed at point X.

d) Complete the field pattern between the poles of bar magnets below by indicating the direction of
the magnetic force.

Q3. The diagram below shows two soft iron nails hanging from the end of a magnet.

a) What is the effect that the magnet has on the nails

called?
b) What are the poles at the free ends the nails?
c) What would happen when another nail is brought in
very close to the free ends of the nails? Explain.
d) What is difference between the magnetic properties of
iron and steel?
e) What is likely to happen between the free ends of the
iron nails in the diagram below?

75
f) What are the polarities at
(i) a is ----------------pole
(ii) b is ----------------pole

Q4. The diagram below shows a method of magnetizing a steel bar.

a) On the diagram above

(i) Show the direction of the
current.
(ii) Label the north pole of
magnetized steel bar.
b) Explain how you arrived at your answer to
(a) (ii).
c) State two uses of an electromagnet.
d) What would be the effect of using a soft iron
bar instead of steel bar?

Q5.The diagram below shows a method of magnetization.

a) Name the method.

b) What pole is induced at B?
c) The diagram below shows a bar magnet that is then cut into halves. Label the poles
of the halves and explain how you arrived at the labeling.

76
Illustration: Magnetic screening by soft iron hollow box

Q6. a) What is magnetic shielding and the material used in magnetic shielding?
b) State one application of magnetic shielding.

77
 ELECTRICITY

ELECTROSTATIC (STATIC ELECTRICITY)

All matter contain many electrons. When some of them are transferred from the surface of one object to the
surface of another, they produce what is known as static electricity.

Static electricity is transfer of charge (electrons)

STATIC CHARGE
This refers to charge that is not moving. The charge is absorbed in materials that have very few free
electrons.
If a sweater is taken off a crackling sound may be heard and, if in dark, may see sparks. A person
sometimes feels an electric shock after walking across a nylon carpet.
In these examples you have become charged by friction (rubbing). There is a transfer of electrons between
you and your sweater or you and the carpet.

 If a material gains electrons it becomes negatively charged.

 If electrons are lost the body becomes positively charged.

TYPES OF ELECTRICAL CHARGE

There are types of electrical charges, namely;
a) Negative charge (-) -which is carried by an electron.
b) Positive charge (+) – which is carried by a proton.
The SI unit of charge is the coulomb (C). Coulomb is the quantity of electric charge. The symbol of charge
is Q.
Example
If a polythene is rubbed with a duster it becomes negatively charged (gains electrons), but if an acetate or
perplex rod is rubbed with the same duster it becomes positively charged (looses electrons). Why does this
happen?
Explanation
In an atom negatively charged electrons orbit a small but massive nucleus that contains positively charged
protons and uncharged neutrons. The size of the charge on an electron is equal in size to the charge on a
proton. There are equal number of electrons and protons, so an atom is uncharged (electrically neutral).

Therefore, when polythene is rubbed with a duster, electrons rub off the duster more easily than they rub
off the polythene. The polythene therefore gains electrons and becomes negatively charged. The duster
looses electrons and becomes positively charged. However the duster is not a good insulator and electrons
from the earth quickly pass through the hand that holds it and neutralise the positive charge.

Exercise: Explain how the acetate rod

acquires the positive charge and how and
why the duster remains uncharged
(neutral). Use diagram b).

N.B.*only electrons can move between

rubbed objects.
*rubbing materials together does not make
electrical charge. It just separates charges that
are already there.
*a negatively charged object has atoms which
have more electrons than protons.
*a positively charged object has atoms which
have fewer electrons than protons.

78
Forces between Charges

Procedure:
 Rub two polythene rods with a cloth
 Balance the two charged polythene rods on pivots.
 Bring another charged polythene rod near one polythene rod and a charged perplex rod
near another charged polythene rod.

Observations:

Conclusion: Like charges repel; unlike

charges attract (This statement is
sometimes called the Law of electric
charges)

INDUCED CHARGE (ELECTROSTATIC INDUCTION)

Charges that “appear” on objects because there is a charged object nearby are called induced charges.

Example of Electrostatic InductioN

The example below shows how induced charge may result in attraction.

The diagram on the left shows what happens if a positively charged rod is brought
near a small piece of aluminium foil. Electrons in the foil are pulled towards the rod
which leaves the bottom of the foil with a net positive charge. As a result, the top of
the foil is attracted to the rod, while the bottom is repelled. However, the attraction
is stronger because the attracting charges are closer than the repelling ones.

Exercise: Draw the arrangement of positive and

negative charges in the spherical ball and explain the
observation thus made.

DETECTION OF CHARGE

Electrostatic charge can be detected using a gold leaf electroscope as shown

below.
If a charged object is placed near the cap, charges are induced in the
electroscope. Those in the gold leaf and metal plate repel, so the leaf rises.
Illustration: Gold Leaf detecting charge

79
 CONDUCTORS AND INSULATORS

Conductors: are materials that let electrons pass them. Metals are the best electrical conductors. Some of
their electrons are so loosely held to their atoms that they can pass freely between them (metals generally
have a sea of electrons). These free electrons also make metals good thermal conductors. eg silver, gold,
copper , aluminium

Insulators: These are materials that hardly conduct at all. Their electrons are tightly held to atoms and are
not free to move, although they can be transferred through rubbing. Carbon is the only non metal that
conducts electricity in the form graphite.

Charge Distribution on Different-Shaped Conductors

The amount of charge that accumulates at any given point on a surface depends on the curvature at that
point. The greater the curvature i.e. the smaller the radius, the greater the charge concentration at that point.
There is therefore a
greater concentration of
charge at the pointed end
of a pear-shaped
conductor.

Effects of Discharging of Static Charge

A common example of discharging is the occurrence of lightning.

A tall building is protected by a lightning conductor consisting of a thick copper strip on
the out side of the building connecting metal spikes at the top to a metal plate in the
ground, figure below.
Thunderclouds carry charges and a negatively charged one passing overhead repels
electrons from the spikes to the earth. The points of the spikes are left with a large
positive charge (charge concentrates on sharp points) which removes electrons from
near by air molecules, so charging them positively and causing them to be repelled from
the spike. This effect, called action at points, results in an ‘electric wind’ of positive air
molecules streaming upwards to cancel some of the charge on the clouds. If a flash does
occur it is less violent and the conductor gives it an easy path to ground.

80
Electric fields and forces

We have seen that a charged object can affect other objects nearby without touching them. This action at a
distance can be explained by what is called the electric field of the charged object.

An electric charge sets up an electric field in the space surrounding it and an electric force is exerted on any
charged body placed on the field. Electric fields may be represented by electric field lines.

 An electric field line is a line drawn in an electric field such that its direction at any point
gives the direction of the electric field at that point.
 The direction of an electric field at any point is the direction of the force on a small positive
charge placed at the point.
 Such a small (point) positive charge would be repelled by positive charge and be attracted to
negative charge.

Electric field of point positive and negative charges

Interaction of Unlike and Like charges

Attraction repulsion

Unlike charges like charges

Below are two parallel electrodes with unlike charges, the arrows show the direction of the electric field.
When he electric fields line are closer it shows a stronger electric field.

81
 Exercises
1.

2.

3. Two metal spheres supported by insulating stands are held in

contact to each other and a negatively charged rod placed near
sphere B as shown.
a) Draw the induced charges in both sphere and explain how
this chare distribution results. [5]
b) The spheres are separated by their stands while the
negatively charged rod is in proximity of sphere B. Draw
the net charges in the separate spheres after they are
separated. [4]

4. A positively charged rod is brought near the cap of a gold leaf electroscope as shown below.

On the left side of the diagram above indicate by a diagram the possible observation made and charge
arrangement in the gold leaf. Explain the arrangement in terms of charge movement. [8]

82
 5. The diagram shows a light uncharged aluminium ball suspended with an
insulating thread. A negatively charged plate is held near the ball.

What happens to the ball?

A It moves towards the plate.
B It moves away from the plate.
C It will swing to and fro next to the plate.
D It does not move.

6. The diagram below shows a negatively charged strip held near a metal rod, EF.

Which statement correctly describes the movement of charge?

A. The positive charge in the charged strip

moves towards E.
B. The positive charge in the metal rod
moves towards E.
C. The negative charge in the metal rod
toward F.
D. The negative charge in the metal rod
moves towards E.

6. An aircraft flies below a negatively charged thunder cloud. Movement of free electrons
causes electrostatic charges to be induced in the aircraft.

a) Show the positions and signs of the induced charges

on the aircraft. [2]
b) Explain, in terms of the movement of electrons, the
distribution of the charges you have shown. [1]

_______________________________________________

c) What will happen to the induced charges when the aircraft flies away from the
cloud? [1]

83
 CURRENT ELECTRICITY

Common Circuitry symbols

ELECTRIC CURRENT

Electric current is the rate of flow of charge or electrons.

 The electrons move from negative terminal to the positive terminal.
 The moving electrons are the loosely held or valence electrons.

The charge that produces attraction and repulsion between charged objects also produce electric currents
when it flows in conductors.

Electric charge can flow continuously only round unbroken conducting paths called closed circuits.

The quantity of electric charge Q is measured in Coulombs (symbol C)


1 C = 1/1.6*10-19 electrons
 6*1018 electrons = 1C

The size or ‘strength’ of an electric current, I, is measured in amperes (symbol A).

Relationship between I and Q

Current = Charge / time

OR

I=Q/t

A current of 1 ampere is a flow of charge at a rate of one coulomb per second.

Example
If a charge of 180C flows through a lamp every 2 minutes, what is the electric current in the lamp?
Q = 180C
t = 2 minutes = 2*60s = 120s
using I = Q/t  I = 180C/120s = 1.5A

84
A battery circulates charge round a circuit for 30s. If the current in the circuit is 5A, what quantity of
charge passes through the battery?

Q= It =5A*30s =5C/s*30s = 150C

Current direction

Some circuit diagrams have arrowheads marked on them. These show the conventional current ( I )
direction: the direction from + to – round the circuit. Electrons actually flow the other way.

Illustration: direction of conventional current

TYPES OF CIRCUITS

There are two types of circuits, namely;

a) Series circuit: A circuit that contains only one path.
b) Parallel circuit: A circuit with more than one path.
Illustration: Series and Parallel Circuits

Current Measurement

Ammeters, as their name suggest, are ‘amp meters’ and measure current in amperes. The ampere (A) is
the SI unit of current. The current may be measured with an ammeter placed in series with other electrical
appliances. An ammeter has a low resistance, so that it introduces as little resistance as possible in a circuit.
Rem: the symbol for ammeter is

An ammeter has both negative and positive terminals and should be connected in series with other
electrical components observing polarity. There are ammeters with different ranges as illustrated below.

85
Measurement of Current in Series Circuit

Connect the circuit as shown below. Measure current at different positions (1, 2, 3, etc).

Results : Typical results

Position Current (A)

Hence ; A= A1=A2=A3
Conclusion: Current is the same at every point in a series circuit.

86
 Measurement of Current in Parallel Circuit
Connect the circuit as shown in the figure and measure current in the respective paths and compare them.

Electromotive force (e.m.f)

In a cell or battery (or other sources of electrical energy) chemical changes take place which produce
energy needed to drive charge round the circuit.

The electromotive force is defined as the total energy expended (work done) per coulomb of electricity
when charge is driven form negative terminal to positive terminal inside the cell. Work is done against
electric field which is directed from positive terminal to negative terminal.

e.m.f is measured in volts, e.m.f is normally denoted with E.

E is always greater than V unless no charge flows on the circuit, when E = V.

There is a step of energy from the negative to the positive terminal which is obtained from the chemical
reaction in the cell. This step-up of energy puts the positive terminal at a high potential difference to drive
the charge round the circuit.

The energy per coulomb required to drive the charge from positive to the negative terminal in the external
circuit is the potential difference (p.d).

Potential difference (p.d)

In electric potential, work is done against electric field when charge is moved from a lower potential level
to a higher potential level. The difference between the two levels is known as the potential difference
(p.d) or voltage, and is measured in volts (V).

If one joule of work is done in moving one coulomb of charge between two points, then the p.d between the
two points is one volt.

OR

The p.d between two points in a circuit is one volt if one joule of electrical energy is transferred to other
forms of energy when one coulomb passes from one point to other.
i.e.

Volt = Joule/ Coulomb

In symbols

V = W/Q {energy per unit charge}

It follows from the definition that, if 2C of charge is moved between two points, 2J work is done.

87
V = W/Q but Q = It
Substituting Q, we get;

V = W/t *1/I

Therefore p.d may also be defined as the rate of dissipation of energy per
unit current .

OR

W = V*I*t

Voltages round circuits

a) Series

The voltage at terminals of a battery equals the sum of the voltages across the devices in the external
circuit from one battery terminal to the other.

V = V1 + V 2 + V 3

b) Parallel

The voltages across devices in parallel in a circuit are equal.

V = V1 = V 2

C) Cells in series

V = V1 + V 2 + V 3

88
Greater voltages are obtained by connecting cells in series.
d) cells in parallel

If two 1.5V cells are connected in parallel as above, the voltage at terminals P,Q
is still 1.5 V but the arrangement behaves like a large cell and will last longer.
Voltmeters

A voltmeter is used to measure the p.d between two points in a circuit, so

obviously it should be placed in parallel (or across) with whatever is between the
two points. Including the voltmeter in a circuit must not alter the p.d it is
supposed to measure.

Voltmeters like ammeters have polarity, i.e. + (red) of the voltmeter is connected to the + of the power
source, similarly – (black) of the voltmeter to the – of the power source.

Rule: a voltmeter should have a very large resistance and be

connected in parallel.

Reading voltmeters
Voltmeters have different ranges and scales depending on the amount of voltage it is intended to be
measured.
i.e.

Resistance

89
Electrons move more easily through some conductors than others when p.d is applied. The opposition of a
conductor to current is called resistance. A good conductor has low resistance and a poor conductor has
high resistance.

The resistance is where the electrons give up the p.d they carry from the battery (power source). E.g. the
resistance of a lamp causes the electrical energy to change to other forms, such as heat and light. If a lamp
filament had no resistance, no energy change could occur in it and it would not light up.

Experiment

Title: Investigation of Ohm’s law, by measuring resistance using ammeter and voltmeter.

Apparatus:

 ammeter
 voltmeter
 rheostat
 fixed resister
 connecting wires
 battery

Procedure:

 Arrange apparatus as shown below.

 After closing the switch, adjust the rheostat (variable resistor) until a suitable current, I, is
recorded on the ammeter.
 Record both this reading and the readings of I and V. suitable values of I are 0.2, 0.4, 0.6, 0.8 and
1.0 A.
 Tabulate the results in a table and calculate the value V/I.
 Plot a graph of V against I
 Draw a conclusion

Results and analysis

Voltage (V) /V Current I /A V/I = R (Ω)

0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0

Graph of V us I

Gradient = V / I which is the resistance.

Note: Ohm’s law is R = V/ I.

The three quantities are related as shown in the triangle
below.

90
The ohm is the resistance of a conductor through which the current is 1 A flow when the p.d. between the
ends is 1 volt.
Examples

1. If a current of 4A flows through a car headlamp when it is connected to 12V car battery, providing
a voltage of 12V across the lamp, what is its resistance?
Solution:
  4 A, V  12V
12V
R V   3
I 4A
2. What voltage would be needed to drive a current of 0.2A through a torch lamp of resistance
22.5  ?
Solution:
R  22.5, I  0.2 A
V  I  R  0.2 A  22.5  4.5V
3. What is the resistance of the resistor?

1.5V
R V   0.3
I 5A

Factors Affecting the Resistance of a Conductor (Wire)

The resistance of a conductor depends on three two factors or properties:

a) its dimensions (length and cross section area)
b) the type of material or nature of substance
c) temperature
Experiments have shown that the resistance of a wire of a given material is

(i) directly proportional to the length  ie. R   .

It therefore follows that a long wire should have more resistance than a short wire of the same
material.
(ii) Inversely proportional to its cross-section area A, ie R 1 .
A
This means that a thick wire has low resistance while a thin wire has high resistance of the same
material.
Combining (i) and (ii) gives

where: R is the resistance (in  )

 (in  m ) is a constant , called the resistivity of a material.
A is cross sectional area (in m2)

91
  is ht length of material (in m)
Resistors in series

,
Resistors shwon are in series, the same
current I flows through each and the
total voltage V across all three equals
the separate voltages across them, i.e.

V = V1 + V2 + V3 ………..1

But VI = IR1, V2 = IR2, V3 = IR3

………….2

Substituting equation 2 in 1, we get:

V = IR1 + IR2 + IR3, since R is the combined resistance we can write,

IR = IR1 + IR2 + IR3

Dividing by I through out we get:

R = R 1 + R2 + R3

Resistors in parallel

In general the effective resistance of resistors in parallel is given by;

1 1 1 1
   .......
R R1 R2 RN
where N represent the number of resistors or the Nth resistor.
Internal Resistance

Rem: Work is done against electric field which inside the cell to drive charge from negative to positive
terminal. There is therefore some internal resistance r of the electrolyte within the cell.

Illustration: Internal resistance, r

92
Exercise
The diagram below shows the structure of a mains light bulb.

a) What effect of electricity is used during by the light bulb in

operation?
b) Write the main energy changes in the bulb?
c) What is the purpose of using a coiled wire filament?

COLOUR CODED RESISTORS

Practical resistors have colour codes representing their values. The
first three colours give the 1st digit, 2nddigit and the3rd number of
zeros, the fourth one if available give tolerance and normally: silver =
10%, gold = 5%, red = 2% and brown = 1%.

Summary on colour codes fro resistors

colour 1st band =1st digit 2nd band = 2nd digit 3rd band = zeros
black 0 0 none
brown 1 1 one
red 2 2 two
orange 3 3 three
yellow 4 4 four
green 5 5 five
blue 6 6 six
violet 7 7 seven
grey 8 8 eight
white 9 9 nine

Example: What is the value of a resistor colour coded violet green orange gold?
violet green orange gold
7 5 000  5%
The value of the resistor is 750005%
Exercise:
a) What is the value of resistor colour coded grey white white silver ?

b) Give the colour code of a 24 M 10% resistor.

I / V Graphs: Ohm’s law

a) Metallic conductors (Ohmic conductors)

Metals and some alloys give I-V graphs which are a straight line through the origin, so long as temperature
is constant. I is directly proportional to V i.e. I α V. Doubling V doubles I, etc. Such conductors obey
Ohm’s law, stated as follows;

The current through a metallic conductor is directly proportional to the voltage

93
 across its ends if the temperature and other conditions are constant.

They are called Ohmic or Linear conductor and since I  V , it follows that V  a constant. The
I
resistance of an Ohmic conductor therefore does not change when voltage does.

b) Non-Ohmic conductors
Non-Ohmic materials have a non-linear I  V relationship’. One common semi conducting device that
has non-linear I  V characteristics is the junction diode (semiconductors)
The resistance for this device is low for currents in one direction and high for currents in the reverse
direction. In fact, most modern electronic devices, such as transistors, have non-linear current – potential
difference relationships; their proper operation depends on the particular way I which they violate ohm’s
law.

Limitations of Ohms law

Ohmic resistors will become non-ohmic if they become

very hot.. Under normal working conditions a resistor is
ohmic, its résistance does not depend on the current or
the p.d. applied to it. If too much current flows through
the resistor, it will become too hot and its resistance will
start to increase as shown below.

For ‘normal’ currents (0 to X) the resistor is ohmic (i.e p.d. is directly proportional to I). If the current
exceeds X, the resistor starts to heat up and become non-Ohmic (i.e p.d. is no longer proportional to I).

EXERCISES
1) Study the circuit below and answer the following questions.

a) Find I1 and I3.

b) Find the p.d. across
(i) R1 , R2
c) Find R1 and R2.
2) The figures a) and b) below show some electrical components connected
together. Draw the same circuits using electrical symbols.

94
 PRACTICAL ELECTRIC CIRCUITRY

ELECTRIC POWER

Power is the rate at which energy is transformed (changed from one form to another). The SI unit of power
is the watt (W).

W
and in symbols P  but W  IVt
t

IVt
P  or or
t

Note that W  E  IVt

E must be in joules, I in amperes and V in volts.

Examples

1. Calculate the power of the lamp in the circuit below.

Solution:

95
 To calculate power of an electrical appliance , multiply the current I through it by the p.d. across it.
I  0.25 A
V  240V
P  IV
 0.25 A  240V

 60W
The lamp is transferring 60J of electrical energy into heat and light each second.

2. How much electrical energy in joules does a 100 watt lamp transfer in
a) 1 second
b) 5 seconds
c) 1 minute
solutions:

3. What is the power of an appliance rated 12V 3A?

Solution:
I  3 A, V  12V
P  I V  3A 12V  36W
4. How many joules of electrical energy are transferred per second by a 6V 0.5A lamp?

Solution:
I  0.5 A,V  6V
P  I V  0.5 A 6V  3.0W
3 joules are transferred per second.

PAYING FOR ELECTRICITY

Electrical supply companies use the kilowatt-hour (kWh), rather than the joule-second as their unit of
energy measurement.
One kilowatt-hour (kWh) is the energy supplied when an appliance whose power rating 1kW is used for 1
hour.
Energy in kilowatt hours is calculated as follows:

96
Note: 1kJ=1kWh
Example:
What is the energy supplied to a 2kW heater used for 3 hours?

 2kW  3hr  6kWh

The cost of electricity

The cost of running individual electrical appliances can be calculated as follows.

Note: a unit of electricity= 1kWh.

Example: The energy cost per unit is 10 thebe. Calculate the cost of using
a) an electrical fire rated 3kW for 5 hours.
Solution:
Cost  Energy Supplied  Cost per Unit

 3kW  5h  
10thebe
 150thebe
kWh
b) 5 50w bulbs for 12 hours.
Cost  Energy Supplied  Cost per Unit
Energy Supplied  Power  time
 5  60W  12h  0.3kW  12h  3.6kWh  3.6units
 Cost  Energy Supplied  Cost per Unit
10thebe
 3.6units   36thebe
unit
c) a 1200w hairdryer for 15 minutes.
1
Power  1200W  1.2kW , time  15minutes  h
4
Energy Supplied  Power  time
1
 1.2kW  h  0.3kWh  0.3units
4
 Cost  Energy Supplied  Cost per Unit
10thebe
 0.3units   3thebe
unit
ELECTRICAL HAZARDS AND SAFE USE OF ELECTRICITY

USES OF ELECTRICITY

These are some of the many uses of electricity:

(a) Lighting
(b) Operation of machines

97
 (c) Security
(d) Communication (e.g telephones)
(e)
ELECTRICAL HAZARDS

These are conditions and situations that make the use of electricity unsafe or dangerous.

The main electrical hazards are: (i) damaged insulation

(ii) overheating of cables
(iii) damp conditions
(iv) overloading of sockets

1. If cables are worn (insulation stripped off) and only a few strands are carrying current, then the
resistance becomes much higher. The wire becomes hot when current passes through and could
cause fire.
2. Overloading of cables is often due to putting too many appliances in one mains socket. If all
appliances are used at once, then a large current will flow, which will overheat the cable, leading
to fire outbreak.
3. Damp conditions: If your hand or body is wet, the body resistance decreases. If you then touch a
bare wire the current is likely to flow through you causing either severe burning or heart attack.
For this reason, toilet or bathroom switches are either pull cords or outside the room.

ELECTRICAL SAFETY
FUSE

Symbol:

Function: To protect appliances from excessive (overload of) current.

How it works: A fuse is a wire made of a material with low melting point. If a fuse is part of the circuit,
the metal will eventually melt as it overheats due to increase in current, and break the circuit. Current will
then stop flowing because of the gap which results thereafter. Fuses must be connected to the Live wire.
This ensures that when the fuse melts, the appliance is isolated from the live terminal.

FUSE RATINGS

Plugs are normally fitted with 3A or 13A fuses. The value printed on the fuse tells the value of current
needed to “blow” (melt) the fuse. A fuse rated 3A will melt when a current of 3A flows through it. A fuse
rated 13A will melt when a current of 13A flows through it, and so on.

Note: The value of the fuse should always be more than the actual current drawn by the appliance,
but as close as possible.
THE EARTH WIRE

Function: safety and prevention of electrical shocks.

How it works: Most appliances are connected to the wire called the EARTH WIRE. One end of the earth
wire is connected to the metal case of the appliances. The other end is connected via the wall sockets to the
metal pipe outside the house, then to the ground.

The earth wire provides a path of zero electrical resistance from the case of the appliance to the ground. If
the earth wire accidentally touches the metal case of the appliance, a large current will flow through
the earth wire and the fuse will melt, isolating the appliance. Without the earth wire the case would
become live and anyone touching it would have a dangerous electric shock.

DOUBLE INSULATION

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Most modern appliances have plastic cases. There is no risk of getting shock from a plastic case since it is
an insulator. Such materials are said to have a double insulation because:
(i) The live and neutral wires are covered in an insulating sheet(plastic)
(ii) The appliance itself is covered by an insulating case.

THE THREE PIN MAINS PLUG

The three pin mains plug has three pins connected to Live, Neutral and Earth wires.
The diagram below shows a correctly wired three pin mains plug.

LIVE wire (It is brow in colour): This is the most dangerous wire which carries and brings alternating
current (a.c.) at a high voltage.

NEUTRAL wire (It is Blue in colour): After the appliance the current flows through the neutral wire. The
voltage is zero in the neutral wire. It completes the circuit.

EARTH wire (It is Green or Green with Yellow stripes in colour): It conducts current leaks into the ground
and stops electric shocks.

The diagram below shows how the wires of the three pin plug fit into an electrical appliance.

A HOUSE ELECTRICITY SUPPLY

99
The house has two or three ring main circuits, which supply all the wall sockets. On each ring main there
usually about ten sockets. Notice that all the sockets are in parallel, so the full mains voltage is supplied to
everything that is plugged into the socket. The advantage of using a ring main circuit is that current can
flow two ways into a particular socket. So the connecting wires can be thinner, because they carry a smaller
current than they would do otherwise.
In addition the live and neutral wires, the ring main circuit carries an earth wire ( for safety reasons).

The lights of a house have their own circuit. Again each light fitting is in parallel, so that each light bulb
receives the mains voltage of 240 V. Light bulbs draw a small current (about 0.4 A for a 100W bulb) so
about ten lights can be safely run through a 5 A fuse.

Note: all fuses are connected to the live wire.

Fault finding

When an appliance stops working it may be due to a fault that is easy to rectify. Before running helter
skelter looking for a technician, it is wise to try to diagnose a fault.

100
Diagnostic steps;
 Check that the appliance is switched on.
 Check that the power is on,. Do other appliances work
 Check the fuse. If it is blown replace it. If the new fuse blows check for a short circuit.
 Check that the plug is correctly connected, with no loose wires or untidy strands of wire sticking
out.
 Check that the cable connection to the appliance is firm
 Check that the insulation is in good condition. If it looks worn or torn replace it with a similar
cable.

If after checking all the above, the appliance is still not working, take it to a trained technician.

ELECTROMAGNETIC EFFECTS
Electromagntic Induction

1) Induced e.m.f. and current in a moving a) wire and b)coil

When a wire is moved across a magnetic field, as shown below, a small e.m.f (voltage) is generated in the
wire. The effect is called ELECTREOMAGNETIC INDUCTION. Strictly speaking we say ‘an e.m.f is
induced in the wire’. If the wire forms part of a complete circuit, the e.m.f makes current to flow and can be
detected by a galvanometer which is sensitive to small currents. The pointer moves to the right or left of the
zero depending on the direction of the current.

Note
The induced e.m.f or current can be increased by:
 moving the wire faster
 using a stronger magnet
 increasing the length of the wire in the magnetic field – for example, by looping the wire through
the field several times, as shown above.

2) Induced e.m.f. and current in a coil due to a moving magnet

If a bar magnet is pushed into a coil, as shown below, an e.m.f is induced in the coil. In this case, it is the
magnetic field that is moving rather than the wire, but the results are the same; magnetic filed lines are
being cut.

101
The induced e.m.f or current can be increased by:
 moving the magnet faster
 using a stronger magnet
 increasing the number of turns of the coil(as this increases the length of the wire cutting through
the magnetic field)

Direction of induced current

The direction of the induced current depends on the following factors.

 the direction of motion of the wire
 magnetic field direction
The direction of current can be predicted using FLEMING’S RUGHT HAND RULE as shown in the
diagram below.

Note
Experiments with the magnet and the coil have also given the following results
 If the magnet is pulled out of the coil, the direction of the induced e.m.f (and current) is reversed.
 If the S pole is used rather than the N pole is pushed into the coil, this also reverses the current
direction.
 If the magnet is held still, no magnetic filed lines are cut, so there is no induced e.m.f or current.

GENERATORS

Most of the electricity comes from huge generators in power stations. There are small generators in cars
and some in bicycles. These generators, or dynamos, all use the electromagnetic induction. When turned,
they induce an e.m.f (voltage) which can make current to flow. Most generators give out alternating current
(a.c.)

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A SIMPLE A.C GENERATOR (alternator)

Illustration: A.C generator

A simple a.c generator consists of a rectangular coil between the poles of a magnet. The ends of the coil are
joined to a two slip rings on the axle. Carbon brushes press against the slip rings.

How it works

The figure above shows the design of a very simple alternating current ( a.c.) generator. By turning the
axle you can make a coil of wire move through (cut ) a magnetic field. This causes a voltage ( EMF ) to be
induced between the ends of the coil ( this makes a current to flow). The slip rings are fixed to the coil and
rotate with it. The brushes are two contacts which rub against the slip rings and keep the coil connected to
the outside part of the circuit.

You can see how the voltage waveform, produced by this generator, looks on an oscilloscope screen.

103
  In position ( i ) the coil is vertical with AB and CD. In this position the sides CD and AB are
moving parallel the magnetic field. No voltage is generated since the wires are not cutting across
the magnetic field lines.
 When the coil has been rotated through a ¼ turn to position ( ii ), the coil produces its greatest
voltage. Now the sides CD and AB are cutting through the magnetic field at the greatest rate.
 In position ( iii ), the coil is again vertical and no voltage is produced.
 In position ( iv ) a maximum voltage is produced, but in the opposite direction. Side AB is moving
upwards and side CD downwards.

The following all increase the maximum EMF ( and current ):

 Increasing the number of turns in the coil

 Increasing the area of the coil
 Using a stronger magnet
 Rotating the coil faster

Faster rotation also increases the frequency of the a.c.

THE TRANSFORMER

Symbol:

Function: To increase (step up) or decrease (step down) voltage supplied to appliances.

Structure: A transformer is made up of two cols of insulated copper wire wrapped around a laminated soft
iron core. An alternating current is supplied to the primary coil and an alternating e.m.f and current is
induced in the secondary coil.

Illustration: Transformer

104
How it works: The transformer has two coils wound around the same iron core.

The primary coil is an electromagnet: if an alternating current flows through the coil a magnetic field is
produced around it and the iron core becomes magnetized. Since the current is constantly changing in size
and direction, the field is also constantly changing.
The secondary coil is wound around the same iron core. The changing magnetic field from the
electromagnet induces an e.m.f in the secondary coil. The induced current will also alternate because the
field is always changing.

Note: the transformer only works when an alternating current is supplied. The output e.m.f and current will
also be alternating, and with the same frequency as the supply current.

Step-up and step-down transformers:

When the primary and secondary coils have exactly the same number of turns the output voltage will be
exactly the same as the input voltage.

If the secondary (output) coil has more turns than the primary (input) coil the output voltage will be higher
than the input voltage. The transformer has increased the voltage. This type of a transformer is called a step
up transformer.

If the secondary (output) coil has fewer turns than the primary (input) coil the output voltage will be
reduced. This type of transformer is called a step down transformer.

Illustration: Step up/down transformers

105
The transformer Equation

The relationship between the voltages and number of turns in the coils is given by;

Example: A transformer has 1000 turns on the primary coil and 2500 turns on the secondary coil.
(a) Is this a step up or step down transformer? Step up
(b) If the transformer is used on a 220 V mains supply, what will be the output voltage?

Solution;
V p  220V
Vs  ?

Np

Vp

1000 220V
  Vs 
220V  2500  550V
N p  1000 Ns Vs 2500 Vs 1000
N s  2500
The output voltage will be 550V.

Current Changes in Transformers

If a transformer is 100% efficient, the electrical power input in the primary coil will be equal to electrical
power output that comes out of the secondary coil.

In a Step Up transformer the voltage is increased. This means that the current must be reduced in order for
the equation to remain balanced.
In a Step Down transformer the voltage is reduced, so the current must be increased in order for the
equation to remain balanced.
The formula can be rearranged to give;

Example:
A 100% efficient transformer increases 25 000 V to 400 000V. The current in the primary coil is 200 000
A.
a) What turns ration is needed?
Ratio of turns in secondary coil to turns in primary coil is

106
 N s VS 400000V
 
N p Vp 25000V
 16
The ratio of Ns to Np is 16 to 1
Ns : N p
ie
16 : 1
b) What is the i) power input and ii) power output?
i)
Power input  Input Voltage  Input Current
Pin  Vin  I in
 25000V  200000 A  500000000W  500MW
note: M = Mega = 106
ii) the transformer is 100% efficient hence;
Power output  Power input  500MW
The power output is 500MW
c) How much current flows out of the secondary coil?
Ip Vp I pV p 200000 A  25000V
  Is   Is   1250 A
Is Vs Vs 400000V
1250 A flows out of the secondary coil.
d) What is the advantage of stepping up the voltage in power transmissions?
This reduces current and makes it cheaper to transfer power using thinner and lighter cables as
opposed to heavier, thick and expensive cables needed for transmission of power at high current.
Note:
 If voltage is increased, current must decrease and visa versa.
 If voltage is doubled, current is halved. If voltage becomes 10 times smaller, current becomes 10
times greater etc.

107
 RADIOACTIVITY

Radioactivity is the spontaneous emission of radiation in the form of particles or waves

(electromagnetic radiation), or both, by some unstable nuclei.

Why do unstable nuclei disintegrate?

Radioactive decay is the loss of particles from unstable nucleus in order to achieve greater stability.

If a nucleus is unstable it may decay by;

 Losing an alpha (α) particle

 Losing a beta (β) particle
 Some nuclear changes which produce gamma (γ) rays

ALPHA (  ) DECAY

A nucleus emitting an alpha (  ) particle loses two protons and two neutrons. The  particle is
positively charged since it similar to the helium nucleus. Therefore;
 the atomic number Z decreases by 2
 the mass number A decreases by 4
 the neutron number N decreases by 2
Alpha particle is not that penetrative and can easily be stopped by clothing.
Alpha radiation can be deflected by electric and magnetic fields because it is charged.

The decay can be generally written as;

Example: Show the decay process of Radium 226 to Radon by emitting an alpha particle.

BETA (  ) DECAY
The other particle emission is beta decay. When a nucleus goes through beta decay, a neutron changes into
a proton and an electron.
The electron leaves the nucleus at very high speed while the proton stays in the nucleus. As a result beta
particles are more penetrative than alpha particles. The beta particles can however be stopped by 3 mm of
aluminium or any metal. Since beta-particles are negatively charged they can also be deflected by electric
and magnetic fields.

Note:  -particles are fast moving electrons.

The change of neutron to proton and electron can be shown as
follows;

Note:  -decay increases the atomic number by 1.

The atomic mass of the parent nucleus does not change

108
The general equation for beta decay can be represented as;

Example: Show the decay process of Iodine-131 decaying to Xenon by beta decay.

GAMMA (   RAYS ) RADIATION

Gamma rays are very penetrative, short

wavelength electromagnetic radiation. Although
it is reduced, gamma radiation is not stopped by
even thick pieces of lead. Gamma radiation
cannot be affected by electric and magnetic fields
because they are not charged.
The atomic number and atomic mass of a nucleus
undergoing gamma emission does not change
only energy is lost.
The diagram below shows the penetrative power
of  ,  and  radiations.
Illustration: Penetrative power of  ,  and  radiations

DEFLECTION by ELECTRIC and MAGNETIC fields

The behaviour of the three kinds of radiation in magnetic field is summarized below. The deflections are
found by Fleming’s left hand rule (taking negative charge moving from the right as equivalent to positive
(conventional) current to the left)

Illustration: Deflection by Magnetic field

Note: Beta-particles are deflected more than the alpha-particles because beta-particles are lighter than the
alpha-particles.

109
Illustration: Deflection by Electric field

Alpha (  )-particles and beta (  )-particles are

deflected by electric field as shown above. The  -
particle is repelled by the positively charged plate
and attracted to the negatively charged one because
it (  ) is positively charged. The  -particle is
similarly repelled by the negatively charged plate
and attracted the positively charged one sine it is
negatively charged.

BACKGROUND RADIATION
There is a small amount of radiation around us all the time because of radioactive
materials in the environment. This is called background radiation. It mainly comes
from natural sources such as the rocks, soil, air, building materials, foods and drinks
and even cosmic rays from space.
DETECTION
All the three types of radiation can be detected by a Geiger-Muller tube using their ionising effect.
Ionising effect: If electrons become detached from molecule in a gas, ions (charged particles) are produced
and the gas is ionised. The molecules with missing electrons are the positive ions; detached electrons join
on to other molecules to form negative ions. As ions in a gas are free to move, an ionized gas can conduct
electricity.

When the radiation from the radioactive source is measured, the reading also includes any background
radiation present. So an average reading for the background radiation alone must be also be found and
subtracted.
Illustration: Geiger-Muller (GM) tube

The mica or “window” is thin enough to all even the alpha particle to pass through. When any of the
radiation enters the tube it ionizes the gas inside. This sets off a high-voltage spark across the gas and a
pulse of current in the circuit.
A ratemeter can be connected to give counts per second of radiation. A scaler on the other hand gives the
total number of particles or burst of gamma radiation detected by the tube.

110
Summary (page 267 complete physics)

Properties Alpha-particle(  ) Beta-particle(  ) Gamma-ray(  )

Nature: Positive particle Negative electron Electromagnetic wave
of very short
wavelength

(helium nucleus)
Affected by magnetic yes since it is charged yes since it is charged no because of no
and electric fields? charge
not that penetrative- penetrative but can be very penetrative can be
Penetrative effect easily stopped by stopped by few mm of reduced but not even
paper or skin aluminium or other stopped by thick lead
metal
Strength of ionization very strong weak very weak
Dangerous? yes yes yes (used to kill living
cells e.g.
microorganisms)
Speed: 10% speed of light 50% speed light Speed of light
Detectors: Photographic film Photographic film Photographic film
Cloud chamber Cloud chamber Cloud chamber
Spark counter GM tube GM tube
Gold-leaf electroscope
Thin-window GM tube

USES
 Radioactive tracer in

Medicine: A small amount of Iodine-123 is injected into the patient and this would be extracted by
both kidneys and later pass with urine. The kidney which shows a constant count rate of  -particles
is blocked.

Agriculture: radioactive fertilizers can be injected in plants and their effect (absorption) assessed
(monitored) and used to produce better fertilizers.

Detecting leaks: (e.g. water/oil pipe); A beta emitter is injected into the pipe line. Any  -particles
emitted would be absorbed by the soil whereas  -rays would pass through the pipe material. The  –
particles are penetrative enough to go through the pipe and soil and be detected by a GM-tube
detector.

 Industrial Uses
Sterilising:
Gamma rays can be used to kill bacteria, mould and insects in food, even after the food has been
packaged.
Gamma rays are also used to sterilize hospital equipment, especially plastic syringes that would be
damaged by heating them.
Cancer cells in the patient’s body can be killed by careful use of  -rays. Cobalt-60 is used as a
source of  -rays.

Thickness control: Beta-particles can be used to control the thickness of paper in paper mills by
measuring the amount of beta radiation that pass though the paper to the GM counter. The counter
controls the pressure of the rollers to give the correct thickness. In paper, plastic or aluminium factory,
 -particles are used. In a sheet-steel factory  -rays are used, why?

111
 Smoke detection: smoke alarms contain a weak source of Americium-241.this emits  -particles
which ionize the air, so that it conducts electricity and small current flows. If smoke enters the alarm,
it absorbs  -particles, the current flows to sound the alarm.

Flaw detection: if a  -rays source is placed on one side of a welding or casting and a photographic
film on the other side, weak points or bubbles will show on the film like an X-ray.

Radioactive dating: uranium-238 in rocks decay to lead and the amount of lead present can be used
determine the age of the rock. Carbon-14 for once-living and its decaying (half life 5700 yrs) can be
used to date bones, wood, paper and cloth.

Production of Electricity: The nucleus of Uranium- 235 splits and 2 neutrons are emitted. If each
neutron hits a Uranium-235 nucleus they in turn split in a chain reaction giving more neutrons. This
splitting is called nuclear fission and releases huge amount of energy.
In a nuclear power station this energy is used to boil water to steam that can turn turbines in
generators to produce electricity.

DANGERS OF EXPOSURE TO RADIATION

The danger of exposure to Alpha particles is slight since they are the least penetrative, but once in the
body can cause serious damage to cells due to their greater ionizing effect.

Large doses of beta and gamma radiation can cause radiation burns. Gamma radiation can penetrate
deep in the body and destroy cells deep inside the body or cause cells to multiply uncontrollably
forming cancer or damage chromosomes causing genetic defects.

HANDLING and STORAGE of RADIOACTIVE MATERIALS in LABOATORY

Radioactive materials should always be handled carefully and stored safely though laboratory samples
emit low levels of radiation.
Handling:
 Handle radioactive materials with forceps or special gloves.
 Keep away from eyes.
 Do not point source towards any person.
Storage:
 Keep the samples in special boxes lined with lead
 Store boxes in a locked cupboard
 One specific individual should control the cupboard keys

DANGERS OF NUCLEAR WASTES AND DISPOSAL

The use of radioactive materials always involves the production of radioactive wastes. The wastes from
nuclear fission can take hundreds of years to become safe. If not disposed of safely the radioactive wastes
may pose the following dangers:
Dangers:
 Come into contact with humans causing cancer and genetic defects
 Find its way into plant life and end in food chains
 Get in marine plants and get into marine food chains
 Spill during transportation casing disaster
Disposal:
 Low-level waste is buried underground or released into the sea.
High grade waste from nuclear power stations is
 buried disused salt mines or in granite caves
 bedded in concrete and dumped in deep oceans
 stored at special factories for re-processing

112
HALF_LIFE

Radioactive decay takes place in the

nucleus of an atom. It is not affected by
changes in temperature or pressure. The
rate at which a radioisotope decays is
constant.
The half-life is the time it takes for half
the atom in a sample of radioactive
isotope to decay.
Example:
The half-life of cobalt-60 is 5 years. If
we start with 16 g of cobalt-60, it will
change as shown below.

Each radio-isotope has its own half-life. A Geiger counter can be placed close to a radioactive sample
to measure its half-life and then plotting the count-rate against time.

113
EXPANSION OF MATTER

When particles of matter are heated they move more vigorously and their movements become larger. The
molecules push away from each other, taking up more space and the substance expands. The reverse occurs
when they cool down, that is the molecular motions become smaller and the substance contracts as its
molecules are pulled closer by the forces of attraction.
In the gas state the particles are further apart and the forces of attraction are very weak, while in solid the
particles are closer together and the attraction forces very strong, the gas particles take up more space but
the solid particles are stopped by the intermolecular forces. Thus a gas expands the most while a solid
expands the least.

EXPANSION OF SOLIDS

Expansion of solids can be easily demonstrated by

a) Metal ball and metal ring experiment

Before the ball is heated it just fits and passes through the ring.
After the ball is heated it no longer pass through the ring as it has
expanded and now occupies more space. The radius of the ball is
now larger than that of the ring.
Discuss the possible observations if the metal ring is cooled in
liquid air at -196oC and the ball is tried to pass through the ring.

b) Metal bar and metal gauge experiment

CONSEQUENCES AND USES(APPLIATIONS) OF EXPANSION

Expansion and contraction can be very useful (applications) as well as bring negative effects
(consequences)
Some everyday applications and consequences of expansion or contraction are described below.

BIMETALLIC STRIP is made of two equal lengths of different metal riveted together. The two metals
have varying linear expansivity.

When the bimetallic strip is heated

aluminium expands more than
copper. To accommodate the extra

114
length of aluminium the strip beds towards copper. When the bimetallic strip is cooled (placing in liquid
nitrogen at -196oC ), the metals contracts with aluminium getting shorter than copper hence the strip beds
towards aluminium.
Therefore, generally, a bimetallic strip always beds towards the less expanding metal when heated and
towards the more expanding one when cooled.
A bimetallic strip is used in a temperature controlling device called a thermostat.

THERMOSTAT
A thermostat is used to keep the temperature of an appliance or room constant, without getting too hot or
too cold. It uses a bimetallic strip as a temperature controlled switch.
Appliances which use a thermostat include electric iron, fire alarm, refridgerator, gas oven, electric kettle

(a) Electric iron

The temperature of an electric iron is

kept near-steady by the bimetallic strip
as it opens and closes the contacts with
temperature variations. As the base of
the electric iron gets hotter above the
temperature set by the control knob the
bimetallic strip bends downward and
breaks the contacts. When the
temperature drops, the strip cools and
contracts. It then goes back to its
original position hence switching the
electric current again.
Note: Brass expands more than iron so that the strip bends downwards to break open the circuit when the
temperature rises.

(b) Fire alarm

The bimetallic strip must bend and switch on the
circuit to sound the electric bell. Brass should
expand more than iron so that the strip bends down.
The bending should occur at a temperature
considerably higher than the average room
temperature to avoid false alarms.

GAPS ON BRIDGES AND ROADS

Bridges are often made of steel bars that get longer when it is hot. There must be expansion gaps in the
road at the end of a bridge. Bridges are usually put
on rollers to allow for easy movement during
expansion and contraction.

Roads are often made of concrete slabs hat expand

and contract too. There are expansion gaps between

115
the slabs filled with a soft substance that can be squeezed easily in hot weather as the slabs expand. There
are similar expansion gaps in the floor of KSII.

Illustration: Expansion gap between road and bridge

RIVETING METAL PLATES

A white–hot rivet is placed in the rivet hole and its end

hammered flat and on cooling it contracts and pulls the
plate tightly together.

SHRINK FITTING

This is used where the pieces joined involve a ball and

socket. An axle is cooled in liquid nitrogen at -196oC until
the gear wheel can be slipped on to it. On regaining normal
temperature the axle expands to give a very tight joint.

Exercise: Describe how the bimetallic strip thermometer shown below works.

EXPANSION OF GASES

Expansion of gasses can be demonstrated by the following experimental set-up.

A round bottomed flask is filled with a solution of potassium

permangate and then heated.

Observations:

The level of potassium per manganate solution in the tube goes down
while the level of the solution in the beaker rises as the solution is
displaced by air. Eventually bubbles are seen as air escapes through
the solution.
Explanation:
When air is heated it expands and occupies more space thereby
displacing the solution in the tube. This shows that air expands as
well.

Note: When a cold cloth is placed over the flask, the air contracts
and occupies less space forcing the solution up into the tube.

116
 EXPANSION OF LIQUIDS

Just like solids and gases a liquid also expands or contract when
heated or cooled. The diagfram on the left can be used to
demonstrate expansion of liquids.
Obsevation: When heat is applied there is a momentary drop in the
level of the solution as flask expands before the liquid can conduct
heat. After a while the solution rises steadily as it expands and
rises through the caipillary. Whaen cooled the liquid cotracte and
occupy less space hance it will drop back into the flask.

MEASURING TEMPERATURE- Application of Liquid Expansion

Temperature :This a physical quantity related to the average kinetic energy of the molecules. The hotter
the object the faster the molecules move and the greater should be their average kinetic energy. The
average kinetic energy of the molecules decreases when the object colds down.
Any property of a substance that changes when the temperature varies is called thermometric property. A
bimetallic thermostat uses the expansion and contraction of a metal to measure temperature, so the
expansion and contraction of a solid are thermometric properties. Also the pressure of a gas at constant
volume, the volume of a gas at constant pressure and the resistance of a pure metal are all examples of
thermometric properties.
The expansion of a liquid is also a property used for most of the thermometers to measure temperature.
These thermometers are called liquid — in glass thermometers.

The same principle is applied in a liquid — in glass thermometers, the narrower the capillary tubes, further
the thread moves up. A small expansion of the liquid produces a greater ascent up the tube

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Sensitivity of an instrument scale represents its ability to detect small changes of the quantity to be
measured. So, “the narrower the bore, the more sensitive is the thermometer”.
The thermometer scale represented below is more sensitive than the one represented before.

The thermometers we use in our laboratory have got a temperature range from 10 °C to 110 °C. However a
clinical thermometer which is another type of liquid—in glass thermometer has a rage from 35 0C to 42 °C
that is a few degrees either sides of the healthy or average body temperature of about 37 °C. This
thermometer is more sensitive than a laboratory thermometer that is why its accuracy is a tenth of a degree
Celsius.

A sensitive thermometer does not have a very large temperature range even when it is very long. A larger
temperature range scale is achieved using a wider capillary tube.
Also a clinical thermometer has a constriction which stops the mercury when going back to the bulb. It
allows measuring the temperature of a patient after removing the thermometer from him. The mercury is
returned to the bulb by shaking the thermometer.

A large bulb and a thick glass stem have disadvantages, the thermometer has to take more energy from the
hot object than small bulb and a thin glass stem thermometer dose, and so it may cool it down. It also takes
longer to reach a steady reading. Thus the bulbs on a liquid-in glass thermometer are not made very large
and the stems are made from a very thin glass.
If two different metal wires are joined together at two junctions and the other ends are connected to an
ammeter, when one wire junction is cold and the other is hot, a potential difference (p.d) and therefore a
current are produced in the circuit. The ammeter then shows readings that can be expressed in degrees
Celsius if the scale is designed following this propose. This type of thermometer is called Thermocouple
Thermometer.

A thermocouple thermometer is more

suitable for industrial work than a
liquid-in glass thermometer since:
1- it can operate over a temperature rang
froth about —200 °C to 1600 °C.
2- The operator can read the temperature
on a meter or digital display placed
some distance away from the source of
heat.
3- The readings can be recorded
automatically or fed directly to a
computer controlling the heating
process.
4- The wire junction can be very small and needs very little heat to warm it up. So, it responds very quickly
to temperature changes. This thermometer also has some disadvantages compared with a liquid-in glass
thermometer. For example it is bulky, more expensive arid its structure is more complicated.

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 TRANSFER OF THERMAL ENERGY

Methods available;

a) Conduction is the transfer of thermal energy from a region of hotter to region of lower temperature
without movement of matter

In conduction – molecules are made to move faster

i) by the transfer of fast electrons, or
ii) by mutual interaction.

b) Convection is the flow of thermal energy through a fluid from a region of higher to region of lower
temperature by the movement of the fluid

In convection– fast molecules are made to move from one place to another.

c) Radiation is the flow of thermal energy from one place to another by means of electromagnetic waves
– molecules are made to move faster when electromagnetic waves fall on them.

Heat transfer in solids – conduction

This mode of heat transfer occurs mainly in solids.

Motion of electrons:
When a solid e.g. metal bar is heated at one end, heat travels and soon reaches the other end. This happens
because of the free electrons surrounding the atoms of the metal which move faster and go towards the
cooler parts.

Collisions between these electrons and the stationary atoms at the cooler end of the metal result in the
transfer of kinetic energy from the electrons to the atoms. As the ‘warm’ electrons move from the hotter
region to the cooler region, ‘cooler’ electrons move in the opposite direction to take their place. In this way
heat is transferred from one place to another without any apparent movement of the transmitting substance.
The diagram below illustrates this conduction mechanism.

The faster electrons (indicated by the longer arrows) diffuse in the region occupied by the slower electrons)
indicated by shorter arrows), and vice-versa. The energy is transferred.
Also note that the vibrating atoms are responsible for some thermal conduction:
If they jostle each other, energy can be passed from one part of the solid to another.

This second conduction mechanism cannot be very effective, since high rates of conduction of heat are only
by substances with conduction electrons. There are exceptions, however, some non-metals (i.e. substances
without conduction electrons) are as good conductors as some metals.

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As the conduction electrons can transfer both electric charge and internal energy, we see why the same
substances are good conductors of both electricity and heat.

Experiment to demonstrate rates of heat conduction

Heat flows along the rods at different rates and the pins drop off after varying lengths of time. In the
experiment the pin on copper drops off first followed by iron and lastly on glass. This confirms that metals
have very high thermal conductivity. Other solid materials such as glass, wood and plastics conduct heat
very slowly and are bad conductors or insulators.

An experiment below shows that water is actually a bad conductor of heat

Note the order in which things happen.

The water at the top of the tube boils, while the ice remains unmelted at the bottom. Eventually
slow conduction of heat through the water and the walls of the glass test tube melts the ice.

Liquids (except molten metals such as mercury) are usually bad conductors of heat. It is important to also
note that air is a very poor conductor of heat and is an important insulator.

When we feel cold we put on warm clothes. Clothes do not supply heat to our bodies, so how do they make
us feel warm? Warm clothes usually contain a lot of trapped air. Pockets of air are held between the fibres
of woolen materials and in holes like those in string vests. In a similar way birds fluff up their feathers to
trap more air around them to keep them warm.

Fibre glass and expanded polystyrene are used as insulators in houses; both these materials owe their
insulating properties to large amount of trapped air they contain.

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Heat transfer through fluids – convection

Heat can flow through liquids and gases (fluids) by means of convection currents.

Convection currents are a flow of liquid or gas caused by a change in density, in which the whole
medium moves and carries heat energy with it.

Note; a) convection can not happen in solids because the molecules have fixed relative
positions.
b) convection is more effective in gases than in liquids.

Demonstration of convection

Explanation convection current: An increase in temperature usually causes an increase in volume. A

given mass of warm fluid, will therefore experience an up-thrust (from cooler fluid that surround
it) greater than its own weight. The cold denser fluid thus provides a force that causes the warm
fluid to rise.
Example of convection

a) cloud formation – warm moist air rises before condensing into rain.

b) winds – caused by differences in air pressure which arises from uneven heating of masses air.

c) the art of gliding is to trace and use hot air currents (as done by sea gulls – birds)

d) the domestic hot water supply.

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e) Land and sea breezes- are set up by earth-sea temperature differences. During the day the land heats up
more quickly than water in the sea. Hot air above the land rises causing cool and heavier air from the sea to
come and replace it (sea breeze). At night the reverse occurs. The diagram below illustrates this.

Heat by Electromagnetic waves-Radiation

Radiation is the flow of heat in form of electromagnetic waves requiring no tangible

122
medium. It is the type of wave motion given out by accelerated electric charges, and it results in the transfer
of energy form one place to another. In particular the infra-red waves have frequencies such that they are
easily absorbed by particles of matter, and are therefore effective at warming matter.
Warm objects give out or radiate infrared waves (heat waves – radiant heat). But if they become hotter they
emit shorter wavelengths which may include light. This is why a radiant heater or grill starts to ‘glow red’
hot when it heats up.

Illustration: Radiant heat-component of electromagnetic waves

Emitters and Absorbers

Some surfaces are better at emitting (sending -out) thermal radiation than others. For example, black
saucepan cools down quickly than a similar white one because it emits energy at a faster rate.
Good emitters of thermal radiation are also good absorbers, as shown in the chart below.

Summary on emitters and absorbers

White or silver surfaces are poor absorbers because they reflect most of the thermal radiation away. This is
why, in hot, sunny countries, houses are often painted white to keep them cool inside. The inside of a black
car warms up more rapidly than a white one on a sunny day.
Illustration: Good/ bad absorbers of thermal radiation

If two coins of the same value are stuck on outside of each plate with candle wax, some minutes after the
heater has been switched on, the wax on the black surface melts and the coin falls off. The white surface is
still cooler and the wax does not melt.
The experiment shows that black surfaces are better absorbers of thermal radiation than white surfaces.
Dull black are the best absorbers of thermal radiation; silvery mirror-like surfaces are poorest
absorbers. Silvery surfaces reflect almost all the thermal radiation striking them.

Illustration: Good/ bad emitters of thermal radiation

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Holding the back of your hands on either sides of hot copper plate which has one side polished and the
other blacked, it is found that the black surface is a better emitter of radiation than the polished
surface. Dull black surfaces are also the best emitters of thermal radiation, silvery mirror-like
surfaces are the poorest emitters.
Therefore:
“The greater the amount of thermal radiation absorbed, the greater will be the emission”, so good
absorbers are also good emitters and vice-versa.

Car cooling system-most car engines are cooled by convection currents in the water pipes. A pump is
often used to help water to circulate. This is ‘forced convention’.
Water is very good substance to carry the unwanted heat away from the engine to the radiator. Here the
radiator is a heat exchanger where the hot water gives up its energy to air. The radiators are usually
painted black to increase their heat exchange function.

Illustration: Cooling System of a Car engine

SOLAR HEATING (solar panel)-some house have a solar pane like shown below. It uses the sun’s
thermal radiation to warm up water for the house. The black layer absorbs thermal radiation and warms up
water flowing through the pipes. Why are the pipes coiled?

124
Illustration: solar panel (water heating system)

The vacuum flask (thermos flask)

A vacuum flask can keep drinks hot (or cold) for hours. It has these features fro reducing the rate of thermal
energy floe in or out.
a) An insulated stopper to reduce conduction and convection.
b) A double-walled container with gap between the walls. Air has been removed from the gap to
reduce conduction and convection.
c) Walls with shinny surfaces to reduce thermal radiation.

Illustration: Thermos flask

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Greenhouse effects
On a sunny day, a greenhouse becomes a ‘heat trap’. Short-wavelength thermal radiation from the sun
passes easily through the glass and warms up the materials inside. The warmed materials emit thermal
radiation, but at longer wavelengths that do not pass through the glass so easily. Radiation id reflected back
into the greenhouse, so the temperature rises.
The earth’s contains a small amount of carbon dioxide gas. This has a similar effect to the glass in a
greenhouse- it lets the sun’s thermal energy to warm the earth, but reflects he earth’s radiation back.
Without this natural greenhouse effect the earth would be 30 oC colder than it is. Extra carbon dioxide fro
burning fuels is adding to the effect and causing global warming.

Illustration: Green house effect

Other everyday consequences of thermal transfer

Day and nights in deserts – days tend to be very hot due to radiant heat from the heated sand. Nights also
tend to be very cold due to lack of cloud cover. There is nothing to cat like a greenhouse.

Cyclones-are regions where the atmospheric pressure is lower than average and hence winds blow spirally
inwards towards the pressure center.
The existence of cyclones is attributed to convection currents creating differences in air pressure at certain
localities. Cyclones like typhoons can be very destructive where they pass.

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127
128
129
 GENERAL WAVE PROPERTIES

Wave: This is a backward and forward or up and down movement of particles of an elastic medium when
they vibrate.
Or
Wave: This is a disturbance of particles of mater that results in transfer of energy.
Properties of Wave

Wavelength (λ): This is the distance occupied by one complete wave.

Or
the distance between successive crests/peaks or troughs.
Or
the distance between successive compressions or rarefactions.
Or
the distance between successive (following each other) and corresponding (similar) positions (parts) of a
wave.

Wavelength is represented by the Greek letter lambda (λ). Since wavelength is distance, it measured in
units of length and the SI unit is the metre (m).

Amplitude (A): this is the maximum distance a particle moves from its rest
position when a wave passes. s
Or
the maximum displacement of a particle from its rest position when a wave passes.
It is also measured in units of length and the SI unit is the metre (m).

Frequency (f):Is the number of complete waves (cycles) produced per second. It is measured in hertz (Hz).
Frequency can be calculated from the expression below;

Number of complete cycle ( waves)

frequency( f ) 
time(t )
Speed (υ): This is the distance covered by a wave in a second. It is measured in metres
per second.
The speed is related to wavelength and frequency through the wave equation as shown below.
  f   where λ is wavelength ,f is frequency and υ is speed.
The above formula comes from;
distance(d )
Speed (  
time(t)
but d, which is distance traveled by the wave, is equal to the number of complete waves (n) times the
wavelength (λ), that is:

d  n
n
so:  
t

n
but: f 
t

so:   f   (wave equation)

The figure below shows a diagram of transverse wave illustrating the above properties.

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 TYPES OF WAVES
There are two types of waves namely

a). Longitudinal wave

b). Transverse wave
Longitudinal wave: A wave in which the direction of travel of wave and the direction in
which the particles are vibrating coincide.
In a longitudinal wave the particles of the elastic medium vibrate backward and forward to produce a series
of compressions (high pressure region) and rarefactions (region of low pressure).

Examples;
1 . Waves traveling along a stretched “slinky” spring with one end fixed and the other moving
rapidly backward and forward. The movement of the moving end is transmitted from turn to turn of
the spring.
2 . Sound waves
Transverse wave: A wave in which the particles are vibrating at right angle to the
direction of travel of the wave.
The vibrations could either be up and down or side to side.

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 Examples;
1 . Waves traveling along a stretched “slinky” spring with one end fixed and the other moving
rapidly from side to side. The movement of the moving end is transmitted from turn to turn of the
spring.
2 . Waves traveling across the surface of water when a stone has been dropped in a pond. Ripples
move out from the place where the stone was dropped.
3 . Waves traveling along a rope with one end fixed and the other moving up and down. The
movement of the moving end is transmitted from part to part of the through the whole rope.
4 . All the electromagnetic waves such as: light, radio waves, microwaves, gamma rays and so on.

WAVES PROPERTIES EXERCISE

1(a) Find the wavelength of a sound wave which has a frequency of 1.0 kHz, if the speed of sound is
air 330 m/s.

b) Find the frequency of radio wave which has a wavelength of 3000m. (speed of radio waves = 3.0
*108 m/s)

c) Find the speed of a water wave produced by a 2.0 Hz vibrator in a ripple tank if successive crests
are 5.0 cm apart.

2. The diagram below shows a section through a wave travelling in water in the direction shown.

a)i) find the ii) amplitude iii) wavelength

b) if the wave travels 32.0 cm in 2.0 s, find its) speed ii) frequency

c) Use appropriate symbols to show on the diagram above i) amplitude ii) wavelength

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 REFLECTON of Light

Reflection is the bouncing off of light on certain surfaces.

Reflection by a plane mirror

A plane is a flat smooth reflecting surface which by regular reflection is used to form images. It has a
reflecting and silvered surfaces in most cases shown by shading behind the reflecting surface.
Types of reflection

Investigating Laws of reflection

The laws of reflection are true for all reflecting surfaces, for curved mirrors as well as plane mirrors
(surfaces). A plane mirror is more simple and convenient to use.

Apparatus :plane mirror, sheet of paper, protractor, ray box/ optical pins
Expt set-up

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 REFRACTION

REFRACTION: is the bending of light when traveling form one medium to another with different optical
densities.

Terms used in optics

Incident ray: original ray of light from the source of light

Refracted ray: ray of light that has been bent as it passes between media.

Emergent ray: ray of light leaving a medium after refraction.


Incident angle (angle of incidence ( i )): angle measured between the incident ray and the normal line at
point of incidence.

Angle of refraction ( r ): angle measured between the refracted ray and the normal line at point of
incidence.

Emergent angle ( e ): angle measured between the emergent ray and the normal line at point of emergence.

Normal: imaginary dotted line drawn perpendicularly at points of incident or emergence

FACTS ABOUT REFRACTION

1. A ray of light bends away from the normal when moving from an optically denser
medium to an optically less dense medium.
2. A ray of light bends towards the normal when entering an optically denser medium from
an optically less dense medium.
3. A ray of light entering along the normal is not refracted- goes without any deviation.
4. A ray of light incident inside a denser medium at critical angle is refracted such that it is
perpendicular to that surface of incidence.
5. The incident ray is always parallel to the emergent ray.

DEMONSTRATION OF REFRACTION- DETERMINATION OF REFRACTIVE INDEX (n)

Materials
Glass block, pencil, 4 optical pins, drawing board, plain paper, ruler and a protractor

Procedure:

1. Place the plain paper on the drawing board

2. Place the glass block in the middle of the plain paper and trace its boundary(outline)
using pencil
3. Insert optical pins 1 and 2 (P1 and P2) at an angle on one side of the glass block such that
they are in a straight line to the surface of the glass block.
4. Insert optical pins 3 and 4 (P3 and P4) on the other side of the glass block such that they
are in a straight line with images of P1 and P2 as seen through the glass block.
5. Remove the glass block and the optical pins and join positions of P 1 and P2 with a straight
line to represent the incident ray (include an arrow to show direction of the ray)
6. Join positions of P3 and P4 with a straight line to represent the emergent ray (include an
arrow to show direction of the ray)

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 7. Trace the path of the ray inside the glass block by joining the points of incident and
emergence together using a straight line- this represent the refracted ray.
8. use a protractor to draw a normal line at the point of incidence and measure the angles of
incidence and refraction
9. calculate the refractive index of the glass block using the expression below

sin i
refractive index (n) 
sin r
Illustration: refraction through a glass block

REFRACTIVE INDEX IN TERMS OF REAL DEPTH AND APPARENT DEPTH

Refraction causes:
(i) An object (e.g. a coin) placed at the bottom of a container
holding water to appear nearer the surface than it is.
(ii) Objects (e.g. ruler or pencil) to appear bent when placed in
a container holding water.

Illustration: “bent” pencil

The light rays from the point O of the pencil which is resting on the bottom of
the container are refracted away from the normal N1 and N2 as shown; the
pencil appears bent when viewed from above the surface of water.
To locate the image of the object construction lines are drawn straight
backward from the points of emergence.
(iii) Bottom of a pool to appear near the surface than it actually
is.

135
The above examples give rise to what is known as real and apparent depths of the water as illustrated
below.

Illustration: real and apparent depths

The refractive index of a material (e.g. water or glass) can be calculated

using real and apparent depths by the expression below;
real depth
refractive index (n) 
apparent depth

TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION

The angle the ray makes with the normal in air is always greater than the
angle it makes with the normal in the medium (x > y).
When the angle of incidence inside the medium is increased gradually the
angle of refraction also increases proportionately. Eventually the angle of
refraction becomes 90o.
The angle of incidence in the denser medium for which the angle of refraction is 90 is called the critical
angle c. (refer to figure b)
When the angle of incidence inside the denser medium is greater than the critical angle no light can escape
fro the denser medium and the light ray is said to be totally internally reflected. (refer to figure c)

Illustration: critical angle and total internal reflection

APPLICATION OF TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION

Total internal reflection is sued in fibre optics either in

A fibre optic is made of high quality glass of high refractive index coated with a thin layer of lower
refractive index. A ray of light entering the end of the thin fibre optic that strikes at an angle of incidence
greater than the critical angle is totally internally reflected along the whole length of the fibre.

Illustration: Fibre optic

a). Communication- passing

signals as light impulses
b). Medicine- used to view
internal organs or
connected to surgical
instruments to enable
operations of such organs.

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 c). Periscope- view around obstacles

LENSES AND OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS

Lenses are made with a great of variety of shapes and or different kinds of glass but they all belong to
either the converging group or the diverging group of lenses. The converging type of lens converges
(brings together) rays of light and the diverging type diverges (spreads out) rays of light.

As can be seen in the figure below, the converging lenses are all thicker in the centre than at the edge
whereas the diverging lenses are all thinner in the center than at the edge.

Lens shapes

Lens definitions

The principal axis of a lens is the line joining the centres of curvature of its surfaces.

The optical centre of a lens L is the point midway between the lens surfaces on its principal axis. Rays
passing through the optical center are not deviated.

The principal focus F of a converging lens is the point to which all rays incident parallel to the principal
axis converge after refraction by the lens. This focus is real.

The principal focus F of a diverging lens is the point from which all rays incident parallel to the principal
axis appear to converge after refraction by the lens. This focus is virtual.

The focal length f of a lens is the distance between its optical centre and the principal focus.

NB A lens has two principal focuses, one on each side of the lens. When drawing ray diagrams the
principal focus F is marked on both side of the principal axis.

137
C1 = centre of curvature of face 1
C2 = centre of curvature of face 2
L = optical centre

Standard rays

In ray diagrams, any two of the following rays are needed to fix the image position and size:

1. A ray parallel to the principal axis passes through F after

leaving the lens.

2. A ray through F’ leaves the lens parallel to the principal

axis.

3. A ray through the centre passes straight through the lens.

NB:

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  For simplicity, rays are drawn from just one point on the object. In reality rays are from every
different on the object.
 Only two rays are needed to fix where the image is.
 For simplicity, rays are shown bending at the line through the middle of the lens. In reality,
bending takes place at each surface.
Images formed by converging lens

Object O, uses Ray diagram Image i

a) o between F and L
i) virtual
i)magnifying glass ii)erect
ii)instrument eye piece iii)magnified
iii)Spectacles correction for iv)on same side of
long-sightedness lens as O and further
away

b) O at F

Produces a parallel beam of

light as in a spot light with At infinity
lamp at O.

c) O between F and 2F i) real

ii) inverted
i) projector iii) magnified
ii) microscope objective lens iv) on opposite side
of lens to O, beyond
2F.

i) real
d) O at 2F ii) inverted
iii) Same size as O.
Camera making equal size iv) on opposite side
copies of the lens to O, at
2F.

e) O beyond 2F i) real
ii) inverted
i) camera iii) diminished
ii) the eye iv) on opposite side
of lens, between F
and 2F.
This is diagram c)
reversed.

f) O at infinity i) real

139
 ii) inverted
Objective lens of a telescope. iii) diminished
iv) on opposite side
of lens at F.
This is diagram b)
reversed

Image formed by a diverging lens

i) eyepiece in some i) virtual

instrument. ii) erect
ii) in spectacles to correct iii) diminished
short-sightedness iv) on same side of
lens as O, but nearer.

Magnification (m)
Magnification is the ratio of the size (height) of image to the size (height) of object?

size of image
magnification 
size of object

Linear magnification can have a value less 1 when the image is diminished, equal to 1 when the object and
image are the same size or greater than 1 when the image is magnified.

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 COMMON PROPPERTIES of ELECTROMAGNETIC (WAVES) SPECTRUM

There exists a family of waves resulting

from magnetic and electric forces of
matter called Electromagnetic waves.
This family of waves is called the
Electromagnetic spectrum.

Illustration: Electromagnetic spectrum

All of these waves have the common properties

a) They are all transverse waves, They travel at velocity of light in vacuum ( c  3 10 8 m )
s
b) They can be reflected, refracted and diffracted
c) They obey the wave equation v  f  

NAME AND
TYPICAL SOURCES DETECTORS SPECIAL PROPERTIES
WAVELENGTH
*very penetrating
Gamma rays () Nuclei of Photographic *very dangerous when used without control
10-12m radioactive film and *used t kill dangerous growths e.g. cancer cells
atoms and Geiger-Muller *used t find flaws in metals. Special detectors
cosmic rays (GM )tube can reveal weakness in a metal.
*used to sterilise equipment, they can kill
bacteria and very dangerous micro-organisms
*very penetrating, so overexposure to them
Photographic can be very dangerous
X-rays 10-10m X-ray tube film and *used to take X-rays pictures in order to detect
fluorescent bone fractures, lung diseases, stomach diseases
screen *used to treat skin disorders
*used to study crystal structures in solids by
X-ray crystallography

*it is absorbed by the glass and a considerable

amount of that coming from the sun is
absorbed by the atmosphere’s upper layers
which contain a very large concentrate of
Ultraviolet Sun, very hot Ozone gas.
radiation (UV) objects, Photographic *causes many chemical reactions, some
10--8m electric arcs film, photocell materials fluoresce when they absorb
and sparks, fluorescent ultraviolet radiation. For example, washing
mercury chemicals powder contain chemicals which fluoresce
vapour lamps when they absorb UV, they make clothes look
whiter than white in daylight and glow when
disco lights strike them.
*UV from the sun is used by the skin to
produce vitamin D, but causes sun tan.
*UV lamps are used in medicine for skin
treatment, but excess is harmful, and can
cause skin diseases and damage the retina.
*UV is frequently used to kill bacteria and
living cells
*can be used against fraud in identify false

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 signatures in bank cheques
*essential for photosynthesis and plant growth
Visible light 0.6 * Sun, hot Photographic *used for communication systems: lasers and
10-8m objects, film, eye and optical fibres (very thin glass rods, within
lamps and photocells which light or laser can be totally internally
lasers reflected)
*used in identifying substances in chemistry
flame tests
Special As the temperature rise, an objects give out
Infra-red Sun, warm photographic more and moreIR, the wavelengths become
radiation (IR) and hot films, shorter since the molecules vibrate more
10-4m objects such semiconductor vigorously. At about 700o C the radiation
as fires, devices such as changes into visible light.
people, LDR (light *used for photography through haze and fog,
animals dependent it is not scattered as much as visible light.
resistor or *used to provide special information, such as
photoresistor) infected crops, contrasting vegetation and so
photodiode on by means of photographs taken by satellites
and skin
Microwave *long and medium waves will diffract around
ovens, TV Aerials a hill so that a signal on a radio wave can be
Radio waves and radios, connected to detected even when a hill blocks the direct
3m transmitters tuned electric route from the transmitting aerial.(Diffraction
using electric circuit in radio is when a wave passes the edge of an object)
circuits and and TV sets Long and medium waves are also reflected by
aerials where layers of charged particles in the earth’s upper
electrons are atmosphere so that long distance reception is
forced to also possible despite the curvature of the
oscillate earth’s surface.
*VHF and UHF (TV) waves have shorter
wavelengths. They are not reflected by upper
atmospheric layers and are diffracted only
slightly by hills. Good receptions are only
possible for straight paths of waves.
*microwaves are used fir cooking, telephone,
satellites communications, radar detection of
ships, aircrafts, missiles…..
*radio waves are used in radioastronomy

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Sound
Sound is the energy produced by vibrating sources e.g. drum skin, guitar string, cone of
loud speaker etc.
The illustration below shows how cone of a loud speaker produces sound.

The changing alternating current from the amplifier makes the cone to vibrate (i.e.
pushing forward and backwards repeatedly). When the cone pushes forward it pushes the
air molecules close together (onto each other) creating a high pressure region called
compression. When the cone pulls back it creates a temporary vacuum in front of it. Air
molecules then spread into this vacuum which leads to a low pressure region called
rarefaction. The continued vibrations of the cone lead to a series of compressions and
rarefactions as denoted by the “C”s for Compressions and “R”s for Rarefactions in the
diagram below.

The compressions and rarefactions eventually reach the ear and make its constituent parts
to vibrate the same way. the brain senses these vibrations and interpret them as a
particular sound.
Points of note
1. The direction of vibration of the loudspeaker cone, hence the air molecules
through which sound travels, is parallel to the direction of propagation of the
direction of propagation (travel) of the sound. Thus sound is a longitudinal9
wave.
2. Sound travels by pushing together (compressing) or pulling apart (decompressing)
the particles of a medium through which it travels. So a material medium is
required for the transmission of sound waves.

9
A longitudinal wave is the one in which the direction of propagation (travel) of the wave is parallel to the
direction of vibration of the medium through which it propagates. When these directions are perpendicular
the wave is said to be transverse.

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 3. Because sound travels by compressing and decompressing particles of a material
medium, then it suffices that sound travels fastest in solids. This is because
particles of a solid are closely packed already so compressing and decompressing
them takes a shorter time. Sound travels slowest in gases. The order of
magnitude of sound in states of matter is shown below.

Experiment: Speed of sound in air

Aim: to determine the speed of sound in air
Apparatus
 Starter’s gun (to provide the sound)
 Measuring tape (to measure the distance)
 Stop clock (to measure the time)
 Wall (to act as sound barrier)

Set-up; the apparatus were set-up as shown below,

Procedure
The starter’s gun was positioned a distance, d = 200.000m from the wall, measured using
a measuring tape and recorded. The starter’s gun was fired and the stop-clock started at
the same time. The stop-clock was stopped upon hearing the echo from the wall. The
time, t, taken by sound to travel to the wall and back was read from the stop-clock and
recorded. This procedure was repeated five times and the average time, <t>, taken by
sound to travel to the wall and back calculated and recorded. The distance, S, travelled by
sound to the wall and back was calculated from formula, S = 2d, and recorded. The speed
of sound, v, was calculated from formula, v, and recorded.

Results and Analysis

Distance of the starter’s gun from the wall, d = m

Distance travelled from the wall and back, S = 2d = m

Table of results
Reading no 1 2 3 4 5 Average

time taken, t (seconds)

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Discussions
Students are to complete the table below by stating the possible source(s) of error and the
precautions they took to minimise the effects of such errors.

Possible sources of error Precautions taken

Parallax error in the measurement of A large distance was used so that percentage error
distance from the wall due to parallax will be small

Human reaction time in the Several readings were taken and the average used
measurement of time

Conclusion
The speed of sound in air was found to be, v = m/s

Audible range
Not all sounds can be heard. Only sounds having frequencies within a certain range can
be heard. This range is called Audible Range (audible means hear-able).

Human Audible range (20 Hz to 20 000 Hz)

The audible range for humans is 20 Hz to 20 kHz. This means that human beings can’t
hear sounds having frequencies less than 20 Hz or greater than 20 kHz.

Example 1
Determine whether sound can be heard if it has the following frequencies
(v) 4 Hz
(vi) 180 Hz
(vii) 40 kHz

Solutions
Sound can be heard, iff (if and only if) its frequency satisfies the inequality 20Hz

<f <20 kHz

(v) f = 4 Hz < 20 Hz so it’s too low to be heard. i.e. it wont be heard

(vi) f = 180 Hz which falls within the range 20Hz <f <20 kHz. Sound will be
heard.
(vii) f = 40 kHz> 20 KHz so it’s too high to be heard. i.e. it wont be heard
Exercise
Determine whether sound can be heard if it has the following frequencies
(i) 1 Hz

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 (ii) 150 Hz
(iii) 2500 Hz
(iv) 70000 Hz
(v) 3 GHz

Experiment: Human Audible Range

Aim: to determine the audible range for humans
Apparatus
 Power supply unit (to be a source of electricity)
 Signal generator (to vary the frequencies)
 Loud speaker (to produce the sound)
 Connecting wire (to complete the circuit)

Set-up; the apparatus were set-up as shown below,

Procedure
The apparatus were connected as shown above. The frequency of the signal generator, f,
was set to 10 Hz and recorded. The power supply switched on and the loud speaker
listened to so as to determine if it produces any audible sound, the results were recorded.
The procedure was repeated with the frequency setting, f, of the signal generator
increased at 1 Hz intervals until the loud speaker produced some audible sound. The
frequency setting of the signal generator was then varied by the smallest division within
each power of ten until the loud speaker no longer produced audible sound.

Results and Analysis

Tables of results
Frequency, f ×1 Hz
(Hz) 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23
Sound heard?
yes (√) OR no (×)

Frequency, f ×10 Hz ×100 Hz

(Hz) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Sound heard?
yes (√) OR no
(×)

Frequency, f ×1000 Hz ×10000 Hz

(Hz) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

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Sound heard?
yes (√) OR no
(×)

Discussions
Students are to fill in the table below by stating the possible source(s) of error and the
precautions they took to minimise the effects of such errors.

Possible sources of error Precautions taken

Conclusion
The human audible range was found to be Hz to Hz

Audible range for other animals

Human beings can only hear sounds having frequencies greater than 20 Hz and less than
20 kHz. This range, 20 Hz to 20 kHz, narrows further with age. However, some animals
can hear sounds having much higher frequencies than 20 kHz. For example, dogs can
hear sounds having frequencies up to 50 kHz i.e. 50 kHz. Thus a burglar alarm set at 40
kHz would alert a guard dog of the intruder’s presence. The dog will hear the loud
ringing of the alarm at 40 kHz but the intruder will hear nothing (complete silence). Bats
can hear sounds of even higher frequencies, up to 150 kHz i.e. 150 000 Hz.
Vc

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