INVISIBLE MECHANICS

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INVISIBLE MECHANICS
 General Information
Group 1 and 2
Group 1 (Alkali metals) : - Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs, Fr
Group 2 (Alkaline earth metals) : - Be, Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba, Ra
Francium is radio active, Fr has a t1/2 of 21 minutes
Beryllium is rare (only 10^-10 % of igneous rocks)
Li shows similarities to Mg and Be to Al due to similar size and e/m ratio

Group 1 : Alkali Metals ------> Highly electropositive metals and lose 1 electrom to form M+ ions

Periodic Trends
Atomic/Ionic Radii : Increase down the group : [Li<Na<K<Rb<Cs<Fr]
IE/IP : decrease down the group : [Li>Na>K>Rb>Cs>Fr]
Hydration Enthalpy : Decrease down the group [Li>Na>K>Rb>Cs>Fr]

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The Alkali Metals
Physical Properties
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

All are silvery white, soft and light metals. Density decreases from Li to Cs [Exception, K is
lighter than Na]
M.P and B.P.s are low due to weak metallic bonding.
Impart characteristic flame in oxidising flame due to shifting of excited electron and coming
back

Metal Colour Wavelength(nm)

Li Crimson Red 670.8

Na Yellow 589.2

K Violet 766.5

Rb Red Videt 780.0

Cs Blue 455.5

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The Alkali Metals
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The Alkali Metals
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES

Reaction with Air : They tarnish in dry air due to formation of oxides, which in turn reacts with
moisture to form hydroxide, Na forms peroxide, Li forms monoride, others form superoxides.

Li shows exceptional behaviour by reacting directly with N2 of air to form nitride [Li3N]

Due to high reactivity towards air, these metals are kept submerged in Kerosene oil.

Reaction with Water: Alkali metals four react with water to form hydroxide and dihydrogen.
[2M+2420 Li most-ve EC value, Na→ Least -ve E value, Reaction of Li with H2O is more less
vigourous than Na This is due to small size very high Hydration energy, other metals react
explosively

Also react with proton donors like alcohol, gaseous ammonia and terminal alleynes,

→ Reaction with H2: They react with H2 at about 673 K (Li at 1073k) to form hydrides.

2M+H2 -----> 2M+H-

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The Alkali Metals
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The Alkali Metals
USES

Li with Pb makes ‘white metal’ ball bearings for motor engine.

Li with Al is used to make aircraft parts.
Li with Mg alloy is used to make armour plates. Also used to make electrochemical cells.
Na is used to make No/Pb alloy needed to make Pb Eta and Pb Me 4. (used to be used as
anti-knocking additive)
Liquid Na is used as coolant if fast breeder nuclear reactors.
K has vital role for biological systems
KCI →fertilizer
KOH is used in the manufacture of soft soap, Also used as an excellent absorbent of CO2
Cs is used in devising photoelectric cells.

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The Alkali Metal Compounds
Oxides and Hydroxides

Li form oxide (Li2O) and peroxide (Li2O2), Na forms peroxide (Na2O2) and superoxide ( NaO2), others form only superoxides.
Increasing stability of peroxide and hydroxide, as the size of the metal ion increases, is due to the stabilisation of large anions by
larger cations through lattice energy effects.

The oxides and peroxides are colourless when pure, but the superoxides are yellow or orange in colour.
Superoxides are paramagnetic (O2-)
Hydroxides made for oxides and H2O are all white crystalline solids.
Alkali metal hydroxides strongest of all bases and dissolve freely in H2O, releases heat on intense hydration.

Halides
Crystalline colourless solids with high melting point.
All these halides have high regative enthalpies of formation: deltaf H values for fluorides become less
negative as we go down the group but that for chlorides, Bromides and Iodides are reverse.
For a given metal deltaƒH always becomes less negative from flouride to iodide
m.p & b.p→ Fluoride > Chloride > Bromide > Iodide All are soluble in water

Low solubity of LiF in water is due to its high lattice enthalpy whereas low solubility of CSI is due to
smaller Hydration enthalpy of its two ions.
Other halides of Li are soluble in ethanol, acetone and ethylacetate; LiCl is soluble in pyridine also

Salt of oxo-acids
Acidic proton and oxo group both are attached to the same hydroxyl group.
Alkali metals form salts with all the oxo acids (Generally soluble).
Carbonates and bicarbonates are highly stable to heat.
As electropositivity increase down the group, stability increases.
Li2Co3 is not stable, being small cation it polarises Co3 2- ion leading to formation of more
stable Li2O and CO2
LiHCO3, doesn't exist as a solid.

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The Alkali Metal Compounds
Washing Soda
(Washing Soda, Na2CO3 ×10H2O
Sodium carbonate is generally prepared by Solvay process.
2NH3 + H2O + CO2 ----> (NH4 )2CO3
(NH4 )2CO3 + H2O + CO2 -----> 2NH4HCO3
NH4HCO3 + NaCl -------> NH4Cl + NaHCO3
Sodium hydrogen carbonate crystals separate out. These are heated to obtain sodium
carbonate 150°C
2NaHCO3 -----> Na2CO3 + CO2 + H2O
In this process, NH3 is recovered when the solution containing NH4Cl is treated with
Ca(OH)2.

Sodium Chloride
The three major sources of NaCl are
(i) Sea water (3% NaCl)
(ii) Water of inland lake
(iii) Salt mines
● It is a white crystalline solid, soluble in water.
● Pure NaCl is not hygroscopic. It shows hygroscopic nature due to the presence of chlorides of
Ca and Mg as an impurity.
● It is used as the starting material for the preparation of NaOH, Na2CO3 , NaHCO3 , etc.
● It is used as a preservative for meat, fish, etc. It is also used as a salting out of soap and in
making freezing mixtures.

Caustic Soda
Sodium hydroxide is produced commercially using electrolysis of sodium chloride in Castner-
Kellner cell or mercury cathode cell.

The amalgam is treated with water to give sodium hydroxide and hydrogen gas.
2Na-Hg + 2H2O ------> 2NaOH + 2Hg + H2

Sodium hydroxide is white, translucent solid and deliquescent. It is called caustic soda
because it breaks down proteins of skin to a pasty mass.

On exposure to atmosphere, it absorbs moisture and CO.

2NaOH+CO ----> NaCO +HO
It reacts with metals like Zn, Al, Sn and Pb and evolve H 2
gas.
e.g. Zn+ NaOH ----> Na2ZnO2 + H2
It also reacts with metallic salts to form hydroxides. It is
used in soap manufacturing, purification of bauxite, manufacturing of rayon, etc.

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The Alkali Metal Compounds
Baking Soda
Sodium Hydrogen Carbonate (Baking Soda, NaHCO3 )

It is prepared as an intermediate product in the Solvay

ammonia soda process.
NH3+H2O+CO2+NaCl ----> NaHCO3 ̄ + NH4Cl
Uses
● It is a white crystalline solid, sparingly soluble in water.
● Its aqueous solution is alkaline in nature due to
hydrolysis.
NaHCO3 + H2O -----> NaOH+ H2CO3

2NaHCO3 ----> Na2CO3 +H2O+CO2

● It is used as a medicine to neutralise acidity in stomach.
● It is used as a constituent of baking powder and in fire extinguisher.

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The Alkali Metals
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The Alkali Metals

Anamalous Properties of Li
Lithium due to its
exceptionally small size (like Mg) and
high polarising power (i.e. charge/radius ratio) (like Mg) exhibits some properties which are different from
those of the other members of group 1 but similar to that of magnesium (present diagonally in the following
group, i.e. group 2 ). The property of showing similarity in properties with the element present diagonally
opposite in the periodic table is called diagonal relationship.
MgCl2 and LiCl are deliquescent and crystallise as their hydrates, LiCl ×2H2Oand MgCl2 ×2H2O.
Alkali metals do not react with nitrogen except Li.
Alkali metal carbonates, nitrates and hydroxides do not decompose on heating into their oxides except
lithium.

Li and Mg similarities

Lithium (Li) and magnesium (Mg) are two elements that share a number of similarities, despite being in different
groups on the periodic table. This is because they have similar atomic sizes and electronegativities.

Some of the similarities between Li and Mg include:

Both elements are relatively small and have high electronegativities. This means that they both have a strong
tendency to attract electrons.
Both elements form nitrides when reacting with nitrogen. Nitrides are compounds that contain nitrogen and
another element.
Both elements form hydroxides that are weak bases. This means that their hydroxides do not readily dissociate in
water to form hydroxide ions.

Biological Importance
Alkali metals are essential elements for living organisms. They play a vital role in many biological processes,
including:

Maintaining fluid balance: Sodium and potassium ions are the main electrolytes in the body, and they are
essential for regulating fluid balance and blood pressure.
Nerve and muscle function: Sodium and potassium ions are also involved in nerve and muscle function.
They help to transmit nerve signals and regulate muscle contractions.
Enzyme activity: Many enzymes require alkali metal ions as cofactors to function properly.
pH regulation: Alkali metals help to regulate the pH of the body's fluids.

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The Alkaline Earth Metals
TRENDS
The alkaline earth metals are a group of six elements in the periodic table: beryllium (Be),
magnesium (Mg), calcium (Ca), strontium (Sr), barium (Ba), and radium (Ra). They are all silver-
white, lustrous solids that are good conductors of electricity and heat. They are also relatively soft
and ductile, and have low densities and melting points.

The alkaline earth metals show a number of trends in the periodic table. One trend is that their
atomic radii increase as you go down the group. This is because the valence electrons are further
away from the nucleus in heavier elements.

Another trend is that their ionization energies decrease as you go down the group. This is
because it is easier to remove an electron from an atom with a larger atomic radius.

The alkaline earth metals also show a trend in their reactivity. They are all highly reactive, but their
reactivity increases as you go down the group. This is because the valence electrons are easier to
remove from heavier elements.

Here is a table summarizing the trends in the periodic table for alkaline earth metals:

Property Trend
------------------ ---------------
Atomic radius Increases
Ionization energy Decreases
Reactivity Increases

There are a few exceptions to these trends. For example, beryllium is less reactive than the other
alkaline earth metals due to its small size and high charge density.

The trends in the periodic table for alkaline earth metals can be explained by their electronic
structure. All of the alkaline earth metals have two valence electrons in the s orbital. As you go
down the group, the number of energy levels increases. This means that the valence electrons
are further away from the nucleus and are easier to remove.

The trends in the periodic table for alkaline earth metals are important because they can be used
to predict the properties of new elements and to develop new materials.

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The Alkaline Earth Metals
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 The Alkaline Earth Metals
Physical Properties:
1)Silvery-white, lustrous solids (exception: beryllium has a steel-gray color)
2)Good conductors of electricity and heat
3)Relatively soft and ductile
4)Low densities (exception: beryllium has a higher density than aluminum)
5)Low melting and boiling points (exceptions: beryllium has the highest melting and boiling points
of the alkaline earth metals)
6)Alkaline earth metals have two valence electrons, which they readily lose to form divalent
cations (M2+)
7)Alkaline earth metals are more reactive than the alkali metals, but less reactive than the
transition metals
8)Alkaline earth metals are found in a variety of minerals, including limestone, dolomite, and
gypsum.

Chemical Properties:
1)Highly reactive (exception: beryllium is less reactive than the other alkaline earth metals due to
its small size and high charge density)
2)Form divalent cations (M2+)
3)React with oxygen to form oxides (MO) (exception: beryllium also forms a peroxide, BeO2)
4)React with water to form hydroxides (M(OH)2) (exceptions: beryllium reacts slowly with water to
form a thin, protective layer of hydroxide on its surface; magnesium reacts slowly with cold water,
but more quickly with hot water)
5)React with acids to form salts
6)Alkaline earth metals are good reducing agents
7)Alkaline earth metals can form a variety of compounds with other elements, including halides,
nitrides, and sulfides
8)Alkaline earth metals are important in biology and are found in many essential compounds, such
as calcium in bones and teeth

Reducing Nature:
Alkaline earth metals have a low ionization energy. This means that they can easily lose their two
valence electrons to form divalent cations (M2+).
Alkaline earth metals have a negative standard electrode potential. This means that they are more
likely to be oxidized than reduced.
Alkaline earth metals are more electropositive than other metals. This means that they are more likely
to donate electrons to other atoms or molecules.
When an alkaline earth metal reacts with a more electronegative element or compound, it donates its
electrons to the other species. This process is called oxidation, and the alkaline earth metal is acting
as a reducing agent.
For example, when magnesium reacts with oxygen, it forms magnesium oxide. In this reaction,
magnesium is oxidized and oxygen is reduced.
2Mg + O2 → 2MgO

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Magnesium is a stronger reducing agent than lithium, but a weaker reducing agent than sodium.
This is because magnesium has a higher ionization energy than lithium, but a lower ionization
energy than sodium.
The reducing nature of alkaline earth metals increases as you go down the group. This is
because the ionization energy of alkaline earth metals decreases as you go down the group.
Barium is the strongest reducing agent of the alkaline earth metals.
Here is an example of how an alkaline earth metal can be used as a reducing agent in a chemical
reaction:
Ba + 2H2O → Ba(OH)2 + H2
In this reaction, barium is oxidized to barium hydroxide, and water is reduced to hydrogen.
Alkaline earth metals are important reducing agents in many chemical reactions. They are used in
the production of metals, alloys, and chemicals. They are also used in batteries and fuel cells.

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The Alkaline Earth Metals Compounds
USES
Structural materials: Alkaline earth metals are used in a variety of structural materials,
including alloys, cement, and concrete. For example, magnesium is used to make lightweight
alloys for aircraft and spacecraft. Calcium is used to make cement, which is a key ingredient in
concrete.
Chemical feedstocks: Alkaline earth metals are also used as chemical feedstocks for the
production of a variety of other chemicals, such as fertilizers, plastics, and pharmaceuticals.
For example, calcium phosphate is used as a fertilizer. Magnesium hydroxide is used to make
plastics. Barium sulfate is used to make X-ray contrast agents.
Biological functions: Alkaline earth metals play important roles in biology. For example,
calcium is essential for bone health. Magnesium is involved in muscle contraction and nerve
function.
Oxides and Hydroxides
Alkaline earth metal oxides are basic in nature and their basicity increases as you go down
the group. This is because the lattice energy of alkaline earth metal oxides decreases as you
go down the group. Beryllium oxide (BeO) is amphoteric, meaning that it can act as both a
base and an acid.
Alkaline earth metal hydroxides are also basic in nature and their basicity increases as you go
down the group. This is because the lattice energy of alkaline earth metal hydroxides
decreases as you go down the group. Beryllium hydroxide (Be(OH)2) is also amphoteric.
Alkaline earth metal oxides and hydroxides react with acids to form salts. For example,
calcium oxide (CaO) reacts with hydrochloric acid (HCl) to form calcium chloride (CaCl2).

Halides
Alkaline earth metal halides are ionic compounds formed between alkaline earth metals and
halogens. They are all white solids, except for beryllium iodide (BeI2), which is yellow. They have
high melting and boiling points, and are good conductors of electricity in the molten state.

Alkaline earth metal halides are less reactive than the alkali metal halides. This is because the
alkaline earth metal ions have a higher charge density than the alkali metal ions. However, they
are still more reactive than other metal halides, such as those of the transition metals.

Alkaline earth metal halides react with water to form metal hydroxides and hydrogen gas. This
reaction is more vigorous for the heavier alkaline earth metals, due to their higher reactivity.
MX2 + 2H2O → M(OH)2 + H2
Alkaline earth metal halides also react with acids to form salts.
MX2 + 2HX → MX2 + H2
Alkaline earth metal halides are used in a variety of industrial applications. For example,
magnesium chloride is used to make magnesium alloys, magnesium hydroxide antacids, and
magnesium compounds. Calcium chloride is used to make concrete, brine solutions, and calcium
compounds. Strontium chloride is used to make fireworks and strontium compounds. Barium
chloride is used to make barium sulfate X-ray contrast agents and barium compounds.

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The Alkaline Earth Metals Compounds

Quick Lime
Quick lime (calcium oxide or CaO) is a white, caustic, alkaline, crystalline solid at room
temperature. It is produced by heating calcium carbonate (CaCO3) to high temperatures, typically
around 900 °C. This process is called calcination.
CaCO3 → CaO + CO2
Quick lime is a very reactive substance. It reacts with water to form calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2),
which is also known as slaked lime. This reaction is accompanied by a large release of heat.
CaO + H2O → Ca(OH)2
Quick lime also reacts with acids to form salts. For example, it reacts with hydrochloric acid (HCl)
to form calcium chloride (CaCl2).
CaO + 2HCl → CaCl2 + H2O
Quick lime has a number of important uses. It is used in the construction industry to make cement
and plaster. It is also used in agriculture to neutralize acidic soils. In addition, quick lime is used in
a variety of other industrial applications, such as the production of paper, glass, and soap.
Here is a 3-point discussion of quick lime for a 12th grader:
Quick lime is a highly reactive substance that is produced by heating calcium carbonate to high
temperatures.
Quick lime reacts with water to form calcium hydroxide, which is a strong base.
Quick lime is used in a variety of important industrial applications, such as the production of
cement, plaster, and paper.

Slaked Lime
Slaked lime, also known as calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2) is a white, odorless, alkaline powder or
solid. It is produced by the reaction of quick lime (calcium oxide, CaO) with water.

CaO + H2O → Ca(OH)2

Slaked lime is a less reactive substance than quick lime. It is sparingly soluble in water, forming a
slightly alkaline solution. Slaked lime reacts with acids to form salts. For example, it reacts with
hydrochloric acid (HCl) to form calcium chloride (CaCl2).

Ca(OH)2 + 2HCl → CaCl2 + 2H2O

Slaked lime has a number of important uses. It is used in the construction industry to make mortar
and plaster. It is also used in agriculture to neutralize acidic soils. In addition, slaked lime is used in
a variety of other industrial applications, such as the production of paper, glass, and soap.

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 Calcium Carbonate
CaCO3 occurs in nature in several forms like lime stone, chalk, marble etc.
Can be prepared by passing CO2 through Ca(OH)2 or by addition of Na, CO3 to CaCl2
[Ca (OH), + CO, Ca CO3 H2O / CaCl2 + Na2CO3 → CaCO3 + 2 NaCl]
CaCO3 is a white fluffy powder, almost insoluble in water. When heated at 1200K, it decomposes.

Reacts with dilute acid to liberate CO2 [CaCO3 + 2HCl → CaCl, + H2O + CO2 / CaCO 3 + H2SO4 +
CaSO4 + H2O + CC]

Uses:
Used as building material in form of marble and manufacture of quick lime.
CaCO3 and Mg CO3 is used as a flux in the extraction of metals such as iron
Specially ppt. CaCO3 is used in making high quality paper.
Used as antacid, mild abrasive in tooth paste, a constituent of chewing gum and filler in cosmetics.

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The Alkaline Earth Metals Compounds
Calcium Sulphate
Calcium sulfate is a chemical compound with the formula CaSO4. It is a white, odorless solid that is
soluble in water. Calcium sulfate occurs naturally in the mineral gypsum, which is used to make
drywall, plaster, and other building materials. Calcium sulfate is also used in food processing,
medicine, and other industrial applications.

Properties of calcium sulfate

White, odorless solid
Soluble in water
Hygroscopic (absorbs moisture from the air)
Deliquescent (melts in its own water of hydration)

Uses of calcium sulfate

Building materials: Calcium sulfate is the main ingredient in drywall, plaster, and other building
materials. It is also used in cement and concrete.
Food processing: Calcium sulfate is used as a firming agent in tofu and other processed foods. It is
also used as a food additive to prevent clumping and to improve texture.
Medicine: Calcium sulfate is used in some medications to treat diarrhea and constipation. It is also
used in some medical procedures, such as bone grafting.

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The Alkaline Earth Metals
Biological Importance
Calcium (Ca) and magnesium (Mg) are two essential minerals that play a vital role in
human health. They are both involved in a wide range of biological processes,
including:

Calcium
Bone and teeth health: Calcium is essential for the development and maintenance of
strong bones and teeth. It accounts for about 99% of the body's total calcium content.
Muscle contraction: Calcium plays a role in muscle contraction, signaling the muscles
to contract and relax.

Magnesium
Energy production: Magnesium is essential for the production of energy in the body.
It is a cofactor for many enzymes involved in energy metabolism.

Anamalous Behavior

High melting and boiling points: Beryllium has the highest melting and boiling points of all the
alkaline earth metals. This is due to its strong metallic bonding, which is a result of its small
size and high electronegativity.

Amphoteric nature: Beryllium oxide and hydroxide are amphoteric, meaning that they can react
as both acids and bases. This is in contrast to the oxides and hydroxides of the other alkaline
earth metals, which are basic.

Covalent bonding: Beryllium forms more covalent compounds than the other alkaline earth
metals. This is due to its high polarizing power, which is the ability to attract and distort electron
clouds.

Diagonal relationship between Be and Al

Both elements are relatively small and have high electronegativities.
Both elements form amphoteric oxides and hydroxides, meaning that they can react as both acids
and bases.
Both elements form covalent compounds with non-metals.
Both elements have high melting and boiling points.
Both elements are important industrial metals.

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The Alkaline Earth Metals
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