Material Science and Metallurgy- Unit No.

2 Material Properties & Their Testing

Nutan Maharashtra Vidya Prasarak Mandal’s

NUTAN COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND
RESEARCH,
Under Administrative Support of Pimpri Chinchwad Education Trust
ISO 9001:2008 Certified
DEPARTMENT - MECHANICAL

SUBJECT: MATERIAL SCIENCE AND METALLURGY

Unit No.2 Mechanical

properties and their Testing.
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING (SANDWICH)
ACADEMIC YEAR: 2019-2020

SUBJECT TEACHER: PROF. M.G. OVHAL

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Material Science and Metallurgy- Unit No.2 Material Properties & Their Testing

Unit No.2 Mechanical properties and their Testing.

ENGINEERING & TRUE STRESS AND STRAIN CURVE

There are several regions illustrated by the stress-strain curve:

1. Linear (elastic) region (O-A) where the stress and strain are related proportionally. The test
specimen returns to its original length when the load is removed. After point A, the
proportional relationship between stress and strain doesn’t hold. The material has reached its
proportional limit.
2. Perfect plasticity region (A-C) where the specimen elongates without increase in stress. In
the elastic-plastic transition region (A-B), the slope of the stress-strain curve continues to
decrease until the slope remains constant. Point B is called the yield stress (or yield
strength).
3. Strain hardening region (C-D) where the stretching of the electronic bonds changes the
material strength and further strain requires an increase in stress. The cross-sectional area
begins to decrease significantly. The maximum stress the material can stand before failure
begins is at point D, the ultimate stress (or ultimate strength)
4. Necking region (D-E) where the cross-sectional decrease accelerates until the specimen
fractures at point D, the fracture stress (or failure stress/strength)
5. True stresses are calculated using the actual cross-sectional areas and true strains are
calculated using the actual lengths. Because the cross-sectional area and length changes are
quite small in the elastic and perfect plasticity regions, true stresses and strains are not
calculated. Region C-E illustrates the impact of true stress and strain on the stress-strain
curve.
6. Nominal stresses and strains are based on the original cross-sectional area and length. For
engineering purposes, nominal stresses and strains are used because most applications
maintain the material in the elastic range where the differences between true and nominal
stresses and strains aren’t important.

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Material Science and Metallurgy- Unit No.2 Material Properties & Their Testing

7. The loading rates for testing specimens are important. Most stress-strain curves are
determined at low loading rates because many materials respond differently to high loading
rates. Generally, it takes more stress to achieve a given strain at high loading rates.

Materials are categorized by their stress-strain curves. Ductile materials undergo large
permanent strains before failure and can be characterized by the percent elongation and reduction
in cross-sectional area at the fracture point. Brittle materials fracture at low strains and have low
impact resistance.
Some representative stress-strain curves illustrate the differences among material responses to
loading

When steel is curved, it is important to keep the stress-strain curve ratio for mild steel in mind.
Below is a stress-strain graph that reviews the properties of steel in detail.

If tensile force is applied to a steel bar, it will have some elongation. If the force is small enough,
the ratio of the stress and strain will remain proportional. This can be seen in the graph as a
straight line between zero and point A – also called the limit of proportionality. If the force is
greater, the material will experience elastic deformation, but the ratio of stress and strain will not
be proportional. This is between points A and B, known as the elastic limit.

Beyond the elastic limit, the mild steel will experience plastic deformation. This starts the yield
point – or the rolling point – which is point B, or the upper yield point. As seen in the graph,
from this point on the correlation between the stress and strain is no longer on a straight
trajectory. It curves from point C (lower yield point), to D (maximum ultimate stress), ending at
E (fracture stress).

Now, we’ll look at each individual measure on the graph above and explain how each is derived.

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Material Science and Metallurgy- Unit No.2 Material Properties & Their Testing

Stress: If an applied force causes a change in the dimension of the material, then the material is
in the state of stress. If we divide the applied force (F) by the cross-sectional area (A), we get the
stress.

The symbol of stress is σ (Greek letter sigma). For tensile (+) and compressive (-) forces. The
standard international unit of stress is the Pascal (Pa), where 1 Pa = 1 N/m2. The formula to
derive the stress number is σ = F/A.

For tensile and compressive forces, the area taken is perpendicular to the applied force. For sheer
force, the area is taken parallel to the applied force. The symbol for shear stress is tau (τ).

 Strain: Strain is the change in the dimension (L-L0) with respect to the original. It is
denoted by the symbol epsilon (ε). The formula is ε = (L-L0) / L0. For a shear force, strain
is expressed by γ (gamma)
 Elasticity: Elasticity is the property of the material which enables the material to return
to its original form after the external force is removed.
 Plasticity: This is a property that allows the material to remain deformed without fracture
even after the force is removed.
The definitions below are important for understanding the Stress-Strain interactions as
seen in the graph.
 Hooke’s Law: Within the proportional limit (straight line between zero and A), strain is
proportionate to stress.
 Young’s modulus of elasticity: Within the proportional limit, stress = E × strain. E is a
proportionality constant known as the modulus of elasticity or Young’s modulus of
elasticity. Young’s modulusis a measure of the ability of a material to withstand changes
in length when under lengthwise tension or compression. E has the same unit as the unit
of stress because the strain is dimensionless. The formula is E = σ / ε Pa.
 Modulus of Resilience: The area under the curve which is marked by the yellow area. It
is the energy absorbed per volume unit up to the elastic limit. The formula for the
modulus of resilience is 1/2 x σ x ε = 0.5 x (FL/AE).
 Modulus of toughness: This is the area of the whole curve (point zero to E). Energy
absorbed at unit volume up to breaking point. Stress-strain Diagram
Suppose that a metal specimen be placed in tension-compression-testing machine. As the axial
load is gradually increased in increments, the total elongation over the gauge length is measured
at each increment of the load and this is continued until failure of the specimen takes place.
Knowing the original cross-sectional area and length of the specimen, the normal stress σ and the
strain ε can be obtained. The graph of these quantities with the stress σ along the y-axis and the
strain ε along the x-axis is called the stress-strain diagram. The stress-strain diagram differs in
form for various materials. The diagram shown below is that for a medium-carbon structura
steel.

Metallic engineering materials are classified as either ductile or brittle materials. A ductile
material is one having relatively large tensile strains up to the point of rupture like structural steel
and aluminum, whereas brittle materials has a relatively small strain up to the point of rupture
like cast iron and concrete. An arbitrary strain of 0.05 mm/mm is frequently taken as the dividing
line between these two classes.

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Material Science and Metallurgy- Unit No.2 Material Properties & Their Testing

Stress-strain diagram of a medium-carbon structural steel

Proportional Limit (Hooke's Law)From the origin O to the point

called proportional limit, the stress-strain curve is a straight line.
This linear relation between elongation and the axial force causing
was first noticed by Sir Robert Hooke in 1678 and is called Hooke's
Law that within the proportional limit, the stress is directly
proportional to strain

σ∝ε
or σ=kε

The constant of proportionality k is called the Modulus of Elasticity

E or Young's Modulus and is equal to the slope of the stress-strain diagram from O to P. Then

σ=Eε
Elastic LimitThe elastic limit is the limit beyond which the material will no longer go back to its
original shape when the load is removed, or it is the maximum stress that may e developed such
that there is no permanent or residual deformation when the load is entirely removed
Elastic LimitThe elastic limit is the limit beyond which the material will no longer go back to its
original shape when the load is removed, or it is the maximum stress that may e developed such
that there is no permanent or residual deformation when the load is entirely removed.
Elastic and Plastic RangesThe region in stress-strain diagram from O to P is called the elastic
range. The region from P to R is called the plastic range.
Yield PointYield point is the point at which the material will have an appreciable elongation or
yielding without any increase in load

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 Material Science and Metallurgy- Unit No.2 Material Properties & Their Testing

Ultimate StrengthThe maximum ordinate in the stress-strain diagram is the ultimate strength or
tensile strength.
Rapture StrengthRapture strength is the strength of the material at rupture. This is also known
as the breaking strength.
Modulus of ResilienceModulus of resilience is the work done on a unit volume of material as
the force is gradually increased from O to P, in N·m/m3. This may be calculated as the area under
the stress-strain curve from the origin O to up to the elastic limit E (the shaded area in the
figure). The resilience of the material is its ability to absorb energy without creating a permanent
distortion.
Modulus of ToughnessModulus of toughness is the work done on a unit volume of material as
the force is gradually increased from O to R, in N·m/m3. This may be calculated as the area
under the entire stress-strain curve (from O to R). The toughness of a material is its ability to
absorb energy without causing it to break
Working Stress, Allowable Stress, and Factor of Safety working stress is defined as the
actual stress of a material under a given loading. The maximum safe stress that a material can
carry is termed as the allowable stress. The allowable stress should be limited to values not
exceeding the proportional limit. However, since proportional limit is difficult to determine
accurately, the allowable tress is taken as either the yield point or ultimate strength divided by a
factor of safety. The ratio of this strength (ultimate or yield strength) to allowable strength is
called the factor of safety.
 RESILIENCE
 The modulus of Resilience is a quantity that describes the maximum amount of energy a
material absorbs when a load (force) is applied.

It is the total energy absorbed by the material during its elastic deformation.

Modulus of Resilience
The modulus of resilience is the amount of strain energy per unit
volume (i.e. strain energy density) that a material can absorb
without permanent deformation resulting. The modulus of
resilience is calculated as the area under the stress-strain
curve up to the elastic limit. However, since the elastic limit
and the yield point are typically very close, the resilience can
be approximated as the area under the stress-strain curve up
to the yield point. Since the stress-strain curve is very nearly
linear up to the elastic limit, this area is triangularModulus of
Resilience: It refers to the capacity of a material to absorb
energy in the elastic range. Its value is simply equal to the
area under the elastic region of the stress-strain curve. For

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 Material Science and Metallurgy- Unit No.2 Material Properties & Their Testing

any linearly elastic material, the modulus of resilience is

found as
U = 0.5seee or U = 0.5se2/E
where se is the elastic-limit or proportional-limit stress of the
material.

Toughness

Modulus of Toughness
The modulus of toughness is the amount of strain energy per unit volume (i.e. strain energy
density) that a material can absorb just before it fractures. The modulus of toughness is
calculated as the area under the stress-strain curve up to the fracture point.

= Elastic limit stress

ef = strain at the fracture point

Ductile and Brittle Materials

A ductile material can withstand large strains even after it has begun to yield, whereas a brittle
material can withstand little or no plastic strain. The figure below shows representative stress-
strain curves for a ductile material and a brittle material.

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Material Science and Metallurgy- Unit No.2 Material Properties & Their Testing

In the figure above, the ductile material can be seen to strain significantly before the fracture
point, F. There is a long region between the yield at point Y and the ultimate strength at point U
where the material is strain hardening. There is also a long region between the ultimate strength
at point U and the fracture point F in which the cross sectional area of the material is decreasing
rapidly and necking is occurring.

The brittle material in the figure above can be seen to break shortly after the yield point.
Additionally, the ultimate strength is coincident with the fracture point. In this case, no necking
occurs.

Because the area under the stress-strain curve for the ductile material above is larger than the
area under the stress-strain curve for the brittle material, the ductile material has a higher
modulus of toughness -- it can absorb much more strain energy before it breaks. Additionally,
because the ductile material strains so significantly before it breaks, its deflections will be very
high before failure. Therefore, it will be visually apparent that failure is imminent, and actions
can be taken to resolve the situation before disaster occurs. A representative stress-strain curve
for a brittle material is shown below. This curve shows the stress and strain for both tensile and
compressive loading. Note how the material is much more resistant to compression than to
tension, both in terms of the stress that it can withstand as well as the strain before failure. This is
typical for a brittle material.

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Material Science and Metallurgy- Unit No.2 Material Properties & Their Testing

Stiffness-
Stiffness –it is the resistance of material for elastic deformation and expressed by Young's
Modulus.

Young's Modulus: Also known as the Modulus of Elasticity, is a measure of material resistance
to axial deformation. Its value is obtained by measuring the slope of the axial stress-strain curve
in the elastic region. It is named after the English scientist Thomas Young. It is usually denoted
by E,and has units of N/m2 or lb/in2. Since in some materials Young's modulus in tension is
different from that in compression, subscript c or t is used to simplify the distinction.
Ductility-
Ductility: The capacity of a material to undergo large inelastic deformation prior to fracture. It is
highly dependent on the operating temperature of the material. At very low temperatures
materials tend to lose their ductility and become brittle.

Elongation:

A measure of material ductility, it is defined as the percent change in the specimen length at the
point of fracture. Usually denoted by e, it can be obtained by multiplying the fracture strain by
100.

X 100

e= (L'-Lo/Lo) 100

Where L' = specimen gage length after fracture, Lo= original gage length. Note that since percent
elongation is determined as a function of gage length, it is important to specify the gage length
when mentioning percent elongation.

Ductility is a measure of a material's ability to undergo significant plastic deformation before

rupture, which may be expressed as percent elongation or percent area reduction from a tensile
test. Ductility is often characterized by a material's ability to be stretched into a wire

Malleability, a similar property, is a material's ability to deform under compressive stress; this is
often characterized by the material's ability to form a thin sheet by hammering or rolling. Both of
these mechanical properties are aspects of plasticity, the extent to which a solid material can be
plastically deformed without fracture. Also, these material properties are dependent on
temperature and pressure.
X 100

It is the ability of a material to exhibit large plastic deformation perior to factution under
compssive Loading condition.

Ductility is a measure of a metal's ability to withstand tensile stress—any force that pulls the two
ends of an object away from each other. The game of tug-of-war provides a good example of
tensile stress being applied to a rope. Ductility is the plastic deformation that occurs in metal as a

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result of such types of strain. The term "ductile" literally means that a metal substance is capable
of being stretched into a thin wire without becoming weaker or more brittle in the process.

The atomic particles that makeup metals can deform under stress either by slipping over each
other or stretching away from each other. The crystal structures of more ductile metals allow the
metal's atoms to be stretched farther apart, a process called "twinning." More ductile metals are
those that more readily twin. In malleable metals, atoms roll over each other into new, permanent
positions without breaking their metallic bonds.

Malleability in metals is useful in multiple applications that require specific shapes designed
from metals that have been flattened or rolled into sheets. For example, the bodies of cars and
trucks need to be formed into specific shapes, as do cooking utensils, cans for packaged food and
beverages, construction materials, and more.

Aluminum, which is used in cans for food, is an example of a metal that is malleable but not
ductile.

Malleability and ductility are related. A malleable material is one in which a thin sheet can be
easily formed by hammering or rolling. In other words, the material has the ability to deform
under compressive stress.

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Material Science and Metallurgy- Unit No.2 Material Properties & Their Testing

Tensile Testing

What is Tensile Testing?

A tensile test, also known as a tension test, is one of the most fundamental and common types of
mechanical testing. A tensile test applies tensile (pulling) force to a material and measures the
specimen's response to the stress. By doing this, tensile tests determine how strong a material is
and how much it can elongate. Tensile tests are typically conducted on electromechanical or
universal testing instruments, are simple to perform, and are fully standardized.

Why Perform a Tensile Test or Tension Test?

We can learn a lot about a substance from tensile testing. By measuring the material while it is
being pulled, we can obtain a complete profile of its tensile properties. When plotted on a graph,
this data results in a stress/strain curve which shows how the material reacted to the forces being
applied. The point of break or failure is of much interest, but other important properties include
the modulus of elasticity, yield strength, and strain.

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Ultimate Tensile Strength

One of the most important properties we can determine about a material is its ultimate tensile
strength (UTS). This is the maximum stress that a specimen sustains during the test. The UTS
may or may not equate to the specimen's strength at break, depending on whether the material is
brittle, ductile, or exhibits properties of both. Sometimes a material may be ductile when tested
in a lab, but, when placed in service and exposed to extreme cold temperatures, it may transition
to brittle behavior.

Hooke's Law
For most materials, the initial portion of the test will exhibit a linear relationship between the
applied force or load and the elongation exhibited by the specimen. In this linear region, the line
obeys the relationship defined as "Hooke's Law" where the ratio of stress to strain is a constant,
or . E is the slope of the line in this region where stress (σ) is proportional to strain (ε) and
is called the "Modulus of Elasticity" or "Young's Modulus."

Modulus of Elasticity
The modulus of elasticity is a measure of the material's stiffness which only applies in the initial
linear region of the curve. Within this linear region the tensile load can be removed from the
specimen and the material will return to the exact same condition it had been in prior to the load
being applied. At the point when the curve is no longer linear and deviates from the straight-line
relationship, Hooke's Law no longer applies, and some permanent deformation occurs in the
specimen. This point is called the "elastic or proportional limit." From this point on in the tensile
test, the material reacts plastically to any further increase in load or stress. It will not return to its
original, unstressed condition if the load is removed.

Yield Strength
A material's "yield strength" is defined as the stress applied to the material at which plastic
deformation starts to occur.

Offset Method
For some materials (e.g. metals and plastics), the departure from the linear elastic region cannot
be easily identified. Therefore an offset method to determine the yield strength of the material is

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allowed. This methodology is commonly applied when measuring the yield strength of
metals. When testing metals according to ASTM E8/E8M, an offset is specified as a percentage
of strain (usually 0.2%). The stress (R) that is determined from the intersection point "r" when
the line of the linear elastic region (with slope equal to Modulus of Elasticity) is drawn from the
offset "m" becomes the Yield Strength by the offset method.

Alternate Moduli
The tensile curves of some materials do not have a very well-defined linear region. In these
cases, ASTM Standard E111 provides for alternative methods for determining the modulus of a
material, as well as Young's Modulus. These alternate moduli are the secant modulus and tangent
modulus.

Strain
We will also be able to find the amount of stretch or elongation that the specimen undergoes
during tensile testing. This can be expressed as an absolute measurement in the change in length
or as a relative measurement called "strain." Strain itself can be expressed in two different ways,
as "engineering strain" and "true strain." Engineering strain is probably the easiest and the most
common expression of strain used. It is the ratio of the change in length to the original length,

. The true strain is similar, but based on the instantaneous length of the

specimen as the test progresses, , where Li is the instantaneous length and L0 the initial
length.

Tension test
Tension test is performed on mild steel, tor steel and high tensile steel to determine the properties
like Young’s modulus, ultimate strength, and the percentage elongation. In the tension test, a
steel rod is subjected to tension load by the means of a Universal testing machine(UTM).

The equipment arrangement and procedure for conducting the tension test on steel rod are
explained in this article in detail.

Equipment for Tension Test on Steel

The tension test requires:

1. Universal Testing Machine(UTM)

2. Extensometer
3. Scale Vernier Calipers
4. Punching tools
Universal Testing Machine (UTM)
UTM comprises two main units, one is the loading unit and other is the control panel.

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Loading unit: The loading of the specimen is conducted in the loading unit. In the figure above,
the equipment in the left is called as the loading unit. The loading unit consists of three
crossheads, they are the upper head, middle head, and lower head. These crossheads are used
depending on the type of load(tensile, compressive or shear) applied on the specimen. When
undergoing the tensile test, the upper and lower croControl Panel: This unit facilitates the load
application on the specimen. The load application is performed by the action of hydraulic
pressure. A pendulum dynamometer is fitted to measure and indicate the force coming on the
specimen.
A big size load indicating dial fitted with a glass cover is mounted at the side of the control
panel. The range indicating dial is to be adjusted for the particular range selected.
Theory
The specimen is subjected to constant tension load and the extension caused in the steel rod is
noted against the load within the elastic limit. The load values at yield point, breaking point, and
ultimate point are carefully noted.
With the obtained values, the stress and strain are calculated and plotted in a graph. From the
data, we get:
1. Modulus of Elasticity, E = Stress/Strain[This is calculated within the elastic limit. The
slope of the stress-strain curve provides the modulus of elasticity]
2. Yield Stress = Load at yield Point/Original C/s Area
3. Ultimate Stress = Ultimate Load/Original C/s Area
4. Nominal Breaking Stress = Breaking Load/Nominal Breaking Stress
5. Actual Breaking Stress = Breaking load/Neck Area
6. Percentage elongation = (Change in length/Original Length)/100
7. Percentage reduction in the area = (Change in length/Original Area)/100

Procedure for Tension Test on Steel Rod

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Material Science and Metallurgy- Unit No.2 Material Properties & Their Testing

Preparation of Specimen: Initially, the steel rod specimen is cleaned and gauge length is
marked on it. The gauge length is calculated by the formula . The gauge length can be
marked on the specimen by punching tool.

Range Calculation: A tensile stress value is assumed for which the maximum expected load
capacity of the rod is calculated. From this, the range is calculated and this range is set in the
UTM.Assuming working stress = 140N/mm²
Factor of safety = 3.i.e Ultimate stress = 140×3 = 420N/mm².

Ultimate load = 420 x area of c\s.

From the ultimate load, range to be used can be fixed.

Placing the Specimen: The handle is operated such that the specimen firmly fits to the top
base. The left valve is kept in a fully closed position and the right valve in a normal open
position. Open the right valve and close it after the lower table is slightly lifted. Adjust the load
pointer to zero with the zero adjusting knobs By operating the handle, lift the lower crosshead
chuck up and grip firmly the lower part of the specimen. Once the specimen

Close the right control

valve and take out the broken piece. Open the left control valve to pump the oil back. Maximum
capacity of the specimen can be seen against the red pointer. Measure the diameter of the
specimen at the neck.

Change in length is obtained from reading recorded from extensometer. Therefore,

Strain = Change in length/Original Length

Stress at different values of strains is also determined as, Stress = Load /Area;

With different values of stress and corresponding strains, the stress-strain graph is plotted.

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Results From Tension Test on Steel Rod

1. Young’s Modulus = ______ N/mm²
2. Yield stress = ______ N/mm²
3. Ultimate stress = ______ N/mm²
4. Nominal Breaking stress = ______ N/mm²

Impact Testing

The impact resistance test determines the amount of energy absorbed by a material during
fracture. This absorbed energy is a measure of a given material’s notch toughness and acts as a
tool to study temperature-dependent ductile-brittle transition.

In case of Charpy or Izod, the impact is induced by a pendulum hammer on the sample. The
residual energy of the hammer is measured.

Impact Test

Impact Testing, ASTM E23 and IS/ BS Standard

The impact test is a method for evaluating the toughness and notch sensitivity of engineering
materials. It is usually used to test the toughness of metals, but similar tests are used for
polymers, ceramics and composites. Metal industry sectors include Oil and Gas, Aerospace,
Power Generation, Automotive, and Nuclear.

The notched test specimen is broken by the impact of a heavy pendulum or hammer, falling at a
predetermined velocity through a fixed distance. The test measures the energy absorbed by the
fractured specimen.
Charpy Impact Test
A test specimen is machined to a 10mm x 10mm (full size) cross-section, with either a "V" or
"U" notch. Sub-size specimens are used where the material thickness is restricted. Specimens can
be tested down to cryogenic temperatures.
Izod Impact Test

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The test specimen is machined to a square or round section, with either one , two or three
notches. The specimen is clamped vertically on the anvil with the notch facing the Hammer.
Keyhole Impact Test
The steel casting industry uses this type of specimen more frequently. The notch is machined to
look like a keyhole. It is tested in the same manner as the "V" and "U" notch
Charpy Impact Test
PRINCIPLE
The Charpy impact test is a dynamic test in which a test piece U-notched or V-notched in the
middle and supported at each end, is broken by a single blow of a freely swinging pendulum
(Fig.1). The energy absorbed is measured. This absorbed energy is a measure of the impact
strength of material.

Fig.1: Charpy impact testing machine

Fig.2: Charpy impact test pieces

Fig.3: Configuration of test piece supports and anvils

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Izod Impact Test

PRINCIPLE
The Izod impact test is a dynamic test in which a test piece V-notched test piece, gripped
vertically, is broken by a single blow of a freely swinging pendulum (Fig.4). The blow is struck
on the same face as the notch and at the fixed height above it. The energy absorbed is measured.
This absorbed energy is a measure of the impact strength of material.

Fig.4: Izod impact testing machine

Fig.5: Square section, Izod impact test pieces

Fig.6: Configuration of test piece support

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Material Science and Metallurgy- Unit No.2 Material Properties & Their Testing

Impact testing is testing an object's ability to resist high-rate loading. An impact test is a test for
determining t he energy absorbed in fracturing a test piece at high velocity. Most of us think of it
as one object striking another object at a relatively high speed.

Why is Impact Testing Important?

Impact resistance is one of the most important properties for a part designer to consider, and
without question, the most difficult to quantify. The impact resistance of a part is, in many
applications, a critical measure of service life. More importantly these days, it involves the
perplexing problem of product safety and liability.

One must determine:

1. The impact energies the part can be expected to see in its lifetime
2. The type of impact that will deliver that energy, and then
3. Select a material that will resist such assaults over the projected life span
Molded-in stresses, polymer orientation, weak spots (e.g. weld lines or gate areas), and part
geometry will affect impact performance. Impact properties also change when additives, e.g.
coloring agents, are added to plastics.
Ductile vs. Brittle
Most real world impacts are biaxial rather than unidirectional.

Further complication is offered by the choice of failure modes: ductile or brittle. Brittle materials
take little energy to start a crack, little more to propagate it to a shattering climax. Other
materials possess ductility to varying degrees. Highly ductile materials fail by puncture in drop
weight testing and require a high energy load to initiate and propagate the crack.

Many materials are capable of either ductile or brittle failure, depending upon the type of test and
rate and temperature conditions. They possess a ductile/brittle transition that actually shifts
according to these variables.

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Compression Test
What is Compression Testing?

Compression testing is one of the most fundamental types of mechanical testing, alongside
tensile and flexion tests. Compression tests are used to determine a material’s behavior under
applied crushing loads, and are typically conducted by applying compressive pressure to a test
specimen (usually of either a cuboid or cylindrical geometry) using platens or specialized
fixtures on a universal testing machine. During the test, various properties of the material are
calculated and plotted as a stress-strain diagram which is used to determine qualities such
as elastic limit, proportional limit, yield point, yield strength, and, for some materials,
compressive strength.

Why Perform a Compression Test?

Compression testing allows manufacturers to assess the integrity and safety of materials,
components, and products during several phases of the manufacturing process. The potential
applications can vary from strength testing of a car windshield to endurance testing of concrete
beams used in construction. Materials that exhibit high tensile strength tend to (but do not
always!) exhibit low compressive strength. Likewise, materials high in compressive strength
tend to exhibit low tensile strength. Therefore, compression testing is often used on brittle
materials such as concrete, metals, plastics, ceramics, composites, and corrugated materials like
cardboard. These materials are often used in a load-bearing capacity where their integrity under
compressive forces is critical.

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Unlike tensile tests, which are usually conducted to determine the tensile properties of a specific
material, compression tests are often performed on finished products. Common items such as
tennis balls, golf balls, water bottles, protective cases, plastic pipes, and furniture are all
examples of products that need to be evaluated for their compressive strength. For example, an
engineer may want to conserve plastic by creating water bottles with thinner walls, but the
bottles must still be strong enough to be packed in pallets and stacked on top of each other for
transport. Compression testing can help the engineer fine tune the balance between product
strength and material conservation.

Ultimate Compressive Strength

The ultimate compressive strength of a material is the value of compressive stress reached when
the material fails completely. When brittle materials reach their ultimate compressive strength
they are crushed, and the load drops drastically. Materials with higher ductility, (most plastics)
do not rupture, but instead continue deforming until the load is no longer being applied to the
specimen, but rather between the two compression platens. In these cases, compressive strength
can be reported as specific deformations such as 1%, 5%, or 10% of the test specimen's original
height.

Industry-Specific Testing Standards

There are many ASTM and ISO standards related to compression testing a variety of materials.
For example, the furniture, automotive, and mattress industries follow ASTM D3574, which
measures the indention force deflection of polyurethane foam. This test measures the initial
softness of the foam by measuring the force when the foam is compressed to 25% of its original
thickness. The test then measures how supportive it is by measuring the force when it is
compressed to 65% of its original thickness. Automotive seating engineers specify the
indentation force deflection value of the foam they want in their final product, and the
manufacturing location will perform the test several times per shift to guarantee that each and
every seat being manufactured has the same feel in regards to softness and supportiveness.

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A compression test is any test in which a material experiences opposing forces that push inward
upon the specimen from opposite sides or is otherwise compressed, “squashed”, crushed, or
flattened. The test sample is generally placed in between two plates that distribute the applied
load across the entire surface area of two opposite faces of the test sample and then the plates are
pushed together by a universal test machine causing the sample to flatten. A compressed sample
is usually shortened in the direction of the applied forces and expands in the direction
perpendicular to the force. A compression test is essentially the opposite of the more common
tension test.

Learn about Compression Test Machines...

Purpose of Compression Tests:
The goal of a compression test is to determine the behavior or response of a material while it
experiences a compressive load by measuring fundamental variables, such as, strain, stress, and
deformation. By testing a material in compression the compressive strength, yield strength,
ultimate strength, elastic limit, and the elastic modulus among other parameters may all be
determined. With the understanding of these different parameters and the values associated with
a specific material it may be determined whether or not the material is suited for specific
applications or if it will fail under the specified stresses.
Learn about Compression Test Fixtures...
Types of Compression Tests:
In general a compression test for a material involves at least two opposing forces directed
towards each other applied to opposite face of the test sample so that the sample is compressed.
However, there are many different variations to this basic test setup that involve any combination
of different variables. The more common compression tests involve forces applied to more than
one axis of the specimen as well as the testing of the sample at elevated and lowered
temperatures. Uniaxial, biaxial, triaxial, cold temperature, elevated temperature, fatigue and
creep are all examples of different compression tests that may be performed upon a material.
Learn about Compression Test Machines...
Types of Compression Testing materials:
Typically materials subjected to compression testing have a compressive strength generally
accepted to be high and a tensile strength (e.g tensile test) that is considered to be of a lower
value. Almost all materials can experience compressive forces in one way or another depending
upon their application, but the most common materials are composites, concretes, wood, stone,
brick, mortars, grouts, polymers, plastics, foam and metals among many others.
Compression Test

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The compression test is used for the evaluation of the material behaviour under uniaxial
compression load. Samples can be rectangular prisms, cylinders or pipe segments. The
compression test on polymers has a great importance especially for building materials like
polymer concrete or foams. The high relevance of these materials is attributable to their
application for dampers, friction bearings or seals. Usually, stiff and semi-rigid samples are
tested, such as thermoplastic injection moulding and extrusion polymers, filled and reinforced
moulding materials or thermosetting plastics.
The bend test is a simple and inexpensive qualitative test that can be used to evaluate both the
ductility and soundness of a material. It is often used as a quality control test for butt-welded
joints, having the advantage of simplicity of both test piece and equipment.
No expensive test equipment is needed, test specimens are easily prepared and the test can, if
required, be carried out on the shop floor as a quality control test to ensure consistency in
production.
The bend test uses a coupon that is bent in three point bending to a specified angle.
The outside of the bend is extensively plastically deformed so that any defects in, or
embrittlement of, the material will be revealed by the premature failure of the coupon.
The bend test may be free formed or guided.
The guided bend test is where the coupon is wrapped around a former of a specified diameter
and is the type of test specified in the welding procedure and welder qualification specifications.
For example, it may be a requirement in ASME IX, ISO 9606 and ISO 15614 Part 1.
As the guided bend test is the only form of bend test specified in welding qualification
specifications it is the only one that will be dealt with in this article.
Typical bend test jigs are illustrated in Fig.1(a) and 1(b).

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Material Science and Metallurgy- Unit No.2 Material Properties & Their Testing

Fig.1(a) shows a guided bend test jig that uses a male and a female former, the commonest form
of equipment

Fig.1(b) shows a wrap-around guided bend test machine that works on the same principles as a
plumber's pipe bender

The strain applied to the specimen depends on the diameter of the former around which the
coupon is bent and this is related to the thickness of the coupon 't', normally expressed as a
multiple of 't' eg 3t, 4t etc.

The former diameter is specified in the test standard and varies with the strength and ductility of
the material - the bend former diameter for a low ductility material such as a fully hard
aluminium alloy may be as large as 8t. An annealed low carbon steel on the other hand may
require a former diameter of only 3t. The angle of bend may be 90°, 120° or 180° depending on
the specification requirements.

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Material Science and Metallurgy- Unit No.2 Material Properties & Their Testing

Fig.2 Material over 12mm thick is normally tested using the side bend test that tests the full
section thickness

On completion of the test the coupon is examined for defects that may have opened up on the
tension face. Most specifications regard a defect over 3mm in length as being cause for rejection.

For butt weld procedure and welder qualification testing the bend coupons may be oriented
transverse or parallel to the welding direction.

Below approximately 12mm material thickness transverse specimens are usually tested with the
root or face of the weld in tension. Material over 12mm thick is normally tested using the side
bend test that tests the full section thickness, Fig.2.

Where the material thickness is too great to permit the full section to be bent the specifications
allow a number of narrower specimens to be taken provided that the full material thickness is
tested. Conventionally, most welding specifications require two root and two face bend coupons
or four side bends to be taken from each butt welded test piece.

The transverse face bend specimen will reveal any defects on the face such as excessive undercut
or lack of sidewall fusion close to the cap. The transverse root bend is also excellent at revealing
lack of root fusion or penetration. The transverse side bend tests the full weld thickness and is
particularly good at revealing lack of side-wall fusion and lack of root fusion in double-V butt
joints. This specimen orientation is also useful for testing weld cladding where any brittle
regions close to the fusion line are readily revealed.

Longitudinal bend specimens are machined to include the full weld width, both HAZs and a
portion of each parent metal. They may be bent with the face, root or side in tension and are used
where there is a difference in mechanical strength between the two parent metals or the parent
metal and the weld. The test will readily reveal any transverse defects but it is less good at
revealing longitudinally oriented defects such as lack of fusion or penetration.

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Whilst the bend test is simple and straightforward to perform there are some features that may
result in the test being invalid.

In cutting the coupon from the test weld the effects of the cutting must not be allowed to affect
the result. Thus it is necessary to remove any HAZ from flame cutting or work hardened metal if
the sample is sheared.

It is normal to machine or grind flat the face and root of a weld bend test coupon to reduce the
stress raising effect that these would have. Sharp corners can cause premature failure and should
be rounded off to a maximum radius of 3mm.

The edges of transverse bend coupons from small diameter tubes will experience very high
tensile stresses when the ID is in tension and this can result in tearing at the specimen edges.

Weld joints with non-uniform properties such as dissimilar metal joints or where the weld and
parent metal strengths are substantially different can result in 'peaking' of the bend coupon. This
is when most of the deformation takes place in the weaker of the two materials which therefore
experiences excessive localized deformation that may result in premature failure.

A dissimilar metal joint where one of the parent metals is very high strength is a good example
of where this may occur and similar peaking can be seen in fully hard welded aluminium alloy
joints.

In these instances the roller bend test illustrated in Fig.1(b) is the best method of performing a
bend test as each component of the coupon is strained by a similar amount and peaking is to a
great extent eliminated.

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Types of bend

Bend Testing
Bend testing measures the ductility of materials. Terms associated with bend testing apply to
specific forms or types of materials. For example, materials specifications sometimes require that
a specimen be bent to a specified inside diameter (ASTM A-360, steel products).
Bend testing provides a convenient method for characterizing the strength of the miniature
components and specimens that are typical of those found in microelectronics applications.
Instron® has bend and flexure fixtures available for both three and four point loading.

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Torsion Test
A torsion test can be conducted on most materials to determine the torsional properties of the
material. These properties include but are not limited to:
 Modulus of elasticity in shear
 Yield shear strength
 Ultimate shear strength
 Modulus of rupture in shear
 Ductility
Why Perform a Torsion Test?
Many products and components are subjected to torsional forces during their operation. Products
such as biomedical catheter tubing, switches, fasteners, and automotive steering columns are just
a few devices subject to such torsional stresses. By testing these products in torsion,
manufacturers are able to simulate real life service conditions, check product quality, verify
designs, and ensure proper manufacturing techniques.
Types of Torsion Tests
Torsion tests can be performed by applying only a rotational motion or by applying both axial
(tension or compression) and torsional forces. Types of torsion testing vary from product to
product but can usually be classified as failure, proof, or product operation testing.
 Torsion Only: Applying only torsional loads to the test specimen.
 Axial-Torsion: Applying both axial (tension or compression) and torsional forces to the
test specimen.
 Failure Testing: Twisting the product, component, or specimen until failure. Failure can
be classified as either a physical break or a kink/defect in the specimen.
 Proof Testing: Applying a torsional load and holding this torque load for a fixed amount
of time.
 Operational Testing: Testing complete assemblies or products such as bottle caps,
switches, dial pens, or steering columns to verify that the product performs as expected
under torsion loads.

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Torsion machine

Fatigue Test

Fatigue testing is defined as the process of progressive localized permanent structural change
occurring in a material subjected to conditions that produce fluctuating stresses and strains at
some point or points and that may culminate in cracks or complete fracture after a sufficient
number of fluctuations.

What is Fatigue Testing?1. From Latin "Fatigare" meaning "to tire."2. Engineering
terminology: - damage and failure of materials under cyclic loads.3. Fatigue testing is defined
as the process of progressive localized permanent structural change occurring in a material
subjected to conditions that produce fluctuating stresses and strains at some point or points and
that may culminate in cracks or complete fracture after a sufficient number of fluctuations.

Nomenclature to describe the test parameters involved in cyclic loading Fatigue is the
progressive, localized, permanent structural change that occurs in materials subjected to
fluctuating stresses and strains that may result in cracks or fractures after a sufficient number of
fluctuations. The cyclic stresses are normally well below the yield strength of the material.

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The process of fatigue consists of three key stages:

1. Initial fatigue damage leading to crack nucleation and crack initiation,2.

Progressive cyclic growth of a crack (crack propagation) until the remaining
un-cracked cross section of a part becomes too weak to withstand the loads
applied,3. Final, sudden fracture of the remaining cross section.
2. Types of Fatigue Failure: . Mechanical Fatigue - fluctuations in externally
applied stresses or strains.2. Creep Fatigue - Cyclic loads at high temperatures.3.
Thermo mechanical Fatigue - fluctuations in temperature as well as stresses and
strains.4. Corrosion Fatigue - Cyclic loads in a chemically aggressive or
embrittling environment.5. Fretting Fatigue - Cyclic loads combined with
frictional sliding. Fatigue Endurance Limit and Fatigue Strength

Cyclic loading generally produces failure however low the stress may be. However, with
some materials the S-N curve levels off, suggesting that for these materials a limit of stress
(load) can be specified - known as the fatigue limit - below which infinite life can beexpected.
The fatigue life is thought to be associated with the phenomenon of strain ageing.
Most non ferrous alloys do not show a fatigue limit. Instead their S-N curves continue to drop
at a slow rate (dotted line). For these types of materials, the fatigue strength is quoted. This is
the value of stress to which the material can be subjected to for a given number of cycles
(10,000,000 cycles is the value often used).Strain-Life Approach Low cycle, high stress fatigue
with appreciable plastic deformation. Uses the cyclic strain range versus number of cycles to
failure.Total life = crack initiation + crack propagation (90% of life can be crack
initiation).Failure = Typically a crack of
predefined size. The strain-life relationship is
as follows:

Failure = critical crack size based on fracture

toughness of material, limit load for particular
structural part, allowable strain, change in compliance of a component etc

The definition of fatigue testing can be thought of as simply applying cyclic loading to your test
specimen to understand how it will perform under similar conditions in actual use. The load
application can either be a repeated application of a fixed load or simulation of in-service loads.

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The load application may be repeated millions of times and up to several hundred times per
second.

Why Do a Fatigue Test?

In many applications, materials are subjected to vibrating or oscillating forces. The behavior of
materials under such load conditions differs from the behavior under a static load. Because the
material is subjected to repeated load cycles (fatigue) in actual use, designers are faced with
predicting fatigue life, which is defined as the total number of cycles to failure under specified
loading conditions. Fatigue testing gives much better data to predict the in-service life of
materials.

Creep is high temperature progressive deformation at constant stress. "High temperature" is a

relative term dependent upon the materials involved. Creep rates are used in evaluating materials
for boilers, gas turbines, jet engines, ovens, or any application that involves high temperatures
under load. Understanding high temperature behavior of metals is useful in designing failure
resistant systems. A creep test involves a tensile specimen under a constant load maintained at a
constant temperature. Measurements of strain are then recorded over a period of time.
Creep occurs in three stages: Primary, or Stage I; Secondary, or Stage II: and Tertiary, or Stage
III. Stage I, or Primary creep occurs at the beginning of the tests, and creep is mostly transiently,
not at a steady rate. Resistance to creep increases until Stage II is reached. In Stage II, or
Secondary creep, The rate of creep becomes roughly steady. This stage is often referred to as
steady state creep. In Stage III, or tertiary creep, the creep rate begins to accelerate as the cross
sectional area of the specimen decreases due to necking or internal voiding decreases the
effective area of the specimen. If stage III is allowed to proceed, fracture will occur.

The creep test is usually employed to determine the minimum creep rate in Stage II. Engineers
need to account for this expected deformation when designing systems.Like the Creep Test,
Stress Rupture Testing involves a tensile specimen under a constant load at a constant
temperature. Stress rupture testing is like creep testing aside from the stresses are being higher
than those utilized within a creep testing. Stress rupture tests are utilized to find out the time it
takes for failure so stress rupture testing is always continued until failure of the material occurs.
Data is plotted similar to the graph above. A straight line or best fit bend is normally obtained at
every temperature of interest. The Stress Rupture test is used to determine the time to failure and
elongation.

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Creep testing machine

Effects of stress and temperature on creep rate
Dependence on Temperature
Diffusion is governed by an Arrhenius equation:
D=D0exp(−Q/RT)
Since all mechanisms of steady-state creep are in some way dependent on diffusion, we expect
that creep rate will have this exponential dependence on temperature
ε˙∝exp(−Q/RT)

Creep occurs faster at higher temperatures. However, what constitutes a high temperature is
different for different metals. When considering creep, the concept of an homologous
temperature is useful.

The homologous temperature is the actual temperature divided by the melting point of the metal,
with both being expressed in K. In general, creep tends to occur at a significant rate when the
homologous temperatures are 0.4 or higher.

Dependence on stress

The applied stress provides a driving force for dislocation movement and diffusion of atoms. As
the stress is increased, the rate of deformation also increases. In general, it is found that
ε˙∝σn where n is termed the stress exponent. Prediction of the value of n from first principles is
not easy, but its value does depend on which mechanism of creep is operating. For example, for
diffusion creep its value is approximately 1, while for dislocation creep it is usually in the range
3-8.
Creep rate equation
The equation governing the rate of steady state creep is:
Creep rate = ε˙=Aσnexp(−Q/RT)
Q = activation energy; n = stress exponent; A = constant;
This can be rearranged into the form:
lnε˙=lnA+nlnσ−Q/RT
The activation energy Q can be determined experimentally, by plotting the natural log of creep
rate against the reciprocal of temperature.

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The stress exponent n can be determined by plotting the strain rate as a function of stress.

Hardness Test
Hardness
Simply stated, hardness is the resistance of a material to permanent indentation. It is important to
recognize that hardness is an empirical test and therefore hardness is not a material property.
This is because there are several different hardness tests that will each determine a different
hardness value for the same piece of material. Therefore, hardness is test method dependent and
every test result has to have a label identifying the test method used.

Hardness is, however, used extensively to characterize materials and to determine if they are
suitable for their intended use. All of the hardness tests described in this section involve the use
of a specifically shaped indenter, significantly harder than the test sample, that is pressed into the
surface of the sample using a specific force. Either the depth or size of the indent is measured to
determine a hardness value.

Why Use a Hardness Test?

 Easy to perform
 Quick (1-30 seconds)
 Relatively inexpensive
 Non-destructive
 Finished parts can be tested - but not ruined
 Virtually any size and shape can be tested
 Practical QC device - incoming, outgoing

The most common uses for hardness tests is to verify the heat treatment of a part and to
determine if a material has the properties necessary for its intended use. Establishing a
correlation between the hardness result and the desired material property allows this, making
hardness tests very useful in industrial and R&D applications.

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Hardness Scales
There are five major hardness scales:

 Brinell - HB
 Knoop - HK
 Rockwell - HR
 Vickers - HV

Each of these scales involve the use of a specifically shaped diamond, carbide or hardened steel
indenter pressed into the material with a known force using a defined test procedure. The
hardness values are determined by measuring either the depth of indenter penetration or the size
of the resultant indent. All of the scales are arranged so that the hardness values determined
increase as the material gets harder. The hardness values are reported using the proper symbol,
HR, HV, HK, etc. indicating the test scale performed.

Five Determining Factors

The following five factors can be used to determine the correct hardness test for your application

 Material- grain size, metal, rubber etc.

 Approximate Hardness- hardened steel, rubber etc.
 Shape- thickness, size etc.
 Heat Treatment- through or casehardened, annealed etc.
 Production Requirements- sample or 100%

Hardness Equipment
If you are looking for hardness equipment, please visit Buehler, who is one of the leading
providers of materials preparation, testing and analysis solutions worldwide.

Brinell Hardness Test

Dr. J. A. Brinell invented the Brinell test in Sweden in 1900. The oldest of the hardness test
methods in common use today, the Brinell test is frequently used to determine the hardness of
forgings and castings that have a grain structure too course for Rockwell or Vickers testing.
Therefore, Brinell tests are frequently done on large parts. By varying the test force and ball size,
nearly all metals can be tested using a Brinell test. Brinell values are considered test force
independent as long as the ball size/test force relationship is the same.

In the USA, Brinell testing is typically done on iron and steel castings using a 3000Kg test force
and a 10mm diameter carbide ball. Aluminum and other softer alloys are frequently tested using
a 500Kg test force and a 10 or 5mm carbide ball. Therefore the typical range of Brinell testing in
this country is 500 to 3000kg with 5 or 10mm carbide balls. In Europe Brinell testing is done
using a much wider range of forces and ball sizes. It's common in Europe to perform Brinell tests
on small parts using a 1mm carbide ball and a test force as low as 1kg. These low load tests are
commonly referred to as baby Brinell tests.

Brinell Test Method

All Brinell tests use a carbide ball indenter. The test procedure is as follows:
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 The indenter is pressed into the sample by an accurately controlled test force.
 The force is maintained for a specific dwell time, normally 10-15 seconds.
 After the dwell time is complete, the indenter is removed leaving a round indent in the
sample.
 The size of the indent is determined optically by measuring two diagonals of the round
indent using either a portable microscope or one that is integrated with the load
application device.
 The Brinell hardness number is a function of the test force divided by the curved surface
area of the indent. The indentation is considered to be spherical with a radius equal to
half the diameter of the ball. The average of the two diagonals is used in the following
formula to calculate the Brinell hardness.

The Brinell number, which normally ranges from HB 50 to HB 750 for metals, will increase as
the sample gets harder. Tables are available to make the calculation simple. A typical Brinell
hardness is specified as follows:.
Applications
Because of the wide test force range the Brinell test can be used on almost any metallic material.
The part size is only limited by the testing instrument's capacity.
Strengths
1. One scale covers the entire hardness range, although comparable results can only be
obtained if the ball size and test force relationship is the same
2. A wide range of test forces and b all sizes to suit every application
3. Nondestructive, sample can normally be reused
Weaknesses
1. The main drawback of the Brinell test is the need to optically measure the indent size.
This requires that the test point be finished well enough to make an accurate
measurement
2. Slow. Testing can take 30 seconds not counting the sample preparation time

Rockwell Hardness Test

Stanley P. Rockwell invented the Rockwell hardness test. He was a metallurgist for a large ball
bearing company and he wanted a fast non-destructive way to determine if the heat treatment
process they were doing on the bearing races was successful. The only hardness tests he had
available at time were Vickers, Brinell and Scleroscope. The Vickers test was too time

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consuming, Brinell indents were too big for his parts and the Scleroscope was difficult to use,
especially on his small parts.
To satisfy his needs he invented the Rockwell test method. This simple sequence of test force
application proved to be a major advance in the world of hardness testing. It enabled the user to
perform an accurate hardness test on a variety of sized parts in just a few seconds.

Rockwell test methods are defined in the following standards:

 ASTM E18 Metals

 ISO 6508 Metals
 ASTM D785 Plastics

Types of the Rockwell Test

There are two types of Rockwell Tests:

1. Rockwell: the minor load is 10 kgf, the major load is 60, 100 or 150 kgf.
2. Superficial Rockwell: the minor load is 3 kgf and major loads are 15, 30, or 45 kgf.

In both tests, the indenter may be either a diamond cone or steel ball, depending on the
characteristics of the material being tested.

Rockwell Scales
Rockwell hardness values are expressed as a combination of a hardness number and a scale
symbol representing the indenter and the minor and major loads. The hardness number is
expressed by the symbol HR and the scale designation.

There are 30 different scales. The majority of applications are covered by the Rockwell C and B
scales for testing steel, brass, and other metals. However, the increasing use of materials other
than steel and brass as well as thin materials necessitates a basic knowledge of the factors that
must be considered in choosing the correct scale to ensure an accurate Rockwell test. The choice
is not only between the regular hardness test and superficial hardness test, with three different
major loads for each, but also between the diamond indenter and the 1/16, 1/8, 1/4 and 1/2 in.
diameter steel ball indenters.

If no specification exists or there is doubt about the suitability of the specified scale, an analysis
should be made of the following factors that control scale selection:

 Type of material
 Specimen thickness
 Test location
 Scale limitations

Principal of the Rockwell Test

1. The indenter moves down into position on the part surface
2. A minor load is applied and a zero reference position is established
3. The major load is applied for a specified time period (dwell time) beyond zero
4. The major load is released leaving the minor load applied
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The resulting Rockwell number represents the difference in depth from the zero reference
position as a result of the application of the major load
Applications
With the two test ranges available, the Rockwell test can be used on almost any metal sample as
well as some hard plastics. The test can normally be performed in less than 10 seconds and the
indent is usually small enough to allow the part to be used. Some parts with a critical hardness
specification are tested 100%.
Strengths
1. Rapid test, usually less than 10 seconds
2. Direct readout, no questionable optical measurements required
3. Non-destructive, part normally can be reused
Weaknesses
1. Multiple test scales (30) needed to cover the full range of metal hardness
2. Conversions between scales can be material dependent
3. Samples must be clean and have a smooth test point to get good results
Vickers Test
The Vickers (HV) test was developed in England is 1925 and was formally known as the
Diamond Pyramid Hardness (DPH) test. The Vickers test has two distinct force ranges, micro
(10g to 1000g) and macro (1kg to 100kg), to cover all testing requirements. The indenter is the
same for both ranges therefore Vickers hardness values are continuous over the total range of
hardness for metals (typically HV100 to HV1000). With the exception of test forces below 200g,
Vickers values are generally considered test force independent. In other words, if the material
tested is uniform, the Vickers values will be the same if tested using a 500g force or a 50kg
force. Below 200g, caution must be used when trying to compare results.
Standards
Vickers test methods are defined in the following standards:
 ASTM E384 - micro force ranges - 10g to 1kg
 ASTM E92 - macro force ranges - 1kg to 100kg
 ISO 6507- 1,2,3 - micro and macro ranges
Vickers Test Method
All Vickers ranges use a 136° pyramidal diamond indenter that forms a square indent.
 The indenter is pressed into the sample by an accurately controlled test force.
 The force is maintained for a specific dwell time, normally 10 – 15 seconds.
 After the dwell time is complete, the indenter is removed leaving an indent in the sample
that appears square shaped on the surface.
 The size of the indent is determined optically by measuring the two diagonals of the
square indent.
 The Vickers hardness number is a function of the test force divided by the surface area of
the indent. The average of the two diagonals is used in the following formula to calculate
the Vickers hardness.

38 NUTAN COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND RESEARCH PROF.MILIND OVHAL

Material Science and Metallurgy- Unit No.2 Material Properties & Their Testing

HV = Constant x test force / indent diagonal squared

The constant is a function of the indenter geometry and the units of force and diagonal. The
Vickers number, which normally ranges from HV 100 to HV1000 for metals, will increase as the
sample gets harder. Tables are available to make the calculation simple, while all digital test
instruments do it automatically. A typical Vickers hardness is specified as follows:

356HV0.5
Where 356 is the calculated hardness and 0.5 is the test force in kg.
Applications
Because of the wide test force range, the Vickers test can be used on almost any metallic
material. The part size is only limited by the testing instrument's capacity
Strengths
1. One scale covers the entire hardness range
2. A wide range of test forces to suit every application
3. Nondestructive, sample can normally be reused
Weaknesses
1. The main drawback of the Vickers test is the need to optically measure the indent size.
This requires that the test point be highly finished to be able to see the indent well enough
to make an accurate measurement
2. Slow. Testing can take 30 seconds not counting the sample preparation time

Formability is the ability of a given metal workpiece to undergo plastic deformation without
being damaged. The plastic deformation capacity of metallic materials, however, is limited to a
certain extent, at which point, the material could experience tearing or fracture (breakage).
Formability refers to the ability of sheet metal to be formed into a desired shape without necking
or cracking. Necking is localized thinning of the metal that is greater than the thinning of the
surrounding metal. Necking precedes cracking.
From the metallurgical perspective, the formability of a particular metal depends on the metal’s
elongation, which is the total amount of strain measured during tensile testing. A metal with a
large elongation has good formability because the metal is able to undergo a large amount of
strain (work) hardening.
Formability dependence on the following parameter
Strain hardening
Strain rate sensitive index
Plastic strain ratio
Strain distribution

Formability Testing

1. Erich Cupping
2. Olsen Test
3. Swift Cup
4. Fukui Conical
5. Marciniak Cup

………………….. GOOD LUCK ……………

39 NUTAN COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND RESEARCH PROF.MILIND OVHAL