Shri

Automation in Process Control

Automation in Process
Control
(Part-2)
 Data
Manipulation
Instructions
Data Manipulation Instructions
Two basic classes of instructions to accomplish data manipulation:
> Instructions that operate on word data

> Those that operate on file, or block, data, which involve multiple words.

MOV (Move) —Moves the source value to the destination.

MVM (Masked Move) —Moves data from a source location to a selected portion of the destination.

AND (And) —Performs a bitwise AND operation.

OR (Or) —Performs a bitwise OR operation.

XOR (Exclusive Or) —Performs a bitwise XOR operation.

NOT (Not) —Performs a bitwise NOT operation.

CLR (Clear) —Sets all bits of a word to zero.

Data Manipulation Instructions

The operation of the program can be

summarized as follows:
• When the rung is true, input switch A
closed, the value stored at the source
address, N7:30, is copied into the
destination address, N7:20.
• When the rung goes false, input
switch A opened, the destination
address will retain the value unless it is
changed elsewhere in the program.
• The source value remains unchanged
and no data conversion occurs.
Data Manipulation Instructions -MOV
The operation of the program can be summarized
as follows:
• The mask may be entered as an address or in
hexadecimal format, and its value will be
displayed in hexadecimal.
• Where there is a 1 in the mask, data will pass
from the source to the destination.
• Where there is a 0 in the mask, data in the
destination will remain in their last state.
• Status in bits 4–7 are unchanged due to zeroes
in the mask (remained in their last state).
• Status in bits 0–3 and 8–15 were copied from
the source to destination when the MVM
instruction went true.
• The mask must be the same word size as the
source and destination.
Data Manipulation Instructions -MOV
Operation of the program can be summarized as follows:
• When the selector switch is in the open 10 s position,
rung 2 has logic continuity and rung 3 does not.
• As a result, the value 10 stored at the source address,
N7:1, is copied into the destination address, T4:1.PRE.
• Therefore, the preset value of timer T4:1 will change
from 0 to 10.
• When pushbutton PB1 is closed, there will be a 10 s
delay period before the pilot light is energized.
• When the selector switch is in the closed 5 s position,
rung 3 has logic continuity and rung 2 does not.
• As a result, the value 5 stored at the source address,
N7:2, is copied into the destination address, T4:1. PRE.
• Closing pushbutton PB1 will now result in a 5 s time-
delay period before the pilot light is energized.
Move instruction used to change the preset time of a
Data Manipulation Instructions -MOV
• Limit switch LSI is programmed to the input of
up-counter C5:1 and counts the number of parts
coming off a conveyor line onto a storage rack.
• Three different types of products are run on this line.
• The storage rack has room for only 300 boxes of
product A or 175 boxes of product B or 50 boxes of
product C.
• Three momentary switches are used to select the
desired preset counter value depending on the produc
line( A,B, or C ) being manufactured.
• A reset button is provided to reset the accumulated
count to 0.
• A pilot lamp is switched on to indicate when the
storage rack is full.
• The program has been constructed so that normally
only one of the three switches will be closed at any one
time. If more than one of the preset counter switches
is closed, the last value is selected.
PLC Data Compare Instructions

LIM (Limit test) —Tests whether one value is within the limit range of two other values.

MEQ (Masked Comparison for Equal) —Tests portions of two values to see whether they are equal.
Compares 16-bit data of a source address to 16-bit data at a reference address through a mask.

EQU (Equal) —Tests whether two values are equal.

NEQ (Not Equal) —Tests whether one value is not equal to a second value.

LES (Less Than) —Tests whether one value is less than a second value.

GRT (Greater Than) —Tests whether one value is greater than a second value.

LEQ (Less Than or Equal) —Tests whether one value is less than or equal to a second value.

GEQ (Greater Than or Equal) —Tests whether one value is greater than or equal to a second value.
PLC Data Compare –GEQ Ex : Controlling multiple loads
Summary of operation is as follows:
• The momentary stop button is closed.
• When the momentary start button is pressed, SOL A
output energizes immediately to switch on solenoid A.
• SOL A examine-on contact becomes true to seal in output
SOL A and to start on-delay timer T4:1 timing.
• The timer preset time is set to 15 seconds.
• Output SOL D will energize (through the timer done bit
T4:1/DN) after a total time delay of 15 seconds to energize
solenoid D.
• Output SOL B will energize after a total time delay of 5
seconds, when the accumulated time becomes equal to and
then greater than 5 seconds. This, in turn, will energize
solenoid B.
• Output SOL C will energize after a total time delay of 10
seconds, when the accumulated time becomes equal to and
then greater than 10 seconds. This, in turn, will energize
solenoid C.
PLC Data Compare Instructions -EQU
Summary of operation is as follows:
• When the switch (S1) is closed, timer T4:1 will begin
timing.
• Both EQU instructions’ source A s are addressed to get
the accumulated value from the timer while it is running.
• The EQU instruction of rung 2 has the value of 5 stored in
source B.
• When the accumulated value of the timer reaches 5, the
EQU instruction of rung 2 will become logic true for 1
second.
• As a result, the latch output will energize to switch the
pilot light PL1 on.
• When the accumulated value of the timer reaches 15, the
EQU instruction of rung 3 will be true for 1 second.
• As a result, the unlatch output will energize to switch the
pilot light PL1 off.
• Therefore, when the switch is closed, the pilot light will
come on after 5 seconds, stay on for 10 seconds, and then
PLC Data Compare Instructions -LES
Summary of operation is as follows:
• Up-counter C5:1 will increment by 1 for every false-to-
true transition of the proximity sensor switch.
• Source A of the LES instruction is addressed to the
accumulated value of the counter and source B has a
constant value of 20.
• The LES instruction will be true as the long as the value
contained in source A is less than that of source B.
• Therefore, output solenoid SOL will be energized when
the accumulated value of the counter is between 0 and
19.
• When the counter’s accumulated value reaches 20, the
LES instruction will go false, de-energizing output
solenoid SOL.
• When the counter’s accumulated value reaches its
preset value of 50, the counter reset will be energized
through the counter done bit (C5:1/DN) to reset the
PLC Ex: Automatic Bottle Filling System
PLC - Numerical Data I/O Interfaces

Numerical data I/O interfaces can be divided into two groups:

> Provide interface to Multibit Digital Devices

> Provide interface to Analog Devices

Multibit Digital Devices:

These are like discrete I/O because processed signals are discrete (on/off). Discrete I/O
- only a single bit is required to read an input or control an output.
Multibit interfaces allow a group of bits to be input or output as a unit. They can be
used to accommodate devices that require BCD inputs or outputs.
PLC Numerical Data I/O Interfaces
BCD input interface module connected to a thumbwheel switch
• Thumbwheel switches (TWS), shown in Figure, are typical BCD
input devices. Each one of the four switches provides four
binary digits at its output that correspond to the decimal
number selected on the switch.
• Conversion from a single decimal digit to four binary digits is
performed by the TWS device.
• BCD input module allows the processor to accept the 4-bit
digital codes and input their data into specific register or word
locations in memory to be used by the control program.
• Data manipulation instructions can be used to access the data
from the input module allowing a person to change set points,
timer, or counter presets externally without modifying the
control program.
PLC Numerical Data I/O Interfaces
BCD output interface module connected to a seven-segment
LED display board

• Seven-segment LED display board, shown in Figure is a typical

Binary Coded Decimal (BCD) output device.
• It displays a decimal number that corresponds to the BCD
value it receives at its input.
• Conversion of the four binary bits to a single decimal digit on
the display is performed by the LED display device.
• The BCD output module is used to output data from a specific
register or word location in memory.
• This type of output module enables a PLC to operate devices
that require BCD coded signals.
 PLC Numerical Data I/O Interfaces
Monitoring the setting of a thumbwheel switch

Summary of operation is as follows:

• The LED display board monitors the decimal setting
of the thumbwheel switch.
• The MOV instruction is used to move the data from
the thumbwheel switch input to the LED display
output.
• Setting of the thumbwheel switch is compared to
the reference number 1208 stored in source B by the
EQU instruction.
• Pilot light output PL is energized whenever the
input switch S1 is true (closed) and the value of the
thumbwheel switch is equal to 1208.
 PLC Numerical Data I/O Interfaces
Analog input interface module

• Analog input module contains the circuitry

necessary to accept analog voltage or current
signals from field devices.
• Input signal is converted from an analog to a
digital value by an analog-to-digital (A/D) converter
circuit.
• The conversion value, which is proportional to the
analog signal, is passed through the controller’s
data bus and stored in a specific register or word
location in memory for later use by the control
program.
 PLC Numerical Data I/O Interfaces
Analog Output Interface Module
• It accepts a range of numeric values output from
the PLC program and to produce a varying current
or voltage signal required to control a connected
analog output device.
• Data from a specific register or word location in
the CPU memory are passed through the
controller’s data bus to the digital-to-analog (D/A)
converter.
• Analog output from the D/A converter is then
used to control the analog output device.
• Level of the analog signal output is based on the
digital value of the data word supplied by the CPU
and manipulated by the control program.
• These output interfaces normally require an
external power supply that meets certain current
and voltage requirements.
 PLC Closed-Loop Control
Set-point control program

• Oven is reqd to maintain avg set-point

temperature of 600°F with a variation of about 1
percent between the off and on cycles.
• Electric heaters are turned on when the temp of
the oven is 597°F or less and will stay on until the
temperature rises to 603°F or more.
• Electric heaters stay off until the temp drops to
597°F, at which time the cycle repeats itself.
• When LEQ is true, a low-temp condition exists
and the pgm switches on the heater.
• Whenever the GEQ instruction is true, a high-
temp condition exists and the program switches off
the heater.
 PLC Closed-Loop Control
Set-point control program

• For the pgm as shown the temp is 595°F

so the LEQ instruction and B3:0/1 will both
be true and the heater output will be
switched on and sealed-in through the
heater examine-on instruction.
• Once the temperature increases to 598°F
the LEQ instruction goes false but the heater
output remains on until the temperature
rises to 603°F.
• At the 603°F point the GEQ instruction and
B3:0/2 will both be true and the heater will
be switched off.
PLC Closed-Loop Control

Set-point control schemes performed by PLC models

On/off control

Proportional (P) control

Proportional-integral (PI) control

Proportional-Integral-Derivative (PID) control

PLC Closed-Loop Control

Closed-loop control system

Proportional control process

Typical PID control loop

Math Instructions
 PLC Math Instructions

Basic four mathematical functions are:

Addition —The capability to add one piece of data to
another.

Subtraction —The capability to subtract one piece of

data from another.

Multiplication —The capability to multiply one piece

of data by another.

Division —The capability to divide one piece of data

by another.
PLC Math Instructions
CPT (Compute) —Evaluates an expression and stores the result in the destination.

ADD (add) —Adds source A to source B and stores the result in the destination.

SUB (Subtract) —Subtracts source B from source A and stores the result in the destination.

MUL (Multiply) —Multiplies source A by source B and stores the result in the destination.

DIV (Divide) —Divide's source A by source B and stores the result in the math register.
SQR (Square Root) —Calculates the square root of the source and places the integer result in the
destination.
NEG (Negate) —Changes the sign of the source and places it in the destination.
TOD (To BCD) —Converts a 16-bit integer source value to BCD and stores it in the math register or the
destination.
FRD (From BCD) —Converts a BCD value in the math register or the source to an integer and stores it
in the destination.
PLC Math Instructions -ADD

The operation of the logic can be

summarized as follows:
• When input switch SW is closed the rung
will be true.
• The value stored at the source A address,
N7:0 (25), is added to the value stored at
the source B address, N7:1 (50).
• The answer (75) is stored at the
destination address N7:2.
• Source A and source B can be either
values or addresses that contain values, but
A and B cannot both be constants.
PLC Math Instructions : Ex - Add the counts of up-counters
The operation of the program can be summarized as
follows:
• Source A of the ADD instruction is addressed to
store the accumulated value of counter C5:0.
• Source B of the ADD instruction is addressed to
store the accumulated value of counter C5:1.
• The value at source A is added to the value at source B,
and the result (answer) is stored at destination address
N7:1.
• Source A of the GEQ (greater than or equal) instruction
is addressed to store the value of the destination
address N7:1.
• Source B of the GEQ instruction contains the constant
value of 350.
PLC Math Instructions -SUB

The operation of the logic can be

summarized as follows:
• When input switch SW is closed the rung
will be true.
• The value stored at the source B address,
N7:05 (322), is subtracted from the value
stored at the source A address, N7:10 (520).
• The answer (198) is stored at the
destination address, N7:20.
• Source A and source B can be either
values or addresses that contain values, but
A and B cannot both be constants.
PLC Math Instructions : Ex- Temperature control program.
• Upper and lower temp limits are set automatically at 61
percent regardless of the set-point value.
• Set-point temp is adjusted by means of the
thumbwheel switch.
• Analog thermocouple interface module is used to
monitor the current temperature of the oven.
• Here the set-point temperature is 400°F.
• Electric heaters will be turned on when the temp of the
oven drops to less than 396°F and stay on until the
temperature rises above 404°F.
• If set-point is changed to 100°F, the deadband remains
at 61 percent, with the lower limit being 99°F and the
upper limit being 101°F.
• The number stored in word N7:1 represents the upper
temperature limit, and the number stored in word N7:2
represents the lower limit.
PLC Math Instructions : Ex- Vessel overfill alarm program

• When the start button is pressed, the fill solenoid

(rung 1) and filling indicating light (rung 2) are turned
on and raw material is allowed to flow into the vessel.
• Vessel has its weight monitored continuously by
the PLC program (rung 3) as it fills.
• When the weight reaches 500 lb, the fill solenoid is
de-energized and the flow is cut off.
• At the same time, the filling pilot light indicator is
turned off and the full pilot light indicator (rung 3)
is turned on.
• When the fill solenoid leak 5 lb or more of raw
material into the vessel, the alarm (rung 5) will energize
and stay energized until the overflow level is
reduced below the 5-lb overflow limit.
PLC Math Instructions -MUL

The operation of the logic can be

summarized as follows:
• When input switch SW is closed the rung
will be true.
• The data in source A (constant 20) will be
multiplied by the data in source B
(accumulated value of counter C5:10).
• The resultant answer is placed in the
destination N7:2.
• Source A and B in multiplication
instructions can be values (constants) or
addresses that contain values, but A and B
cannot both be constants.
PLC Math Instructions -DIV

• When input switch SW is closed the DIV

instruction is executed.
• The value stored in source A, address N7:0 (120),
is then divided by the value stored in source B,
address N7:1 (4).
• The answer, 30, is placed in the destination
address N7:5.
• As a result, the equal instruction becomes true,
turning output PL1 on.
PLC Math Instructions –DIV Ex: Celsius to Fahrenheit values
• The thumbwheel switch connected to the input
module indicates Celsius temperature.
• The program is designed to convert the recorded
Celsius temperature in the data table to Fahrenheit
values for display.
• The following conversion formula forms the basis
for the program: F = ( 9/ 5 × C ) + 132
• Here current temp reading of 60°C is assumed.
• MUL instruction multiplies the temp (60°C) by 9
and stores the product (540) in address N7:0.
• DIV instruction divides 5 into the 540 and stores
the answer (108) in address N7:1.
• ADD instruction adds 32 to the value of 108 and
stores the sum (140) in address O:13.
• Thus 60°C = 140°F.
Sequencer and Shift Register
Instructions
PLC Sequencer and Shift Register Instructions
Sequencer commands:

SQO (Sequencer Output) —Is an output instruction that uses a file to control various output
devices.

SQI (Sequencer Input) —Is an input instruction that compares bits from an input fi le to
corresponding bits from a source address. The instruction is true if all pairs of bits are the same.

SQC (Sequencer Compare) —Is an output instruction that compares bits from an input source file
to corresponding bits from data words in a sequence file. If all pairs of bits are the same, then a bit
in the control register is set to 1.

SQL (Sequencer Load) —Is an output instruction used to capture reference conditions by manually
stepping the machine through its operating sequences. It transfers data from the input source
module to the sequencer file. The instruction functions much like a file-to-word transfer
instruction.
 PLC Sequencer and Shift Register Instructions

Parameters that may be required to be entered in sequencer instructions are as follows:

File —Is the starting address for the registers in the sequencer fi le and you must use the indexed file indicator (#) for
this address. The fi le contains the data that will be transferred to the destination address when the instruction
undergoes a false-to-true transition.
Mask —Is the bit pattern through which the sequencer instruction moves source data to the destination address. Recall
that in the mask bit pattern, a 1 passes values while a 0 blocks the data flow.
Source —Is the address of the input word or file from which the SQC and SQL instruction obtains data for comparison or
input to its sequencer file.
Destination —Is the address of the output word or file to which the SQO moves the data from its sequencer file.
Control The control register stores the status byte of the instruction, the length of the sequencer file, and the
instantaneous position in the file as follows:
- The enable bit (EN; bit 15) is set by a false-to-true rung transition and indicates that the instruction is enabled. It
follows the rung condition.
- The done bit (DN; bit 13) is set after the last word in the sequencer fi le is transferred. On the next false-to-true
transition of the rung with the done bit set, the position pointer is reset to 1.
- The error bit (ER; bit 11) is set when the processor detects a negative position value, or a negative or zero length value.
 PLC Sequencer and Shift Register Instructions
Four-step sequencer
Sequencer used to control traffic in two directions.
The operation of the process are as follows:
• Six outputs are to be energized from one
16-point output module.
• Each light is controlled by one bit address of
output word O:2.
• The first 6 bits are programmed to execute the
following sequence of light outputs:
- Step 1: Outputs O:2.0 (red) and O:2.5 (green)
lights will be energized.
- Step 2: Outputs O:2.0 (red) and
O:2.4 (yellow) will be energized.
- Step 3: Outputs O:2.2 (green)
and O:2.3 (red) will be energized.
- Step 4: Outputs O:2.1 (yellow)
and O:2.3 (red) will be energized.
PLC Sequencer and Shift Register Instructions
Sequencer moving data through a mask word
PLC Sequencer and Shift Register Instructions
Sequencer moving data from a file to an output
PLC Sequencer and Shift Register Instructions
Sequencer Program

- Event-driven
Sequencer program can be
- Time-driven

An event-driven sequencer operates that increments by one

step for each pulse applied to it.

A time-driven sequencer operates that increments

automatically after a preset time period.
PLC Sequencer and Shift Register Instructions
Sequencer Chart
 PLC Sequencer and Shift Register Instructions - Example
Time-driven sequencer output program
• The bits controlling the traffic light outputs are stored in integer
file #N7:0 of the first SQO instruction.
• The settings for the output bits for each position are entered and
stored in binary table format as shown.
• Each word of the #N7:0 file is moved from the file by the program
to the destination output word O:2 as previously described.
• The second SQO instruction sequencer file, #N7:10,contains the
stored preset timer values 25, 5, 25,5 seconds. These settings are
stored in words N7:11,N7:12, N7:13, and N7:15 as illustrated.
• Each word of the #N7:10 fi le is moved by the program to the
destination address T4:1.PRE,which is the preset value for the
timer.
• Program moves information from this file to timer T4:1’s preset.
The mask allows the proper data to pass and blocks the
unnecessary data.
• The timer cycles the two SQO instructions through their four
states.
PLC Sequencer and Shift Register Instructions - Example
Time-driven sequencer output program
 PLC Sequencer and Shift Register Instructions - Example

Time-driven sequencer with constant time

interval between steps

• The preset time of timer T4:0 is set for 3 seconds.

• The settings of the output bits for each sequencer position are entered
and stored in bit file #B3:0.
• The timer is started by the closing switch SW and 3 seconds later the
timer done bit is set to1.
• As a result the timer done bit increments the SQO instruction to the
next position and resets the timer.
• The destination is O:2 and all 16 bits of this word are used for outputs.
• The mask is FFFF hexadecimal or 1111111111111111 binary, which
allows all 16 bits to pass through.
• As long as input SW is closed the program continues operating with 3
seconds between sequencer steps.
 PLC Sequencer and Shift Register Instructions - Example
Event-driven sequencer

• The sequencer SQO instruction uses two sensor switches (S1 ,S2).
• Any one of the two parallel paths can make the SQO rung true.
• As each event occurs, that OR branch makes a false to-true
transition advancing the sequencer position.
• Data are copied from file #B3:0 at the bit locations through mask
word, F0FF hex or 1111000011111111 binary, to the destination
O:2.
Mask bits are set to 1 to pass data and reset to 0 to mask data.
• Once the position reaches the last position on the true-to-false
transition of the instruction the position will reset to 1.
• Note that the data in O:2 match the data in position 2 in the file,
except for the data in bits 8 through 11.
• Bits 8 through 11 may be controlled from elsewhere in the program;
they are not affected by the sequencer instruction because of the 0
in these bit positions in the mask.
PLC Sequencer and Shift Register Instructions - Example
• SQI instruction compares the input data
Sequencer input (SQI) instruction in I:3 through the mask FFF0 with the data
in the sequencer file N7:11 through N7:15
for equality.
• Specific data in the sequencer file used
in the comparison is identified by the
position parameter.
• When unmasked source bits match
those of the corresponding sequencer file
word, the instruction goes true,
otherwise, the instruction is false.
• Data at position 2 match the unmasked
input data, so the SQI instruction is true,
thus making the rung ,output PL1 true.
• Input data can indicate the state of an
input device, such as the combination of
input switches shown.
• Anytime the combination of opened
and closed switches is equal to the
combination of 1s and 0s on a step in the
sequencer reference file, the PL1 output
of the sequencer becomes energized
PLC Sequencer and Shift Register Instructions - Example
• The data in the highest 4 bits of the
Sequencer Compare (SQC) instruction source (I:1) are compared to the data in
file #B3:22.
• In this example, the highest 4 bits in I:1
match the status of the highest 4 bits in
B3:25 at step position 3.
• If the pushbutton input I:1/0 is true at
this point, the found (FD) bit is set, which
turns output PL1 on.
• Whenever the combination of opened
and closed switches connected to I:1/12,
I:1/13, I:1/14, and I:1/15 is equal to the
combination of 1s and 0s
on a step in the sequencer reference file
and the input I:1/0 is true, the PL1 output
will become energized.
• The mask (F000h) allows unused bits of
the sequencer instruction to be used
independently. In this example, unused
bit I:1/0 is used for the conditional input
of the sequencer compare rung.
 PLC Sequencer and Shift Register Instructions - Example
Sequencer Load (SQL) instruction
• The sequencer load instruction is used to load the file and does
not function during the machine’s normal operation.
• It replaces the manual loading of data into the file with the pgm
terminal.
• The sequencer load instruction does not use a mask. It copies
data directly from the source address to the sequencer file.
• When the instruction goes from false to true, the instruction
indexes to the next position and copies the data.
• When the instruction has operated on the last position and has
a true-to-false transition, it resets to position 1.
• It transfers data in position 0 only if it is at position 0 and the
instruction is true and the processor goes from the program to
run mode.
• By manually jogging the machine through its cycle, the switches
connected to input I:2 of the source can be read at each position
and written into the file by momentarily pressing PB1. Otherwise,
the data would have to be entered into the fi le manually.
Distributed
Control
Systems
Definition
Distributed Control Systems
Definition
“A system comprising of
functionally and physically separate
automatic process controllers, process monitoring
and data logging equipment
all of which are interconnected through a
fast, digital network.”
DCS - About
• Sometimes referred as Decentralized Control System
• Most of the DCS architectures are generally similar.
• Operator consoles are connected to controllers through a digital, fast,
high-integrity communications system.
• Control is distributed across by the powerful and secure communication
system.
• Process inputs are connected to the controllers directly or through IO bus
systems such as Profibus, Foundation FieldBus etc.
• Major control functions, such as controllers, I/O, operator stations,
historians, and configuration stations are distributed onto different boxes.
• Key system functions are designed to be redundant ie. if any part of the
DCS fails the plant should continue to operate.
DCS - About
• DCS have rapidly expanded their capabilities in terms of features,
functions, performance and size.
• DCS available today can perform very advanced control functions, along
with powerful recording, totalizing, mathematical calculations, and
decision-making functions.
• DCS controllers are distributed geographically and functionally across the
plant
• Communicate among themselves and with operator terminals, supervisor
terminals to carry out all necessary control functions for a large plant/
process.
• DCS is most suited for plants involving large number of continuous
control loops, special control functions, process variables, and alarms.
• Review the evolution of control systems
DCS - Evolution
• Instrumentation used to implement automatic process control has gone
through an evolutionary process and is still evolving today
• In the beginning, plants used local, large-case pneumatic controllers
• Later became miniaturized and centralized when analog electronic
instruments were introduced.
• First applications of process control computers resulted in a mix of the
traditional analog and the newer Direct Digital Control (DDC) equipment
located in the same control room.
• This mix of equipment was not only cumbersome but also rather inflexible
because the changing of control configurations necessitated changes in
the routing of wires.
• This arrangement gave way in the 1970s to the Distributed Control System
(DCS).
• Used to be referred as Distributed Digital Control Systems (DDCS) earlier,
implying that all DCS are digital control systems
DCS- Evolution of Traditional Control Systems
DCS - Evolution of Traditional Control Systems

*
• Pneumatic Control

*
• Electronic Analog Control

*
• Digital Control

• Modes of computer control

• Direct Digital Control (DDC)
*

• Supervisory Control
• Hierarchical Computer Control System
• Distributed Control Systems
*

• Programmable Logic Controllers

DCS - Evolution of Traditional Control Systems
• Pneumatic Control
• Earliest implementations of automatic control systems involved
pneumatic transmission of signals.
• Used compressed air as the medium for signal transmission and
actuation.
• Actual control commands were computed using elements such as
springs and bellows.
• Plants used local, pneumatic controllers, which were large
mechanical structures.
• Pneumatic controller has high margin for safety, and since it is
explosion proof, used in hazardous environments.
• Slow response and are susceptible to interference.
• Industry standard range is 3–15 psig where 3 psig -lower-range value
(LRV) and 15 psig - upper-range value (URV).
DCS - Evolution of Traditional Control Systems
• Electronic Analog Control
• Electrical signals were used as the mode of transmission
• Disadvantage is the susceptible to contamination from stray
fields, leading to degradation in signal quality over long
distances.
• Standard electrical signal is the 4–20 mA current signals : 4 mA
represents the lowest possible measurement, or zero, and 20
mA represents the highest value
DCS - Evolution of Traditional Control Systems
• Digital Control
• Transmission is still an electrical signal, but the signals are in binary form.
• Open digital protocols viz. HART® (highway addressable remote
transducer) protocol, FOUNDATION™ FieldBus, Profibus, DeviceNet, and
the Modbus® protocol.
• Digital signals are far less sensitive to noise
• Computational devices are digital processors with real time operating
systems and are more flexible because they are programmable.
• No limitation to the complexity of the computations it can carry out.
• Many field sensors naturally produce analog voltage or current signals.
Transducers that convert analog to digital signals (A/D) and those that
convert them back to analog signals (D/A) are used as interface between
the analog and digital elements of the modern control system.
• Possible to implement many sophisticated control strategies at very high
speeds
DCS - Evolution of Traditional Control Systems
• Direct Digital Control (DDC)

• Single computer digitally performs

signal processing, indication, and
control functions and therefore the
name “direct digital control.”
• Digital computer computes control
signals that directly operate the
control devices.
DCS - Evolution of Traditional Control Systems
• Direct Digital Control (DDC)

• Disadvantages

Higher investment, maintenance, and personnel costs, including the programming costs

Low fail-safety of the system: the failure of the computer caused the failure of all digital
control loops

Overloads of CPU and difficulties in programming when process computer had to handle
some process automation functions in addition to DDC

Costly and complex – difficulty in troubleshooting

DCS - Evolution of Traditional Control Systems
• Supervisory Control • Supervisory control computer provides
the facility for monitoring process
• Digital computer generates signals that
are used as reference (set-point) values
for conventional analog controllers.
• Measurements are transmitted to
computer and control signals are
transmitted from the computer to
control valves at specific time intervals
• Analog control subsystem and panel
instrumentation are used for
controlling but are interfaced to the
supervisory control computer through
an interfacing hardware.
 DCS - Evolution of Traditional Control Systems
• Supervisory Control
• Advantages

• With supervisory control architecture, primary loop control is returned to analog

controllers, while the supervisory control computer monitors the process and adjusts
the set points.

•The computer is relieved of intense computational tasks and therefore could be

utilized for process optimization and plant management functions, which are less time
critical and computation intensive.

• Analog controllers added to DDC computer system enhance the overall reliability.

• Control algorithms, which provide the set point to the analog control subsystem,
accommodate higher complexity.
DCS - Evolution of Traditional Control Systems
• Supervisory Control
• Disadvantages

• Extensive wiring is required between the analog controllers and the supervisory
computer and also between other instrumentation and the computer system.

• Interfacing equipment from multiple vendors (interfacing one vendor’s

computer system to another vendor’s analog instrumentation) is difficult.

• Supervisory control is costlier than DDC.

DCS - Evolution of Traditional Control Systems
• Hierarchical Computer Control System
• A network of process and/or
information management computer
systems integrated to serve common
functions such as management and
control of large plants and
geographically distributed systems such
as pipeline networks
• Information is passed up and down
between primary level of process
monitoring and control, through
supervisory levels, to decision
making/top management level.
DCS - Evolution of Traditional Control Systems
Hierarchical Computer Control System
• Information is passed up and down between primary level of
process monitoring and control, through supervisory levels, to
decision making/top management level.
• Computer network architecture usually parallels the
organizational structure of a company itself.
• Primary computers provide direct control of process and they
could be a combination of DDC, supervisory control, or
microcontroller-based controllers.
Distributed Control Systems
Definition
“A system comprising of
functionally and physically separate
automatic process controllers, process monitoring
and data logging equipment
all of which are interconnected through a
fast, digital network.”
DCS - Evolution of Traditional Control Systems
• Distributed Control Systems
• With advent of microcontrollers, individual controllers became
powerful.
• Execute more number of control algorithms and more complex
algorithms.
• Control a larger set of control steps.
• Easy to move the intelligence involved in controls to lower levels
and improve the signal processing in transmitters.
• Powerful microcontrollers also enabled the design of faster
networks.
DCS - Evolution of Traditional Control Systems
• Distributed Control Systems
• In large-scale manufacturing or process plants, there are hundreds of
control loops to be monitored and controlled.
• Commercial DCS is normally the choice for such large processes.
• Hardware and software of the DCS are quite flexible and easy to
modify and configure.
• Enables distribution of the controllers and the operator input
elements through the network, called process control network
• Elements closest to the process transmit and receive raw data
between them and the local computers
• Elements far away from the process exchange mostly processed data
at lesser frequencies but for a wider set of consumers of the data.
DCS - Evolution of Traditional Control Systems
• Distributed Control Systems
• DCS is a combination of controllers, I/Os, networks, operation consoles
and engineering consoles.
• A supervisory computer is normally at the top of the hierarchy and is
responsible for performing many higher-level functions
• Optimization of the process operation over varying time horizons (days, weeks, or
months), carrying out special control procedures such as plant startup or product
grade transitions.
• I/O module acquires process data from the measuring devices and
converts them to standard engineering units.
• DCSs are not limited to continuous control applications; they are also
capable of carrying out many of the functions of a PLC
• PLC’s scan time (time taken to scan inputs) is in 10 s of milliseconds, while
the same for a DCS could be in 100 s of milliseconds or seconds (typical
fastest speed 0.25 s)
• DCS are more expensive to purchase than a PLC-based system
• Focused on distributing control on a network so that operators can
monitor and interact with the entire scope of the plant
DCS – Architecture
DCS - Evolution of Traditional Control Systems
• Distributed Control Systems
• The major advantages of functional distribution of hardware and
software characteristic of DCS are:
• Flexibility in system design
• Ease of expansion
• Reliability
• Ease of maintenance.
• Local control can be maintained even if central components are
degraded functionally. This greatly enhances the availability and
reliability of the system.
• The control network is the most important component of DCS
• Industrial Ethernet continuously monitors the process control
network (PCN) by providing network diagnostics that are tracked and
reported as a part of the DCS.
DCS - Functional Components
DCS - Evolution of Traditional Control Systems
• Distributed Control Systems
• DCSs come with function blocks (FBs) with a complete set of
parameter-based functions, using which the user can develop and
fine-tune control strategies without designing control functions.
• DCS network is versatile, allows different modes of control
implementation for each local control loop viz.
• Manual : operator manipulates the final control element directly
• Auto : Final control element is manipulated automatically through a low-level
controller usually a PID block executed in controller. Set point for this control
loop is provided by the operator.
• Supervisory/Computer operation : an advanced digital controller is placed on
top of the low-level controller, which sets the set point for the low-level
controller. The set point for the advanced controller can be set either by the
operator or can be the outcome of steady-state optimization.
DCS - Design Considerations

1. High Reliability

2. High Availability

3. Low Cost

4. High Alarm Management Capability

5. Scalability

6. Distributed Systems
DCS - Design Considerations

High Reliability
• Reliability of the control system is a life-critical requirement.
• During design, development and manufacturing, all electronic
components of the DCS are normally subjected to extensive
periods of cycling at temperatures exceeding the limits as per
specifications.
• Hence, process less likely to fail.
• Suppliers provide redundancy in their design and architecture.
• Reliability is still probable.
DCS - Design Considerations

High Availability
• High availability is as important as reliability
MTBF
• Availability =
MTBF + MTTR

• MTBF- Mean Time Between Failure

• MTTR - Mean Time To Repair
• Distributed control equipment is highly modular and contains many printed
circuit cards
• Time to repair can be very short if sufficient spare parts are available and
the components can be quickly brought into service
• Necessary software can be updated online without affecting the control
functions
DCS - Design Considerations

Low Cost
• Life cycle cost turns out to be lower in case of DCS compared to using PLCs
• Life cycle cost includes expenses required to build a working solution,
maintenance costs, costs of changes to accommodate growth of operations over
time.

Scalability:
• Small SCADA/PLC system is easy to design and configure. As the system grows
bigger, the effort involved to properly engineer and configure the system grows in
a nonlinear fashion. It also increases the risks of errors creeping into the process
of engineering.
• In DCS engineering time for system expansion and other changes is considerably
less. Features such as batch updates, replication of application programs with
suitable substitution are provided in the engineering tools
DCS - Design Considerations

High Alarm Management Capability

• Alarm management is necessary in a manufacturing process environment using a
control system
• System may have hundreds of individual alarms with interdependencies amongst
other alarms.
• Humans can pay attention to a limited number of stimuli and messages at a time.
Therefore, there is a need to ensure that alarms are taken up and acted upon by a
human operator.
• Alarms also need to be catch up operator’s attention to the most important problem
that he or she needs to act upon as per prioritization scheme.
• Alarm priority itself is dynamic
• DCSs are designed such that dynamically filters the process alarms based on the
current plant operation and conditions.
• DCS systems capable of intelligent alarm management to aid in abnormal situation.
DCS - Design Considerations

Distributed Systems
• DCS has to share real-time data across a network, which may be geographically
distributed.
• Networking a major component in the DCS architecture.
• There is a need for a seamless transfer of control signals among the distributed
controllers, the supervisory controllers, operator workstations, plant computers
• Objectives of a networking topology in industrial automation are
• Enable wide distribution of the components
• Connectivity to different machines and nodes
• Reliable data gathering and sharing
• Redundant communication medium
• Deterministic transmission and receipt of data
• Sufficient speed to match the plant requirements
DCS - Hierarchy of Plant Operations

Plant operations could be classified into three control zones:

• PCN (Plant/Process Control Network) layer

- Process control operations and data transfer occurs.

• DMZ (Demilitarized) layer

– Servers such as OPC, remote maintenance, web server can be operated.

• PIN (Plant Information Network) layer

– Plant and office personnel access
 DCS - Plant Operations

Plant operations fall into three control zones

• PCN ({Plant/Process Control Network) layer -Process control operations and data transfer occurs.
• DMZ (Demilitarized) layer – Servers such as OPC, remote maintenance, web server can be operated.
• PIN (Plant Information Network) layer – Plant and office personnel access.

Field devices are the first level that comes in the hierarchy, intended to communicate the
parameters in field such as flow, level, pressure/temperature/proximity/analysis, and so on.

They communicate over multiple protocols such as HART/Foundation FieldBus/Profibus etc.

At the control level, the signals from the transmitters in the field are processed to generate
commands to the actuators. The usual equipment is a PLC or process control system (PCS).
DCS - Plant Operations

Supervisory platforms are intended to monitor downstream control and

translate the control into a user viewable format. It consists of
• Engineering stations : It has the software that has libraries used for analog/digital control
• Operator stations : It validates logic flow rcvd from operator station that mimics the
process in the field
• Application stations : It involves Plant diagnostics and integration

Integration refers to communicating with third party devices over

technologies such as OPC.
• Ex: data from one DCS vendor to another is transferred over OPC.

Enterprise level is where process information flows into the office

management world
• Ex: To aid ordering and billing via service access point (SAP) or production planning.
DCS - Functional Components

DCS is powerful and flexible integrated control system that supply data
* acquisition , advance process control and monitoring , batch control
capacities.

* Plant operator monitor and manipulates set point of process from central
control room

Operator views the process information on CRT screen and Control through
* keypad

Basic Data collection ( analog and digital )

Generate output signal to actuator
function of
Plant GUI
DCS
Remote location control
DCS - Functional Components

Input/Output Controller Networks

Subsystems Subsystem (PCN, PIN)

Plant Operation and

Information Control Gateways
Network Subsystems

Engineering/
Configuration
Subsystem
DCS - Functional Components

- IO subsystems perform a variety of functions such as analog-to-

Input/Output digital conversion, conversion to engineering values, limit
checking, quality tagging, and so on.
Subsystems
- Enable assignment of addresses to the field signals for use by the
controllers.

- Execute the control logic once in a fixed interval of time, which

constitutes the controller cycle time.
Controllers
- Controllers consist of a base firmware that enables the controllers to
subsystems communicate on the network, exchange data, and commands among
themselves or with the operator and supervisory interfaces.
DCS - Functional Components

- Information from the field devices and controller are

Networks transmitted to operator workstations, application
workstations, data historians, report generators, centralized
(PCN, PIN) databases, and so on over the Plant Control Network (PCN).

-Information from the operator workstations is passed on to

the other workstations, which execute a variety of higher-
Plant level applications.
Information -Operator workstations and the supervisory workstations
Network exchange data through the PIN.
-PIN could also be part of the enterprise network
DCS - Functional Components
- Workstations run applications that enable the operator to perform a
variety of operations.
Operation - An operator may interact with the system through the displays and
keyboards to change control parameters, view the current state of
and Control the process, or access and acknowledge alarms generated by field
devices and controllers.
Subsystems
- Operator can also change the control software executing in the
controllers and in some of the field devices.

- Gateways enable two-way data transfer.

- Gateways can be made available on any of the networks to
enable data exchange from other control systems that are used
Gateways in the DCS
- Can either aid to control decisions or to store for historical
references.
DCS - Functional Components

- DCS are always sold as packages because the parts function

Engineering/ together as a system.
Configuration - Since the components of the system communicate over a
Subsystem shared data highway, no change is required to the wiring when
the process and its control logic are modified.
DCS -Field Communication
Digital communications technology reduces wiring and improves end-to-end signal accuracy and
integrity in modern digital plants.

One of the greatest advantages of digital communications over analog is the ability to communicate
vast amounts of data over a limited number of data channels.

Overall, use of digital technology can reduce automation project costs significantly by in addition to
operational improvement.

There are different digital communication standards designed to interconnect industrial instruments
and various IO modules.

Common and popular digital communication • HART | • Modbus | • FOUNDATION FieldBus | • Profibus | •
standards and their description are as follows: AS-I | • CANbus | • ControlNET | • DeviceNet
DCS - I/O Subsystems
DCS operation and control depends on how the physical measurements are made and
transferred to digital control systems.

Sensor or transducer measures the field parameters such as temperature /pressure or

position/presence of an object.

Based on nature of parameter an analog or digital is generated.

This digital signal is fed to the controllers in the DCS

Signals are generally processed in three different ways:

• 1. Analog signals directly being sent to the control system

• 2. Analog-to-digital or vice versa conversion is done, sent to systems using digital instruments.
• 3. Dealing with the signals purely in digital form as digital-to-digital input and output.
 DCS - I/O Subsystems
Typical features of I/O modules

I/Os are broadly classified into the • Isolated or nonisolated grounding on a per-point/channel or
following categories: per-board basis
• Level of fusing protection on a per-point/channel, per-circuit, or
• Analog inputs per-board basis
• Analog outputs • Accuracy and linearity of the sampling frequency
• Digital inputs • Protection from external disturbance
• Digital outputs
• Fault option for output modules
• Overload, short circuit, and surge protection
• Pulse inputs
• Impedance matching with field devices
• FF inputs • Loop feedback sensing or read-back option
• FF outputs • Back initialization feature to avoid bumps
• Manual override of loop control
• Criticality to indicate if the board fails, an indication of what
else will be affected
DCS - Diagnostics in IOs
IO modules have power-on self-test (POST) diagnostics during power on
process.

POST is the initial set of diagnostic tests performed by the IO module when it is
powered on.

Tests that fail are relayed to the user via the use of POST codes, beep codes, or
on-screen POST error messages immediately after the IO module is powered on.

IO module keeps running internal diagnostics to detect faults and reports the
same during runtime operations.
 DCS - Controllers
Controllers are an integral part of a DCS – the heart of the system.

Physically a controller can be mounted in a rack and placed on a rail.

Controllers are available for the commonly supported ranges as 230 V/110 V/24 V

IO Link connections communicate with the IO modules from controller

Connection from controller goes to IO module over an IO Bus

IO modules that are analog/digital/pulse outputs/inputs can be communicated over

IOBus.
Redundancy is an important aspect of DCS design.

Redundancy is maintained at all levels - IOBus level, IO module level, controller level,
power supply level
DCS - Controllers

Rack mounted redundant controller

DCS - Controllers
Remote IO Bus and Bus connected IOs
-IO modules are mounted on a rail normally on a base and these
bases are connected to another base for communication and a
gateway module is used for communication with controller
-Controller and IO modules all sit on a rail and are connected to
each other through a cabling system
DCS - Controllers
+ CPU
Controller + RAM
architecture
+ Communication interface

CPU -> heart of controller, powerful processor from manufacturers

RAM -> vital part wherein the live execution data is present in the RAM
and retrieved at a faster rate during data access control mechanisms.

• Communication with peer

Communication Interface -> Controller must • Communication with interfaces

have the capability to communicate
• Communication with system
DCS - Workstations

OPERATOR CONSOLES

• Most important and integral part of a DCS.

• Major part of a desktop-based operator interface is the
consoles, which provides options to view the process,
system diagnostics, alarms, reports, and so on.
• Enables users to view the plant and control it to a certain
extent.
• Operators can change modes/set points of the loops and
control them.
• Normally located in the central control room or closer to
the process in the shop floor.
DCS - Workstations
OPERATOR CONSOLES

• Console is a primary component of Operator interface

• User can get a view of multiple aspects of the process that is getting
controlled.
• Following are the features of a station, which are explained in greater
detail in subsequent sections:
• • Displays
• • History
• • Trends
• • Alarms
• • Reports
• • Supervisory control and configuration
• • Security
 DCS - Workstations
Differences between desktop-based and embedded-based interfaces
HMI Panels Operator Interfaces (Desktop-Based)
• Compact in size, can mount in a marshalling cabinet • Need dedicated space, can mount in central control
• Rugged – can withstand very high temperatures, humidity, room or close to process with proper protection
dust • Relatively less rugged when compared to HMI panels
• Embedded OS consumes less resources • Desktop OS consumes more resources
• Used for dedicated applications such as controlling specific • Has access to entire plant unless restricted, can control
area/process in a plant. Area of control is limited. all loops for which it was given access
• Less secure by design • More secure by design
• Less maintenance for sustaining security • More maintenance for sustaining security
• Often supports open protocols for communication such as • Dedicated to a specific DCS vendor hence will
Modbus communicate over proprietary protocols only
• Powerful diagnostics are not available by default. Need to • Powerful diagnostics are available as this is the integral
choose among the variants to achieve this. part of DCS, only restricted features for security reason.
• Modifying the control after mounting is not easy because it • Control can be modified with ease because the
needs dedicated connectors, software, and machines to do machine is well equipped
that
DCS - Functional features
• System configuration

• Communications

• Control

• Alarms and events

• Diagnostics

• Redundancy

• Historical data

• Security

• Integration
 DCS - Functional architecture
• System configuration

• Communications

• Control

• Alarms and events

• Diagnostics

• Redundancy

• Historical data

• Security

• Integration
DCS - Functional Features of DCS
SYSTEM CONFIGURATION/PROGRAMMING

• Two distinct terms – programming and configuration.

• Every controller comes with inbuilt firmware.
• An application program is downloaded into another partition of the controller memory.
• Manufacturers may also provide the application programs and a way to set certain parameters
to make the generic logic work in the particular plant.
• - EX: DCS manufacturer provided an application program to control a set of three
compressors. Same controller might be sold by the same vendor with another application
program say for control of a set of pumps. At the field, it is just a matter of defining the
minimum and maximum pressures, the number and type of relay contacts to be operated,
and the measurement range for field signals. This process is called Configuration.
• - DCS vendor provides the controller with the application program in blank state. Users can
write custom application programs to cater to specific logic; this process is termed as
Programming
• Hardware configuration like setting the addresses of the IO modules and controllers.
• Configuration/engineering application allows designer to create or change operator interfaces
• DCS can also be reconfigured without need to take the system off-line
DCS - Functional Features of DCS
COMMUNICATIONS

• Communication infrastructure provides

• • Connections between different subsystems in the system
• • Unsolicited communications for real-time data changes in the process
• • Synchronous and asynchronous read/writes
• • Configuration downloads to nodes, controllers, and devices
• • Autosensing of workstations, controllers, IO cards, devices
• • Diagnostics of system components and control strategies
• • Online upgrades of system in operation
• • Hot/warm/cold restart of control strategy from backup
• • Secure and unsecured access to information in the system
• • Alarms and events generated by process and system
• • Device alerts generated by devices and equipment in the system
• • Time synchronization across nodes, devices, and I/O
• • Deterministic communication of plant data so that data exchange is guaranteed
in the system
DCS - Functional Features of DCS
COMMUNICATIONS

• Data highway is the communication medium that allows a DCS to permit

controlling function through a large plant area.
• Ethernet CAT5 cable, Twisted and shielded coax cables, Optic fiber cables
• Optic fiber cables are used most commonly for point-to-point connection
between switches and hubs.
• Features of Optical fiber
• Eliminates problems of electromagnetic and radiofrequency interference,
ground loops, and common mode voltages.
• Safe in explosive or flammable environments.
• Carry more information than copper conductors.
• Inert to most chemicals, and is lighter and easier to handle than coaxial
cable.
• Special equipment, skilled labor are needed to terminate and connect
optical fibers.
DCS - Functional Features of DCS
CONTROL

• DCS is connected to field sensors and actuators and uses set-

point control to control the process in the plant.
• EX: Set-point control loop consisting of a pressure sensor,
controller, and control valve.
• Pressure or flow measurements are transmitted to the
controller, usually through transmitted and signal conditioning
I/O cards.
• Today’s controllers have extensive computational capabilities
and, in addition to PID control, can generally perform logic and
sequential control.
• Modern DCSs also support neural networks and fuzzy
applications.
DCS - Functional Features of DCS
ALARMS AND EVENTS
• Integrated Alarms and Events processing subsystem are the critical part of the DCS.
• Engineering software is used to configure to
• Monitor system states | Get notified of significant system states | Acknowledge them
• Priorities can also be associated with the events so as to monitor the events in the plant.
• Alarms are the most vital part of a system, subset of alerts, indicates abnormality in process.
• Alerts, can be broadly classified into three categories:
• • Alarms – Based on priority – Urgent , High, Low
• – Provision for audio and annunciation
• – Mainly classified into two categories:
• • Process alarms - malfunctioning in the control loop
• • Diagnostic alarms - representation of equipment health
• • Events - Every alarm generates an event
• - Representative of multiple happenings in the system
• • Messages - Advise certain actions to users when needed
• Reports - Reports provide information about the occurrence of multiple events in a specified
• time frame, this can be autogenerated or on demand
• Logs - are the ones that provide insights into the operations happening internal to the system
DCS - Functional Features of DCS

DIAGNOSTICS

• Integrated diagnostics is an important feature of the DCS.

• It cover hardware, redundancy, communications, control, and, to some
extent, the software that makes up the DCS.
• System alarm is reported on the failure or malfunction of any of these
components and the necessary log messages are recorded

Redundancy

• Important requirement for any critical process control application using

DCS.
• Several DCS redundancies are built at the level of communication media,
controllers, I/O cards and I/O communications/ connections and
workstations.
DCS - Functional Features of DCS

HISTORICAL DATA

• DCS usually includes the ability to collect batch, continuous, and

event data.
• Data is historized for the usage of equipment at higher levels and also
to have the record at lower levels and see how things are working at
the equipment end.
• A centrally defined history database is available for the storage of
historical data.
• Important to understand the process behavior under certain
circumstances
• Value of any attribute, alarm or any control strategy, alert, or process
condition can be recorded in the history database along with its status
DCS - Functional Features of DCS

HISTORICAL DATA

• DCS usually includes the ability to collect batch, continuous, and event data.
• Extremely important for making business decisions such as planning
finances, production and so on
• Data is historized for the usage of equipment at higher levels and also to
have the record at lower levels and see how things are working at the
equipment end.
• A centrally defined history database is available for the storage of historical
data.
• Important to understand the process behavior under certain circumstances
• Value of any attribute, alarm or any control strategy, alert, or process
condition can be recorded in the history database along with its status
DCS - Functional Features of DCS
SECURITY
• Security is essential in process control
• DCS system must be able to limit access to the various parts of the control system to authorized
people only.
• Several aspects to security as summarized
• Authentication: Access to the DCS for human users and layered applications users is controlled
by password-protected user accounts.
• User: A human user of the DCS must have a user account on the system to gain access
• Plant area security: A user account can be permitted or denied access to make changes within
one or more plant areas within a site.
• Security for operator interfaces is one of the most important aspects of any control system
especially in the current world where we are more prone to cyber threats than ever.
• Security on an operator interface can be classified in two ways:
• Platform-based security
• Interface-based security
• Methods of securing system can be done in two ways:
• Authentication - Used for gaining access to platform/interface
• Encryption - Purely based on data being made to unread by anyone but the destined device
DCS - Functional Features of DCS

INTEGRATION

• New plant area is added or expanded; the operators of the

new area may need some information about the existing
plant to provide a coordinated operation.
• Most popular techniques for integration use the following
technologies, through gateways or other interface techniques
• • OPC
• • Profibus and Foundation FieldBus
• • Serial
DCS - Functional Features of DCS

INTEGRATION - Integration in automation

• New plant area is added or expanded, the operators of the

new area may need some information about the existing
plant to provide a coordinated operation.
• Most popular techniques for integration use the following
technologies, through gateways or other interface techniques
• • OPC
• • Profibus and Foundation FieldBus
• • Serial
DCS - Functional Features of DCS
INTEGRATION
• OPC (OLE for process control)
• OLE means object linking and embedding is an open industrial standard for process
control and information system interconnectivity.
• Designed on the basis of Microsoft’s ActiveX (OLE), Component Object Model (COM),
and Distributed COM (DCOM) technology
• Follows server/client architecture.
• Server is a slave device – it responds to requests from a master OPC server and
understands how to communicate with the vendor device.
• Client is a master device – it requests data from a slave.
• Capable of providing real-time sensor data – temperature, pressure, flow, and control
• parameters such as open, close, run, stop, and status information along with
• • Status of the hardware connection
• • Status of the local software and subsystem
DCS - Functional Features of DCS

INTEGRATION

• Foundation Fieldbus
• Fieldbus subsystem is the gateway. Fieldbus networks
are designed to provide highly reliable bidirectional
communication between “smart” sensors and actuators
and a control system in time-critical applications.
• Main objectives for fieldbus is to become the digital
replacement for analog 4- to 20mA transmission of
process variables in the process industries
DCS - Functional Features of DCS

INTEGRATION
• Serial communication
• Most popular applications for serial communication is through RS232/RS485
through Modbus communication.
• The physical medium used for Modbus is:
• • Modbus serial: RS232 (or) RS485
• • Modbus TCP: Ethernet and it uses transmission modes of

• • Modbus RTU – Messages are coded in hexa decimal

• • Modbus ASCII – Messages are coded in ASCII characters (only 0–9 and
A–F characters are used)
DCS - Functional Features of DCS

INTEGRATION - Foundation Fieldbus System

DCS - Functional Features of DCS

INTEGRATION - Modbus on Ethernet

Architecture of the Modbus client/server TCP communication

DCS - Functional Features of DCS
INTEGRATION - Modbus on Ethernet

• MODBUS messaging services (client/server model) are used for

real-time information exchange:

• • between two device applications,

• • between device application and other devices,

• • between HMI/SCADA applications and devices,

• • between a PC and a device program providing online services

DCS - Advantages

> Computer can record and store a very large amount of data

> Data can be displayed in any way the user requires

> Thousands of sensors over a wide area can be connected to the system

> Operator can incorporate real data simulations into the system

> Different types of data can be collected from the RTUs

> Data can be viewed from anywhere, not just on site

 DCS - Disadvantages

> System is more complicated than the sensor to panel type

> Different operating skills are required, such as system

analysts and programmer

> With thousands of sensors connected there is still a lot of wire to deal

> Operator can see only as far as the PLC

Functional Safety
Functional Safety

“Implies freedom from

unacceptable risk of physical injury or of damage to the health

of people, either directly or indirectly,

as a result of damage to property or to the environment”

~ Functional safety is part of the overall safety that depends on a system or equipment
operating correctly in response to its inputs
Functional Safety - Safety functions and safety-related systems
Two types of requirements necessary to achieve functional safety

• Safety-related is used to describe systems that are required to perform a specific function or
functions to ensure that the risks are kept at an accepted level.
- Such functions are called safety functions
• Safety-related system : Any system implemented in any technology, which carries out safety
functions
• Foundations of functional safety.
• Derived from the hazard analysis
Safety function
requirements (what the • hazard analysis identifies what has to be done to avoid the
function does) hazardous event, or events associated with.
• Derived from a risk assessment.
Safety integrity • Risk assessment gives the safety integrity required for the
requirements (the
likelihood of a safety risk to be acceptable.
function being performed • The higher the level of safety integrity, the lower the
satisfactorily). likelihood of dangerous failure.
Functional Safety

• Functional safety standards

• Standards:
• Consensus of an industry group on lowest level of engineering. Ex: IEC61508 and IEC61511
• These are normative (informative) and referenced by the directives
• Directives can be adopted by means of a variety of legislative procedures depending on their subject matter.
Functional Safety - Standards
Functional Safety -IEC61508 standard

• IEC Standard 61508 :

• general standard that covers functional safety related to all kinds of
processing and manufacturing plants, industry sectors viz. functional
safety of electric, electronic and programmable electronic system
• Physical form of the IEC61508 standard consists of seven parts.
• First four are normative – mandatory
• Fifth, sixth, and seventh are informative –provide added information and
guidance on the use of the first four.
• IEC Standard 61511 and ISA S84.01:
• Standards specific to the process industries.
• Specify precise levels of safety and quantifiable proof of compliance.
• Replaced by ISA 84.00.01-2004
Functional Safety -IEC61508 standard
• Defines the activities to be carried out at each stage of the overall safety
Part 1: (General
life cycle, as well as the requirements for documentation, conformance to
requirements)
the standard, management, and safety assessment.

• Electrical/electronic/programmable electronic (E/E/PE) safety-related

Part 2: (Requirements)
systems.

• interpret the general requirements of Part 1 in the context of hardware

Part 3: (Software
and software, respectively. They are specific to Phase 9 of the overall
requirements)
safety life cycle,
Part 4: (definitions and
• Definitions of the terms used in the standard.
abbreviations)
Part 5: (Examples of
• Risk-analysis examples and demonstrates the allocation of SILs.(Safety
Methods for the
integrity level)
Determination of SILs)
Part 6: (Guidelines on the
• Offers guidance as per its title.
application of Parts 2 ,3)
• Provides brief descriptions of techniques used in safety and software
Part 7: (Overview of
engineering, as well as references to sources of more detailed information
techniques and
about them. In any given application, it is unlikely that the entire standard
measures)
would be relevant.
Functional Safety
Risk and safety functions to protect against it Determination of the necessary risk reduction

A fundamental principle of the standard is that the measures taken to ensure safety should be
commensurate with the risks posed by the EUC and its control system.
Functional Safety
Understanding of risks and the means of
reduction.
Functional Safety -Overall Safety Life Cycle(SLS) (IEC 61508-1)

Development of safety functions requires the following steps

• Identify and analyze the risks.

• Determine the tolerability of each risk.
• Determine the risk reduction necessary for each intolerable risk.
• Specify the safety requirements for each risk reduction,
• Include their SILs.
• Design safety functions to meet the safety requirements.
• Implement the safety functions.
• Validate the safety functions.
Functional Safety -Overall Safety Life Cycle(SLS) (IEC 61508-1)
Functional Safety -Overall Safety Life Cycle(SLS) (IEC 61508-1)

• Indicate the need to consider the safety implications of the EUC and its
Phases 1, 2
control system, at the system level, when first they are conceived of.

Phase 3 • Risks are identified, analyzed, and assessed against tolerability criteria.
Phase 4 • Safety requirements for risk-reduction measures are specified,
Phase 5 • Safety requirementsare translated into the design of safety functions,

• Safety functions are implemented in safety-related systems, depending

Phases 9, 10, 11
on the selected manner of implementation,

• Safety functions are realized, no claim for safety can be made unless its
Phases 6, 7, 8
planning considers the overall safety context, and this is reflected in,

• Carrying out the functions of installation and commissioning, safety

Phases 12, 13, 14 validation, and operation and maintenance, on the overall systems,
regardless of the technologies of the safety-related systems.

• Cover later modification and retrofit of the system and

Phases 15, 16
decommissioning
Functional Safety- Risk Analysis
• Risk analysis is normally defined as consisting of three stages –
1. Hazard identification

• Consists of an attempt to identify the potential sources of harm.

2. Hazard analysis

• Study of the chains of cause and effect between the identified hazards and the
hazardous events (accidents) to which they might lead.
• Analysis is intended to determine causes and consequences, so that the risk attached to
each hazard can be derived.
• It may be quantitative or qualitative.

3. Risk assessment

• Risk values determined in the previous stage are compared against tolerability criteria to
determine whether they are tolerable as they are, and, if not, by how much they need to
be reduced.
Functional Safety - IEC 61511
• An international standard, entitled, “Functional Safety: Safety
Instrumented Systems for the Process Industry Sector”
• Is currently under development by the same IEC committee that
produced IEC 61508.
• Defined as being “process industry specific within the framework of
the International Electro technical Committee (IEC) Publication 61508
• Follows the IEC 61508 overall safety life cycle and uses the system of
SILs described in that standard
• Its scope includes initial concept, design, implementation, operation,
and maintenance through to decommissioning.
Functional Safety - IEC 61511
Scope

Operation
Maintenance
through to
Design Implementation decommissioning.

Initial
concept

• The standard consists of three parts:

• 1. Framework, definitions, system, hardware, and software requirements
• 2. Guidelines in the application of IEC 61511-1
• 3. Guidance for the determination of the required SILs.
Functional Safety -Definitions
• Safety functions:
• “systems that are required to perform a specific function or functions to ensure that
the risks are kept at an accepted level”
• Hazard : defined in FAA Order 8040.4 as a
• “Condition, event, or circumstance that could lead to or contribute to an unplanned
or undesirable event”
• IEC 61511 : defined as being
• “process industry specific within the framework of the International Electrotechnical
Committee (IEC) Publication 61508”
• Safety Integrity Levels (SIL) :
• “a discrete level (one of 4) for specifying the safety integrity requirements of safety
functions.”
• Safety Integrity :
• “the likelihood of a safety-related system satisfactorily performing the required safety
functions under all the stated conditions, within a stated period of time.”
Functional Safety - IEC61511 Safety Life Cycle(SLS)
Functional Safety - IEC61511 Safety Life Cycle(SLS)
Functional Safety -IEC61511 SLS-Steps
• Analysis Phase
• Process Hazard Analysis.
• Definition and Assignment of Protection Layers.
• Determination of the SIL assigned to each Safety Instrumented Function (SIF).
• Safety Requirements Specification (SRS).
• Functional Safety Assessment (FSA-1).
• Design & Implementation Phase
• Technology Selection.
• Design of Safety Instrumented Functions.
• Verification of compliance with the required SIL.
• Review of the design of the SIFs that do not comply, and update of the SRS.
• Procurement, Construction and Installation of products and equipment.
• SIS Tests: FAT, SAT.
• SIS Validation.
• Functional Safety Assessment (FSA-2).
• Operation & Maintenance Phase
• SIS Maintenance Plan.
• Staff training.
• Proof Testing and Inspections.
• Management of bypasses.
• Management of Repairing and Spare Parts.
• Registration of failures.
• Monitoring of SRS compliance.
• Management of SIS modification.
• Functional Safety Assessment (FSA-3).
Functional Safety- Layers of Protection
Functional Safety- Layers of Protection
Functional Safety- Layers of Protection
Functional Safety -Layers of Protection

Protection at level 1 is provided by the basic process control system

(BPCS) itself, significantly through its functionality. The maximum risk
reduction that can be achieved by the BPCS is less than 10 times.

Protection at level 2 is also provided by the BPCS and associated

operators. Automated shutdown routines in a BPCS are combined with
operator intervention to shut the process down. Here also, the maximum
risk reduction that can be achieved by the BPCS is less than 10 times.

Protection at level 3 is provided by the safety instrumented system,

typically used to bring the entire plant to a predefined safe state
sequentially, in case the BPCS and operator’s intervention did not result in
the safe state of the process.
Functional Safety -Layers of Protection
The layers 1-3 are designed to control and prevent a safety-related event. If a
safety- related event occurs that is not taken care of by these layers, the following
additional layers are designed to mitigate the impact of the event.

Protection at level 4 is an active one, with relief valves or rupture disks designed to
provide a relief point that prevents a rupture, large spill, or other uncontrolled
release that can causean explosion or fire.

Protection at level 5, a passive one, is provided by a dike or other barriers that

serves to contain a fire or channels the energy of an explosion in a direction that
minimizes the spread of damage.

Protection at levels 6 and 7 are plant and environment emergency response. If a

large safety event occurs, these layers respond in a way that minimizes ongoing
damage, injury, or loss of life. These include evacuation plans, firefighting, etc.
Functional Safety -Functional details of protection layers
SCADA
• SCADA stands for Supervisory Control And Data Acquisition
• A system of hardware and software elements that facilitate process control.
• Widely used to monitor and remotely control the processes in utility
industries
• Ex: Electric power transmission and distribution, water distribution, liquid and gas
cross-country pipelines. Environmental monitoring, Cell phone tower monitoring etc.
• Best option when the process is very large – spread across hundreds,
thousands of kms.
• Provide near real-time information about the current state of the remote
process, manipulate/control the process remotely through a human
operator.
• Easy to perform
• Set point changes on distant process controllers
• Open or close valves or switches
• Monitor alarms
• Gather measurement information.
SCADA- Simplified diagram of a SCADA
SCADA - Typical SCADA system : Different subsystems
Central computer
Host system

A field-located remote measurement and control equipment

Remote Terminal Unit (RTU)

A wide-area communication system (telephonic, Internet, or intranet) to connect

all these equipment
Fiber-optic communication network

An operator interface that provides access to the system for the user.
HMI
SCADA - Different subsystems

Basic SCADA system consists of following components

1. Human Machine Interface

2. Supervisory System

3. Remote Terminal Units

4. Programmable Logic Controllers (PLCs)

5. Communication Infrastructure

6. SCADA Programming
SCADA - Different subsystems
1. Human Machine Interface
• It is an I/O device that allows a human operator to control the process data.
• LinkS SCADA’s databases and software programs for providing management information
like detailed schematics, scheduled maintenance, data diagnostics and logistic
information.
• Enables operating personnel to see the graphical representation of data.

2. Supervisory System
• Acts as a communication server between the HMI software in control room workstations
and its equipment like PLCs, RTUs, sensors etc.
• Smaller SCADA systems have only a single PC that serves as a supervisory or master
system.
• Larger SCADA systems have multiple servers, sites for disaster recovery and distributed
software applications.
• Servers are configured as dual-redundant or hot-standby formation for continuously
monitoring server failure.
SCADA - Different subsystems
3. Remote Terminal Units (Remote Telemetry Units)
• Contains physical objects that are interfaced with Remote Terminal Units (RTUs).
• These electronic devices are controlled by microprocessors and are used for
transmitting recorded data to the supervisory systems.
• Receive data from the master system in order to control the connected objects.
• Designed with I/O hardware circuits for the measurement of electrical signals
generated from devices that produce voltage or current in proportion to process
parameters viz. L,T,P

4. Programmable Logic Controllers

• PLCs find their use in the SCADA system through sensors.
• Attached to the sensors in order to convert the sensor output signal into digital
data.
• Mostly preferred over RTUs because of their configuration, flexibility, affordability
and versatility.
SCADA - Different subsystems
5.Communication Infrastructure
• A combination of direct wired connection and radio is used in Supervisory
Control and Data Acquisition systems.
• However, SDH/ SONET can also be used for larger systems like railways and
power stations.
• Among the compact SCADA protocols, few recognized and standardized
protocols deliver information only when the RTUs are polled by the
supervisory station.

6. SCADA Programming
• Used to make maps, diagrams to provide very important information
throughout progression
• Most of the commercial SCADA systems utilize consistent interfaces in C
programming language otherwise derived programming language can also be
used.
SCADA- Core functionalities
1. Acquisition of data from field instrument devices via RTU.
2. Processing the field data to detect alarms and other significant process
changes.
3. Providing a consistent database of process information about the pipeline
and facility.
4. Presenting the data via easy-to-understand graphical user interface, alarms,
trends, and reports.
5. Performing remote control of field devices.
6. Performing system monitoring and diagnosis and taking appropriate actions.
7. Historical archiving of data for recent and long-term historical storage and
analysis.
8. Transferring real-time engineering data directly to and from the modeling
system such as pipeline application system.
9. Providing system data to Management Information Systems (MIS) and supply
chain management.
10. Providing integration with geographical information system (GIS) facilities.
 SCADA - Client/Server Architecture

Centralized redundant Distributed SCADA Client server SCADA

SCADA system system architecture system architecture
SCADA
SCADA -Architecture
• Basic set of functions performed
1. Communicate with field-located RTUs for retrieval of up-to-date
process information.
2. Maintain a constantly updated set of this information in a database.
3. Provide an interface that enables human operators to examine and
display information.
4. Provide mechanism for a human operator sending a control
command to RTU.
• SCADA architecture may be divided in two categories:
• Hardware Architecture
• Software Architecture
SCADA -Architecture
• Hardware Architecture
• Client Layer: For man machine interface
• Data Server Layer: For data processing
SCADA - Client/Server Architecture
• Software Architecture
• Servers are used mainly for real time database and multitasking
• Responsible for handling and gathering of data
• consists of programs that provide trending, diagnostic information.
• Programs help in managing information like logistic information,
maintenance schedules, detailed schematics of a specific machine or
sensor and troubleshooting guides.
SCADA - Client/Server Architecture
SCADA - Types

1. Early or Monolithic SCADA Systems (First Generation)

2. Distributed SCADA Systems (Second Generation)

3. Networked SCADA Systems (Third Generation)

4. IoT SCADA Systems (Fourth Generation)

SCADA -Types
1. Early or Monolithic SCADA Systems (First Generation)
• Minicomputers were used in the earlier SCADA systems. .
• Monolithic systems were developed during times when ordinary network
services were unavailable.
• Designed to be independent systems without any connection to other systems
• Back up mainframe was used to gather data from all remote terminal units.
• Functions of these early systems were limited to flagging of operations in case
of emergency and monitoring the sensors
SCADA - Types
2. Distributed SCADA Systems (Second Generation)
• Control functions are distributed across several systems that were connected using LAN.
• Command processing and real-time data were shared to perform control operations.
• Second generation resulted in the reduction of size and cost of each station but there were no
standardized network protocols.
• Since the protocols were proprietary, very few people understood the security of SCADA system
installation and this factor was largely ignored
SCADA - Types
3. Networked SCADA Systems (Third Generation)

• Present SCADA systems are networked and communicate over WAN system through
phone or data lines.
• Fiber optic connections or Ethernet is used for data transmission between the nodes.
• Use PLC for adjusting and monitoring the flagging operations only when there is a
requirement for major decisions.
SCADA - Types
4. Internet of Things SCADA Systems (Fourth Generation)
• The fourth generation is seeing a reduction in infrastructural cost of these systems by
adopting IoT with cloud computing.
• Integration and maintenance is also made very easy
• Can report the state in real time using cloud computing.
• Intricate control algorithms can be implemented that are often used on traditional PLCs
 SCADA - Advantages
• The quality of service can be improved
• Reliability can be improved
• Maintenance cost is less
• Large system parameters can be monitored
• Manpower can be reduced
• Repair time can be reduced
• Fault detection & fault localization
• It stores a large amount of data
• As per the user requirement, it displays the data in various formats.
• Thousands of sensors can be interfaced with SCADA for controlling and monitoring
• Real data simulations can be obtained by operators
• Gives fast response
• It is flexible as well as scalable while adding extra resources.
• The SCADA system provides onboard mechanical and graphical information
• The SCADA system is easily expandable. We can add a set of control units and sensors
according to the requirement.
• The SCADA system is able to operate in critical situation
SCADA - Disadvantages
• It is complex in terms of dependent modules & hardware units.
• It needs analysts, programmers & skilled operators to maintain
• High installation cost
• Unemployment rates can be increased
• This system supports hardware devices and restricted
software’s
 SCADA - Applications
Generation and Distribution of Power
Public Transport
Water and Sewage System
Manufacturing
Industries & Buildings
Communication Networks
Oil & Gas Industries
Power generation, transmission, and distribution
Water distribution and reservoir system
Public buildings like electrical heating and cooling system.
Generators and turbines
Traffic light control system
 SCADA -Difference between PLC and SCADA

PLC SCADA

• PLC is hardware-based • SCADA is software-based

• PLCs are mainly used to control the • SCADA is used to observe & run the
process of complex industries like processes of the plant.
motors and running machines. • The SCADA system includes three
• PLC includes Processor, I/O Modules, a essential components like MTU, RTU,
Programming Device & Power Supply and HMI
• Types of PLC like fixed or compact & • Types of a SCADA system are
modular. monolithic, distributed, networked &
• The i/p & o/ps are signified in NO IoT
(normal open), NC (normal close) & coil • The input & outputs of SCADA are
contacts represented through images
• In PLC, every component can be • In SCADA, each component can be
defined through an address. defined through the name
SCADA- General Layout
SCADA -Ex :Distribution Monitoring and Control
SCADA – Ex: Rail Monitoring and Control
Industrial
Control
Systems
Industrial Control Systems (ICS): Overview
• ICS is a general term that encompasses several types of control
systems
• SCADA systems
• DCS
• Smaller control system configurations such as PLC
• Main Industries
• Continuous Manufacturing Processes -Run continuously, often with
transitions to make different grades of a product.
Ex: Fuel or steam flow in a power plant, petroleum in a refinery, and distillation in a
chemical plant.
• Batch Manufacturing Processes – Have distinct processing steps, conducted
on a quantity of material. There is a distinct start and end step to a batch
process with the possibility of brief steady state operations during
intermediate steps
• Discrete-based manufacturing - conduct a series of steps on a single device
to create the end product.
Ex: Electronic and mechanical parts assembly and machining
Industrial Control Systems (ICS) : Operation

Control Loop

•-Consists of sensors for

measurement, controller hardware Human-Machine Interface
such as PLCs, actuators such as (HMI)
control valves, breakers, switches and Remote Diagnostics and
motors, and the communication of Maintenance Utilities
variables.
•-Controlled variables are transmitted
to the controller from the sensors. - Operators and engineers use
•-Controller interprets the signals and HMIs to configure set points,
generates corresponding control algorithms, and adjust
manipulated variables, based on set and establish parameters in - Diagnostics and maintenance
points, which it transmits to the the controller. utilities are used to prevent,
actuators. identify and recover from
- Also displays process status failures.
•-Process changes from disturbances information and historical
result in new sensor signals, information.
identifying the state of the process,
to again be transmitted to the
controller.
Industrial Control Systems (ICS) : Operation
Industrial Control Systems (ICS) : Two Key Components
• Control Components
• Control Server
• SCADA Server or Master Terminal Unit (MTU)
• Remote Terminal Unit (RTU)
• Programmable Logic Controller (PLC)
• Intelligent Electronic Devices (IED)
• Data Historian
• Input/Output (IO) Server
• Network Components
• Fieldbus Network
• Control Network
• Communications Routers
• Firewall
• Modems
• Remote Access Points
Human Machine Interface (HMI)
• Also called human–machine interface, human–system interface,
operator panel or man–machine interface, is the means by
which operators or users interact manually with the process
• Can force an action to control the process or observe the
parameters of interest in the process.
• Basic function is to work directly with the process to manually
control or assess its state over and above the functions
performed automatically by the control subsystem.
Human Machine Interface (HMI)- )- General structure
• Basic functions
• Direct monitoring of process parameters to know what is happening inside the
process (monitoring of process behavior)
• Direct control of process parameters by forcing a change, if required, by issuing
manual commands (controlling of process behavior).
Human Machine Interface (HMI)- General data structure
HMI - Input and output instrumentation devices
Human Machine Interface (HMI)- Interface mechanism
HMI - Signal Interfacing standards
HMI- Operator panel interfacing with control subsystem
HMI-Components involved
HMI-Typical architecture
Human Machine Interface (HMI)

• Two approaches to construct operator panel are

• Basic

• Mosaic
 Human Machine Interface (HMI)

Traditional operator Mimic-based operator

panel panel

Mosaic tile–based mimic panel

 Human Machine Interface (HMI)

Display screen layout

Human Machine Interface (HMI)

Different types of displays

Human Machine Interface (HMI)

Combination of mimic panel and operator station

HMI- Six Principles for improving the quality
The design should organize the interface purposefully, in meaningful and
useful ways based on clear, consistent models that are apparent and
Structure recognizable to users. Putting related things together and separating
unrelated things, differentiating dissimilar things and making similar things
principle resemble one another are all important. The structure principle is
concerned with the overall interface architecture.

The human–machine interface design should make commonly performed

Simplicity tasks easy to do, communicating clearly and simply in the user’s own
language, and providing good shortcuts that are meaningfully related to
principle longer procedures.

The human–machine interface design should keep all needed options and
materials for a given task visible, without distracting the user with
Visibility extraneous or redundant information. Good designs do not overwhelm
principle users with too many alternatives or confuse them with unneeded
information.
HMI- Six Principles for improving the quality
The human–machine interface design should keep users
informed of actions or interpretations, changes of state or
Feedback condition, and errors or exceptions that are relevant to the
principle user through clear, concise, familiar, and unambiguous
language.
The human–machine interface design should be flexible and
tolerant, reducing the cost of mistakes and misuse by allowing
Tolerance undoing and redoing, while also preventing errors wherever
principle possible by tolerating varied inputs and sequences and by
interpreting all reasonable actions.

The human–machine interface design should reuse internal

Reuse and external components and behaviors, maintaining
principle consistency with purpose, thus reducing the need for users to
rethink and remember.
 Human Machine Interface (HMI)
HMI Panels Operator Interfaces (Desktop-Based)
Compact in size, can mount in a marshalling cabinet Need dedicated space, can mount in central control
room or close to process with proper protection
Rugged – can withstand very high temperatures, Relatively less rugged when compared to HMI panels
humidity, dust
Embedded OS consumes less resources Desktop OS consumes more resources
Used for dedicated applications such as controlling Has access to entire plant unless restricted, can
specific area/process in a plant. Area of control is control all loops for which it was given access
limited.
Less secure by design More secure by design
Less maintenance for sustaining security More maintenance for sustaining security
Often supports open protocols for communication Dedicated to a specific DCS vendor hence will
such as Modbus communicate over proprietary protocols only
Powerful diagnostics are not available by default. By default powerful diagnostics are available as this
Need to choose among the variants to achieve this. is the integral part of DCS, only restricted features for
security reason.
 HMI - Interaction with Process
Two common approaches are

• Is a single-step operation
• Used for
• Display of process values/states:
Direct • No interaction with the process is required because all the
values/states of interested parameters are continuously
Interaction displayed on the screen
• Control of process values/states:
• Move the cursor and click the control buttons provided
close to the device to execute the command.
 HMI - Interaction with Process
Two common approaches are

• Simple or straightforward “direct” approach is not always possible

when more data need to be displayed and/or more process
parameters need to be controlled with many options.
• Sequence of operations adopted to control are
• • Select the desired symbol of the process parameter to be
1.Navigated interacted by positioning the cursor on the symbol on the display
screen.
Interaction • • Right-click on the selected symbol to get the main menu.
• • Left-click on the main menu to get secondary menu.
• • Position the cursor on the selected secondary menu and left-click
on the selected menu to take the next action.
• • Continue until the final action, and so forth.
Operator stations
• OS are advanced human interface subsystems which are totally
software-based and work with the latest graphic user interface
(GUI) techniques
• Programmed for the following functions:
• Real-time display of actual and desired values of level and temperature
• Real-time display of actual consumption of water and power
• Real-time display of state (opened and closed) of the valve and breaker
• Setting (increase or decrease) and display of the desired values of level
and temperature
• Direct control (open or close) of the valve and breaker as and when
required
Operator Stations
Advantages

• • Consumes less space and power

• • Eliminates I/O subsystem and associated wiring for connecting the
DACU with operator panel, because the operator station is interfaced
to the DACU over an Ethernet communication interface
• • Allows flexibility for easy expansion and/or modification
• • Eliminates operator movement for control execution
• • Displays additional data, such as alarm/events, multiple windows,
trends, etc.

Disadvantages

• Operator station is that it cannot display a panoramic view of large

processes in view of its limited display area.
HMI- Operator stations
Comparison of Operator/Mimic panel and Operator Station
Functions Operator/Mimic panel Operator station
Passive process diagram with
Appearance Passive process diagram with active
active fields/symbols for objects
Appearance Display and control components mounted at
placed at relevant locations on
relevant locations on Panel
display screen

Active fields near or on symbols,

On display components, such as lamps,
such as discrete and continuous
Display meters, recorders, counters, etc.,
objects, dedicated to process
Dedicated to process parameters on panel
parameters on screen

Commands from keyboard/mouse

Commands from control components,
through control elements located
Control such as switches, potentiometers,
on display and navigated by
etc., mounted on panel
menus and submenus
Logging Stations
• Basically, a printer (generally combined with graphics capabilities
to support the printing of text, displays, graphs, etc.).
• Generally used for data logging of different kinds.
+ Data Logging
- It is about dumping, process data in a required format on a printer or any
other media viz. hard disk
- Types of data logging
- Alarm/event logging
- Trend logging
- Report logging
- On-demand logging
Thank you
Thank you
Human Machine
Human Machine
Human Machine
Interface in
Automation