Properties of Structural Materials

Course instructor Dr. Ahmed Almutairi

Properties of Material under tension

THREE BASIC STATES OF STRESS

Shear
 THREE BASIC STATES OF STRESS

a)Tension
State of stress where
material pulled apart

b)Compression
State of stress where
material crushed
c) Shear
State of stress where parts of
material slide relative to each other
 The big picture:
Loaded structures are deformed by an amount that
depends on several factors…?

force

causes

stress

puts material
under
strain

results in

deformation
When forces are applied to a body (i.e. bar or beam), internal forces are set
up in the body and it deforms and/or moves.
Stresses and Strains are created throughout the interior of the bar/beam. To
determine these stresses and strains, we must determine the internal
forces and moments

F 0
L +
L
F 
F  =  = L → L +
A L

 , , ,
Stresses and Strains
Transverse loaded members

15kN

5kN/m
80kNm

5m 5m
M M
V V k)
5.75 kN
( N
N N
-9.25 kN
V
Internal Loadings
M (kNm) -34.25 kN

V = Shear Force 80 kNm

N = Normal Force
108.75 kNm
M = Bending Moment
 Stress σ
internal forces developed within a structure due to action
of external forces
internal force not concentrated at single spot, distributed
over entire cross-section
stress is force intensity (force per unit area)

F Force (N)
Stress (N/m )  =
2

A Area (m2) Fe
Fe
Fe

X X Fi = Fe

Fe
Fe
Fe
 STRESS IS FORCE PER UNIT AREA
The metric unit of stress is the Pascal (Pa).
One Pascal is equal to one newton of force per
square meter of area (1 N/m2).

A load of 1 N on
1N
1N each square
1N
1N metre represents
an average
stress of
1 N/m2, or 1 Pa

Pa seems too small, so we usually use:

The stress acting perpendicular to the
cut surface is referred to as a Normal
stress ()

+ -
Sign convention for normal stresses is:
(+) for tensile stresses and
(-) for compressive stresses

Shear stress (): force acts

parallel to the plane
 = F tangential to the area /A
 Strain e
T
Strain is a physical change in the
dimensions of a body that results from DL
applying a load.

Normal Strain (ɛ) is a measure of Lo

deformation, and calculated by the ratio
of the change in length and the original
length.
ɛ = ΔL / L0
T

• If the bar is in tension, the strain is called a

tensile strain
• If the bar is in compression, the strain is called a
compressive strain
Tensile strain is taken as positive (+), and compressive strain as negative (-)
 Mechanical Properties of Materials
• The design of machines and structures so that they function
properly requires that we understand the mechanical
behavior of the materials being used.

• The structures are often subjected to forces and

consequently to deformations.

• The properties of materials under the action of forces and

deformations becomes an important engineering
consideration.
The properties of materials when subjected to stresses and strains
are called
“mechanical properties”
In other words the properties that determine the behavior of an
engineering material under applied forces are called
“mechanical properties”
 Mechanical Testing
• To determine the mechanical properties of materials,
various standardized testing methods have been
developed.

• The materials are subjected to laboratory tests

(Tensile, Compressive, Shear, Torsion, Bending..etc)
under controlled conditions so that their reactions to
changes in the conditions may be determined.

• The usual procedure is to (1) place small specimens of

the material in testing machines, (2) apply the loads,
and then (3) measure the resulting deformations (such
as changes in length and changes in diameter).
 Tensile Test
This is the most common test carried out on a material.

Tensile stress-strain curves for different materials.

 Tensile Test- Standardization

• In order that test results will be

comparable, the dimensions of
test specimens and the methods
of applying loads must be
standardized. specimen

• One of the major standards

organizations in the United States
is the American Society for
Testing and Materials (ASTM).
machine
• Most of the countries have also
their own standardizing
organizations
Tensile Test:Slowly pulling a sample of material with a tensile
load until it breaks.
yield point

stress
ultimate
failure

yield stress

elastic plastic strain

range range
 Sequence of Tensile Test
(1) Original shape and size of the specimen with no load.
(2) Specimen undergoing uniform elongation.
(3) Point of maximum load and ultimate tensile strength.
(4) The onset of necking (plastic instability).
(5) Specimen fractures.
 Stress-Strain Diagram

Stress-strain diagram for a typical structural steel in tension

 Stress-Strain Diagram
• The diagram begins with a straight line from the origin 0 to
point A which means that the relationship between stress and
strain in this initial region is not only linear but also
proportional.
• Beyond point A, the proportionality between stress and strain
no longer exists; hence the stress at A is called the
proportional limit.

• The slope of the straight line from 0 to A is called the

modulus of elasticity (E).
• With an increase in stress beyond the proportional limit, the
strain begins to increase more rapidly for each increment in
stress.
• Consequently, the stress-strain curve has a smaller and
smaller slope, until, at point B, the curve becomes horizontal.
 Stress-Strain Diagram
• Beginning at point (B), considerable elongation of the test
specimen occurs with no noticeable increase in the tensile
force (from B to C).
• This phenomenon is known as yielding of the material, and
point B is called the yield point.
• The corresponding stress is known as the yield stress of the
steel.
• The material becomes perfectly plastic, which means that it
deforms without an increase in the applied load.

• After undergoing the large strains that occur during

yielding in the region BC, the steel begins to strain harden.
• During strain hardening, the material undergoes changes in
its crystalline structure, resulting in increased resistance of
the material to further deformation.
 Stress-Strain Diagram

• Elongation of test specimen in this region requires an

increase in the tensile load, therefore the stress-strain
diagram has a positive slope from C to D.

• The load eventually reaches its maximum value, and the

corresponding stress (at point D) is called the ultimate
stress.

• Further stretching of the bar is actually accompanied by a

reduction in the load, and fracture finally occurs at a point
such as E
 Important Mechanical Properties
from a Tensile Test
• The Modulus of Elasticity E, i.e. the slope of the
linear portion of the stress-strain curve is also
called: YOUNG'S MODULUS
(it is usually specific to each material;a constant known value)

• The yield stress of a material is also called:

THE YIELD STRENGTH
(The Yield strength of a beam is the magnitude of the load
required to cause yielding in the beam).

• The ultimate stress of a material is also called:

THE ULTIMATE STRENGTH
(The Ultimate strength of a truss is the maximum load it can
support, that is, the failure load).

Strength is the capacity of a structure to resist loads.

 Stress-Strain Diagram
((Nominal)Engineering-True) stress-strain
• When a test specimen is stretched, a decrease in cross-
sectional area occurs which begins to alter the shape of the
curve.
• This becomes clearly visible in the vicinity of ultimate stress,
i.e. necking of the bar occurs.

• If the actual cross-sectional area at the narrow part of the neck

is used to calculate the stress, the true stress-strain curve (the
dashed line) is obtained.

• Because most structures are expected to function at stresses

below the proportional limit, the stress-strain curve
OABCDE, which is based upon the original cross-sectional
area of the specimen provides
satisfactory information for use in engineering design.
 Summary Stress-Strain Diagram

O to A straight line; stress and strain are proportional. The slope of the
straight line: Modulus of Elasticity: E= σ / ε
(units: same as stress).
Beyond A ( proportional limit ) stress and strain are no longer
proportional.
A to B the strain increases more rapidly than the stress. Slope
decreases to 0 (zero) at B.
B to C yielding = considerable elongation occurs with no noticeable
increase in tensile force. Thus, B is the Yield Point.
Corresponding stress is the Yield Stress. Material is perfectly plastic (=
deforms without increasing applied load)
C to D due to the large strains occurring from B up to C, the crystalline
structure of the material undergoes changes that allows the material to
withstand higher loads. This is call Strain Hardening.
A maximum stress value is obtained called, the Ultimate Stress.
D to E the specimen continues to be stretched (elongated) even though
the load is reduced. Fracture occurs at E.
Lateral contractions occur. This results in a decrease in the cross
sectional area and is called Necking. Becomes apparent in the vicinity
of the Ultimate Stress
C to E’ if the actual “necked” area is used to compute the stress
 Typical stages, strengths and nominal/true curves
OA: elasticity;
BCD: plasticity;
DE: fracture mechanics;
BCDE involve defects
Summary on strength of Materials

• Proportional limit: σpl

• Elastic limit: σel (slightly >σpl)
• Yield stress/yield point: σY
• stress required to produce a small-specified
amount of plastic deformation
• Upper/lower yield point: (σY)u, (σY)l
• Ultimate stress: σu
• Fracture stress: σf
• Note : technically,
 DUCTILE MATERIALS

yield point

stress
ultimate
failure

yield stress

elastic plastic strain

range range

Ductile Materials can sustain large

strains before rupture.
 DUCTILE MATERIALS

• Materials that can sustain large strains before rupture. Materials that
behave in a ductile manner include aluminum, copper, magnesium, lead,
molybdenum, nickel, brass, bronze, monel metal,nylon, and teflon

DUCTILITY is the ability of a material to be elongated in tension

• Metals such as structural steel that undergo large permanent strains before
failure are classified as ductile.

• For instance, ductility is the property that enables a bar of steel to be bent
into a circular arc or drawn into a wire without breaking.

• A desirable feature of ductile materials is that visible distortions occur if the

loads become too large, thus providing an opportunity to take remedial
action before an actual fracture occurs.
The lack of Ductility is often termed BRITLENESS
Mild Steel: The strains from the zero point to point A are so small in
comparison to the strains from point A to point E, and the initial part of
the diagram appears to be a vertical line.
The presence of a clearly defined yield point followed by large plastic
strains is an important characteristic of structural steel that is
sometimes utilized in practical design

Stress-strain diagram for a typical structural steel in tension (drawn to scale)

Offset Method
 BRITTLE MATERIALS

yield point

stress
failure

strain

Brittle materials fail with only little

elongation after the proportional limit
 BRITTLE MATERIALS
• Materials that fail in tension at relatively low values of
strain are classified as brittle. Examples are concrete,
stone, cast iron, glass, ceramics, and a variety of metallic
alloys.
• Brittle materials fail with only little elongation after the
proportional limit & The reduction in area is insignificant.

Stress-strain curve for brittle materials

The fundamental difference between
ductile and brittle materials:
After proportional limit,
ductile: σ keeps constant
brittle: σ keeps increasing

Yield stress: a convenient concept for Typical stress-strain

design. diagram for a brittle
material showing the
proportional limit (A) and
fracture stress (B).
 LINEAR ELASTICITY, HOOKE’S LAW, AND POISSON’S RATIO

LINEAR ELASTICITY
• Many structural materials, including most metals, wood,
plastics, and ceramics, behave both elastically and linearly
when first loaded.

• Consequently, their stress-strain curves begin with a

straight line passing through the origin.

• When a material behaves elastically and also exhibits a

linear relationship between stress and strain, it is said to
be linearly elastic.

This type of behavior is extremely important in engineering.

Structures and machines are designed to function in this region
 LINEAR ELASTICITY, HOOKE’S LAW, AND POISSON’S RATIO

Hooke’s law
The linear relationship between stress and strain for a bar in
simple tension or compression is expressed by the equation
σ=Eε

stress
The equation σ=Eε is commonly known as
Hooke’s law, named for the famous English 
scientist Robert Hooke(1635–1703) strain

Modulus of elasticity (E) is often called Young’s modulus, after

another English scientist, Thomas Young (1773–1829).

(E) has relatively large values for materials that are very stiff, such as
structural metals.
Steel has a modulus of approximately (210GPa).
Aluminum around (73GPa).
More flexible materials have a lower modulus—values:
Plastics range from (0.7 to 14GPa).
• The modulus of elasticity, E, is a property of a material
• measures the resistance to deformation
• higher E – more resistant to deformation

stress
modulus of elasticity, E for:
steel 200,000 MPa 
aluminium 70,000 MPa strain

concrete 25,000 MPa (varies)

timber 10,000 MPa (varies a lot)

steel bar 1m long under stress of 150 MPa

extends 0.75mm
too small to see by eye - measured by micrometre
 LINEAR ELASTICITY, HOOKE’S LAW, AND POISSON’S RATIO

• Poisson’s Ratio
• When a prismatic bar is loaded in tension,
the axial elongation is accompanied by
lateral contraction.

• The lateral strain ε’ at any point in a bar is

proportional to the axial strain ε at that Axial elongation and lateral
same point if the material is linearly elastic. contraction of a prismatic bar in
tension: (a) bar before loading,
• The ratio of these strains is a property of the and (b) bar after loading
material known as Poisson’s ratio (ν).

'
v=−


The minus sign is inserted in the equation to compensate for the fact that
the lateral and axial strains normally have opposite signs.
Example. A steel pipe of length L =1.2m, outside diameter d2=150mm, and
inside diameter d1=110mm is compressed by an axial force P=620kN.
The material has modulus of elasticity E=200GPa and Poisson’s ratio ν=0.30.
Determine the following quantities for the pipe:
(a) the shortening δ
(b) the lateral strain ε’
(c) the increase Δd2 in the outer diameter ,
(d) and the increase Δd1 in the inner diameter,
(e) and the increase Δt in the wall thickness.
Solution
a) What do you need to calculate the change in length of the pipe (the
shortening δ).

The elongation equation is:

ε= L / L0…(you need to know the value of the strain)

To find the value of the strain σ=Eε

F
=
So you need to calculate the stress from A

Therefore you should first calculate the cross-sectional area A then find σ
Knowing the axial strain, we can now find the change in length of the
pipe δ

b)The lateral strain ε’ at any point in a bar is proportional to the axial

strain ε
'
v=−

 Solution
The cross-sectional area A and longitudinal stress σ are determined
as follows:

Because the stress is well below the yield stress (see Table H-3,
Appendix H), the material behaves linearly elastically and the
axial strain may be found from Hooke’s law

The minus sign for the strain indicates that the pipe shortens.
(a) Knowing the axial strain, we can now find the change in length
of the pipe

The negative sign again indicates a shortening of the pipe.

 (b) The lateral strain is obtained from Poisson’s ratio

The positive sign for ε’ indicates an increase in the lateral dimensions, as

expected for compression.

(c) The increase in outer diameter equals the lateral strain times the
diameter:

Similarly, the increase in inner diameter is

(d) The increase in wall thickness is found in the same manner as

the increases in the diameters; thus,
Δt= ε’ t=(….)(20mm)
This result can be verified by noting that the increase in wall thickness is
equal to half the difference of the increases in diameters:
Example.

Solution
Example. A specimen of a methacrylate plastic is
tested in tension at room temperature, producing the
stress-strain data listed in the accompanying table.
Plot the stress-strain curve and determine the
proportional limit, modulus of elasticity and yield stress
at 0.2% offset. Is the material ductile or brittle?
Solution
Example. A cylindrical specimen of brass was tested in
tension and the low strain region of the tensile stress-strain
curve is shown in the figure. Find the following:
a) The Young's modulus of brass
b) The 0.2% offset yield stress
c) The proportional limit
Solution

a) The Young's modulus of brass

The Young’s modulus is found from the slope of the Nominal Stress
vs. Nominal Strain curve in in the linear regime where nominal strain
is very small. In this case you should estimate the slope of the curve.
E=100 MPa/.0025 = 40,000 MPa.

b) The 0.2% offset yield stress

To find the 0.2% offset yield stress, extrapolate a line with the same
slope as the linear regime (which is equal to the Young’s modulus)
from the x- axis of Nominal Stress vs. Nominal Strain curve upwards
until it intersects with the curve. The stress at this intersection is the
0.2% offset yield stress. Here it is ~ 150 MPa.

c) The proportional limit

The proportional limit occurs where the stress and strain stop being
linear or proportional, and is~ 95MPa.