|1.

38
Wireless Communicatio

1.8 SOLVED PROBLEMS

Problem-1
Consider a cellular Systemin which there are a total of 1001 radio channek,
available for handling traffic. Suppose the area of a cell is 6km and the area

of the entire system is 2100 km'.

thecluster size is 7.
(a) Calculate the system capacity if ond
many times would the cluster of size 4 have to be replicated in
(0) How
entire cellular area?
toapproximately cover the
ifthe cluster size is 4.
(c) Calculate the system capacity
decreasing the cluster size increases the system capacity? Explain
(d) Does
Solution:
Given:
1001
The total number of available channels (S) =
Cluster size (N) 7
Area of cell (Aceli) = 6 km
Area of a cellular system (Asys) = 2100 km

(a) The number of channels per cell (K)

S 1001
K = 143 channels/cell
N 7

The coverage area of a cluster is

Acluster = N× Acell
= 7x6 = 42 km
The number of times that the cluster has to be replicated to cover the e
cellular system.

M = Agys 2100
42
= 50
Acluster
The Cellular Concept-System Design Fundamentals |139
System capacity (C) = M K N
= 50 x 143 x 7

C= 50,050 channels
(b) For N= 4,
Acluster = NX Acell
= 4 x6 =24 km'

M = Ags
Acthuster
=
2100
24

M = 87.587
(c) With N=4,
S 1001
K=
4
250 channels/cell
N

The system capacity is then C = MKN

= 87 x 250 x 4

C= 87,000 channels
accompanied
(d) From (a) and (c), it is seen that a decrease in N fromn 7 to 4 is
capacity is increased
by an increase in M from 50 to 87 and the system
Therefore, decreasing the cluster
from 50.050 channels to 87,000 channels.
capacity.
size does increase the system
Problem-2
MHA of bandwidth is allocated to a particular FDD cellular
fatotal of 33
two Z) kiz simplex channels to provide full
telephone systen which uses
compute the number of channels available
channetsS,
dunlex yoice and control
system uses
per cellifa
 1.40| Wireless Communication

(a) Four-cell rense.

(b) Seven-cell reuse, and
(c) 12-cell reuse.

the allocated spectrum is dedicated to control channels, determine

fIMH: of channels in each cell
channels and voice
an equitable distribution of control
APR/MAY-2017 & APRMAY-20191
for the three systems.
O Solution:
Given:
MHz = 33000 kHz.
Total system bandwidth = 33
duplex channel
Channel bandwidth = 25 kHz x 2 = 50kHz /
1000 kHz
Control channels bandwidth = 1MHz =
(1) The total number of available channels
Total system bandwidth
Channel bandwidth

33000
660 channels
50

(a) For N=4,

660
= 165 channels
Total number of channels available per cell 4

(b) For N=7,

660
=95 channels
Total number of channels available per cell 7

(c) For N= 12,

660
=$5 channels
Total number of channels available per cell 12

(2) The total number of control channels

Total allocated bandwidth for control channels
Channel bandwidth
The Cellular Concept-System Design Fundamentals |1.41

1000
50 = 20control channels

20 control channels are available out of the 660 channels.

(3) Number of voice channels

=Total number of available channels - Number of control channels
= 660 - 20 = 640 voice channels.

(a) For N=4,

640
Number of voice channels = = 160 voice channels.
4

20
Number of control channels = =5 control channels.
4

Thus, one control channel and 160voice channels would be assigned to each cell.
(b) For N=7,
640
Number of voice channels =92 voice channels.
7

Number of control channels = 20 =3control channels.

7

Channels will be allocated as,

Four cells with three control channels and 92 voice channels (4 x 92 = 368).

Twocells with three control channels and 90 voice channels (2 x 90 = 180).

One cells with two control channelsand 92 voice channels (l x90= 90).
But in practice, each cellwould have one control channel, four cells would have
91 voice channels (4 x 91 =364) and three cells would have 92 voice channels
(3 x 92 = 276).
|142) Wireless Communication

(c) For N= 12,

640 -54 voice channels.
Number of voice channels =
12

20 =2 control channels.
Number of control channels = 12

Channelswill be allocated as,

voice channels.
Eight cells with two control channels and 53
54 voice channels.
Four cells with one control channels and

channel, eight cells would have

But in practice, each cell would have one control
voice channels
53 voice channels (8 x 53 = 424) and four cells would have 54
(4 x 54 =216).

Problem-3
fa signal -to- interference ratio of15 dB is required for satisfactory forward
channel performance of a cellular system, what is the frequency reuse factor
and cluster size that should be used for maximum capacity of the path loss
exponent is

(a) n =4 (b) n= 3?
Assume that there are six CO-channel cells in the first tier, and all of them are
at the same distance from the mobile. Use suitable approximation. [NOV/DEC
-2015)
Solution:
First let us consider a seven cell reuse pattern (i.e.) cluster size N=7
D
Co-channel reuse ratio (Q)
ratio (Q) ==/3N
TR
D
R V3x7 =21
The Celluiar Concept-System Design Fundamentals 1.43

D
= 4.583
R

Signal -to - noise interference ratio is given by,

S (D/R)"
I
(a) n =4
No. of c0-channel interfering cell, io = 6

-(;)x(4.S83)
= (0.167) x (441.16)

Expressed S/Iin dB as, (dB) = 10 log1o 73.67

Since this 18.67 dB is greater than the minimum requires S/I, 15 dB, then N =7
can be used.

(b) n =3
D/R)"
io
-;}x(4.S83,³ = (0.167) x(96.26)
= 16.07

(aB) = 10log10(16.07)
(dB) = 12.06 dB
This 12.06 dB is less than the minimum required S/I 15 dB, we need to use a
larger N. Next consider, N = 12

Q
--V3N -V3x 12
1.44 Wireless ((ommunicotim
Q (D/R)-6
S (D/R)"

-(*(6 - (0.167) x (216)

36

Expressed SI in dB as,

aB) = 10 logo 36 = 15.56 dB

N= 12 is used.
Since this is greater than the minimum required S/1,
Problem4

Consider a cellular system that requires an SI ratio of18 dB.

interference
(a) ForN= 7, calculate the worst - case signal - to cochannel
ratio.

(b) Is N = 7, is acceptable interms of co-channel interference? If not, what

would bea better choice of N?
Solution:
Given: N=7 and required S/I= 18dB.
(a) For N= 7, S/ iscalculated as,
Frequency reuse ratioQ=V3N
V3x7 =4,6
Assuming apath loss exponent, n =4
1

2(0-1)* +2(0+1)+20

2(4.6-1)* +2(4.6+1)*+2 x(4.6)*

 1.45
The Cellular Concept-System Design Fundamentals

2(36)+2(s.6}+2 x(4.6)

2 2 2
+
(36) (56(46
1
1 1
2 x +2x +2 x
167.96 983.449 447.75

2 x 5.95 x 10+2 x 1.01 x 10 +2 x 2.23 x 10

1
10"(2 x 5.95 + 2 x 1.01 + 2 x 2.23)
103 10
11.9 +2.02 + 4.46 18.38

= 54.4

S/I is expressed in dB as, = 10 log10 54.4

(dB) = 17.3 (dB)

(b) The value of S/1 for N=7 is below the acceptable level of 18dB. To
increase S/, we need to decrease I. This can be achieved by increasing the
value ofN.

For N=9,
Frequency reuse ratio Q = 3N
V3x9 =27
Q= 5.20

Assuming a path loss exponent n = 4

145 Wreless Commicai

210-1 - 219-ij-20
1

2(520-1 2(5 20-1+2(5 20

1

2 (4 20-2x(620-2 (5 201
=

2 2 2

(4 20 (620 (520
1
11 1 + 2 x1
2% -+2x
311 1701477.634 731.162

2x 3.2 x 10+2x6.77 x 10+2 x L37x 10

1
64x 10+1.354 x10+ 2.74 x 10

10(64+ L354 + 274)

10
(64+ 1.354 + 274)
10
10.494

S = 95.29 95.3
I

Expressed inB as,

S
(dB) 10 log , 95.3
The Cellular Concept-System Design Fundamentals 1.47

= 19.8 dB

This value of S/I is above the acceptable level of 18dB. Therefore, N=9 is a
suitable choice.

Problem-5

Suppose the acceptable signal-to-noise interference ratio in a certain cellular

communications situation is SN = 20 dB (or) 100, i, = 6 and n = 4, What is the
minimum cluster size?
O Solution:

We know (DIRY
From this, the frequency reuse ratio can tbe calculated.

= (6x 100)4
(600,025
Q= 4.95

The cluster size (N) isexpressed as,

Q = V3N
Q' = 3 N
N- (4.95
3

N = 8.167 ~9
 Wireless Communication
1.48|
9-reuse pattern is needed for an S/l ratio of atleast 20dB. If N is
In this case, a
acceptable level of 20 dB.
.less than 9, the S/Ivalue would be below the
Problem-6
for a system A, which has 394 cells with
Find out, the traffic intensity per user aVerage call
channels each, if each user averages two calls per hour at an
19
duration of three minutes.
Solution:
hour for each user, =2
Given: Average number of calls per
3
Average call duration per hour, H = (minutes)
Traffic intensity per user, A, = H

= 2x

A,, = 0.1 Erlangs

Problem-7
adigital TDMA scheme which can
A cellular serviceprovider decides to use
tolerate a signal-to-interference ratio of 15 dB in the worst case. Find out
optimal value of Nfor:
(a) Omni-directional antennas,
(b) 120 °sectoring, and
(c) 60°sectoring,
used?
Should sectoring be used? If so, which case (60° or 120) should be
(Assume a path oss exponent of n =4 and consider trunking efficiency).
NOVDEC-2015)
O Solution:
15
10
Given: n=4 and S/I = 15 dB= 10=31.623
The Celutar Concept-Sstem Design Fundamentals L49

(a) For omni-directional antennas:

Let us assume i -6 (Le., the number of interfering cells)
S
We know that:

31.623
6

(V3N) = 6x31.623 = 189.7

V 3N = (189.7)"n =(189.7) (189.7)23= 3.7

V 3N = 3.7

(3N) = 3.7
3N = (3.7) = 13.69
13.69
N = =4.567
3

(b) For 120° sectoring

Now after sectoring the number interfering cel reduces (i, - 2).
S_V3N)

31.623 =
(V3N)

(V3N)' = 2x 31.623 =63.3

V3N = (63.3) =(63.3)

(63.3)°25 = 2.8
V3N 2.8
1.50 Wireless Commonicorio

2.8

3N = (2.8)-7.84
7.84
N- 3 =2.6=3
(c) For 60° sectoring
Now after sectoring the number interfering cell reduces (, = 1).

S_ (V3N)

31.623 =
(V3N)
1

(V3N) = 31.623

V3N = (31.623)

=
(31.623,
= (31.623)025 = 2.37
V 3N = 2.37

(w = 2.37

3N = (2.37)' = 5.6
5.6
N= = 1.87 s3
3

As we have seen from the solution that both type of sectoring increases the
system capacity but 60° sectoring reduces the trunking efficiency. So we will
choose 120° sectoring.
 Thr Celiulan Cocept-Sstem Design Fundamentals
1.9 TWo MARKS QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS
1. Define cel.
Apll is definedas a basic
geographical arca covered by a single base station and
use a group of radio channels for communication in cellular
system.
2 What is meant by cellular concept? (or) Why is
mobile telephony?
cellular concept used for
Ifa given set of frequencies (or) radio channels,
can be reused
|APRIMAY-2017|
the interference, then the large without increasing
geographical covered by a single high power
area
transmitter can be divided into a number of smaller areas, each
of
allocated a subset
frequencies. For a small geographical coverage generally low power
transmitters with lower antennas can be used.
3. What is cell cluster?

Agroup of cells that uses a

different set of frequencies in each cell is called a cell
cluster. That is, no frequency is reused within a
cluster. The frequencies used in
one cell cluster can be reused in
another cluster of cells.

Cellcluster
4. List the features
Ihefeatures of
ofcellular concept. NOV/DEC-2018]
cellular systems are as follows:
0) Offer very high capacity in a
limited spectrum.
(1) Reuses the radio channel in
different cells.
1.52 Wireless Communication
(ii) Enable a fixed number of channels to serve an arbitrarily large number of
users by reusing the channel throughout the coverage region.
(iv) Communication is always between mobile and base station (not directh
between mobiles).

(v) Keeping interference levels within a tolerable limits.

$. Why the hexagon is used as a cell shape?
The hexagonal cell shape permits easy and manageable analysis of a cellular
system.

6. Define frequency reuse.

NOVDEC-2017, APRMAY-2018 &APRMAY-2021]
The design process of selecting and allocating the same subset of frequencies (or)
radio channels can be used in group of cells within a system is called frequency
reuse (or) frequency planning.
7. List the advantages of frequency reuse concept.
The main advantages of frequency reuse concept are:
(i) The ability to reuse the frequencies provides a way to improve the total
system capacity without the need to employ high power transmitters.
(ii) Spatially reusing the available spectrum so that the same spectrum cn
support multiple users separated by a distance is the primary approach tor
efficiently using the spectrum.
8. Define foot print.
The actual radio coverage of a cell is known as the foot print. It is determined
from the field measurements (or)propagation prediction models,
9.Give the expression for system capacity using frequency reuse.
Let M' be the number of times the cluster is replicated and C be the total
number of channels used in the entire cellular system with frequency reuse. Then
the system capacity 'C' can be expressed as,
 Celiular Conept-S stemDesign Fundamentals 153
The
C= MKN

where. Cluster size factorN= 4,7 or 12.

C= MS

Let N' be the chuster size in terms of the number of cells within it and each

cells is allocated a group of Kchannel (K < S)and cellular system which has a
total of S duplex channels available for use.
A Bhatare the rules used to determine the nearest cochannel neighbors? (or)
Write down the procedure involved in the determination of Co - Channel Cell.
[APRMA Y-2021)
The following two step rules can be used to determine the location of the
nearest cochannel cell as:

Step 1: Move i cells along any chain of hexagons,

Step 2: Turn 60 degrees counter clockwise and more j cells.
I1. Define channel allocation techniques and its types.
The main objective of channel allocation techniques is to stabilize the
fluctuations in the probability of call blockage over the entire coverage area of a
network over time. There are essentially two channel assignment approaches,
i) FixedChannel Assignment (FCA), and
(ii) Dynamic Channel Assignment (DCA).
12. What is FCA?

In Fixed Channel Assignment (FCA) strategy, each cell is allocated a

predetermined set of voice channels. Any callwhich is attempting within the cell
can only be served bythe unused channels in that particular cell.
13. Define borrowing strategy in FCA.
lo improve cell spectrum utilization, a borrowing option may be considered
namely borrowing strategy, where a cell is allowed to borrow channels trom a
neighboring cell when all of itsown channels are already occupied.
 54
Wirelesr otilicatin

D
D E
E

A D
D w

Temporary channel borrowing

14. What o you mean by DCA?
In Dynamic Channel Assignment (DCA) Strategy, the voice
allocated to different cells permanently. Each time channels are not
when a call request is made,
the serving base station requests a
channel from the MSC.
The MSC then allocates a channel to the
that takes into account the
requested cell following an algorithm
likelihood of future blocking within the cell, the
frequency of use of the candidate channel, the reuse
other cost functions.
distance of the channel, and
15. Why dynamic channel
assignment strategy is better compared to the fixed
channelassignment in cellular network?
DCA helps in the optimum NOV/DEC-2022)
tilization of network resources and reduces the
chances of denial of services, call blocking, and
great extent, due to this, it is better transmission interference t0 a
channel allocation technique than tixed
channel allocation.
The Cellular Concept-Svstem Design Fundamentols 155

16 Define handof process.

when a mobile moves into a different cell while a conversafion is in progress, the
MSCAUtomatically transfers the call to a new channel helonging to the new base
station. This is known as handoff.
This handoff operation not only involves identifying a new hase station. hut also
roquires that the voice and control signals be allocated to the channels assoCiated
with a ncw base station.
17. What is Dwell time?

The time over which a call may be maintained within a cell, without the handoff
is called the dwell time.

18. Name the methods used for handoffs.

Depending on the information used and the action taken to initiate the handoff.
the methods of handoff can be,

Mobile Controlled HandOff (MCHO),

(ii) Network Controlled HandOff (NCHO), and
(ii) Mobile Assisted HandOff(MAHO).
19. What is meant by intersystem handof?
During a call, when a mobile moves from one cellular system to another cellular
system which is controlled by a different MSC. This type of handoff is called
intersystem handoff.
Before implementing an intersystem handoff, compatibility between the two
MSCs must be determined.
20. In a cellular network, among a handoff call and a new cul, which one isgiven
priority? Why? APRMAr-2017|
From the users point of view call termination during connection is more
annoying than initiating a new ecall, therefore handott's for continuing calls are
given priority to new calls initiation.
 Wireless Communication
21. Handotf threshold shonld neither be too large nor toosmall- Justif:.

INOV/DEC-202)
Aslightly stronger signal level is used as a threshold at which a
handoff is
made. This margin level is expressed as,
A=Prhandoff-Pr minimum usable

This margin Acannot be too large or to0 small. If Ais too large,
handoffs which burdens the MSC may occur. If Ais too small, there mav be a
unnecessary
insufficient time to complete a handoff before a call is lost due to the weal
signal conditions.
The proper handoff will be happened when the signal level reaches threshold
level, then the call is transferred to the base station. This will be happened when
proper margin level Ais fixed.
22. What is an umbrella cell concept?
The umbrella cell approach is used to provide large area coverage to high sped
users while providing small area coverage to users traveling at the low speeds.
By using different antenna heights (same building or tower) and different power
levels, it is possible to provide large" and "small" cells which are co - located a
asingle location.
23. Mention the advantages of umbrella cell approach.
Advantages of umbrella cell approach:
(i) Increases radio coverage.
(ii) Reduces number of handoffs.
(ii) Provides more number of channels.
(iv) Less MSC intervention.
24. Ngmne the various types of handoffs.
There aretwo types of handoff.
() Hard Handoff:
When the mobile station (MS) crosses the cell boundaries, at that time the M
monitors the strongest signal base station and transfers the call to that bass
station then it is called hard handoff.
 Design Fundamentals 1.57|
The Cellular Concept-System

(i) SoftHandoff:
two or more cells at the same time and find
communicates with
The mobile then it automatically transfers the
the strongest signal base station
which one is
base station is called soft handoff.
calltothat
is soft handoffinmobile communication? [MA Y/JUNE -2016/
25. What and find
mobile communicates with two or more cells at the same time
The
then it automatically transfers the
which one is the strongest signal base station
called soft handoff.
call to that base station is

26. Mention the advantages of handoff.

The main advantages of handoff are,
(i) Fast and lossless,
(i) Minimal number of control signal exchanges,
(iii) Scalable with network size,
(iv) Capable of recovering from link failures, and
(v) Efficient use of resources.

27. Define intra and intercell interference.

An interference from other mobiles at the cell - site (base station) receiver in the
same cell is called as intracell interference, where as the interference from other
cells is referred to as intercell interference.

28. List the major types of cellular interference.

1he two major types of system - generated cellular interference are
(1) Co-Channel Interference (CCI), and
(ii) Adjacent Channel Interference (ACI).
29. What is meant by co-channel interference?
In a given coverage area, there are several cells that uses the sanme set oI
Trequencies (frequency reuse). These cells are called as cochannel cells. The
interference betvween the signals from these cells is called as co-channel
interference.
 1.58 Wireless Communication
30. Define co-channel reuse factor (). [NOVIDEC-2015)
For a hexagonal geometry, the parameter Q" is called as co-channel reuse ratio
which is related to the cluster size (N) and it is expressed as,
D
Q-V3N R

where, R - Radius of the cell, and

D - Distance between centers of the nearest co-channel cells.
If the cluster size N is small, then Qalso small, it provides larger capacity.
31. How is frequencyreuse distance measured in cellular system?
[NOVDEC-2018]
The elements that determine frequency reuse are the reuse distance and the reuse
factor. The reuse distance, D is calculated as,
D= R 3N
where, R is the cellradius.
Nisthe number of cells per cluster.
32. What is breathing cell effect?
Cell breathing is the constant change on the range of the geographical area
amount of trafic
covered by a cellular telephone transmitter based on the
currently using that transmitter.
is then
When a cell becomes heavily loaded, it shrinks. Subscriber trafic
as
redirected to a neighboring cell that is more lightly loaded, which is called
load balarncing.
33. Define ACI.
adjacent in frequency to the
An interference resulting from the signals which are
Interference (AC).
desired signal is called Adjacent Channel
minimized through the careful filtering and channel assignment. In
It can be
station receivers are preceded by a high Q cavity filter in order
nractice, the base
to reject ACI.
The Cellular Concept-System Design Fundamentals 1.59

Channel-1 Channel-2

ACI

Adjacent channel interference

34. What is the need for trunking?
In cellular radio systems, trunking means accommodate a large number of users
in a limited radio spectrum.
Trunking concept allows a large number of users to share the relatively small
number of channels in a cell by providing access toeach user on demand from a
poolof available channels.
35. Define the Grade of service. [NOVDEC -2015 &NOVDEC -2016]
The Grade of Service (GOS) is a measure of the
ability of a user to access a
trunked system during the busiest hour.
36. What is meant by traffic intensity?
Measure of channel time utilization, which is the average channel
occupancy
measured in Erlangs is called traffic intensity. This is a dimensionless quantity
and may be used to measure the time utilization of a single or multiple channels.
It isdenoted by A. Each user generates a traffic intensity of A,,
Erlangs and it is
given by,
A, = H
where, H - Average duration of a call, and
2 - Average number of call requests per unit time for each user.
37. Name the types of trunkedsystem.
The commonly used two types of trunked systems are,
(i) Blocked calls cleared, and
(ii) Blocked calls delayed.
 L.60| Wireless Commwticali
38. Write a short note on (i) Blocked calls cleared, and
(i) Blocked calls delayed.
()Blocked calls cleared:
This type of trunked system offers no queuing for calrequests. That is,for ever
u_er who requests service, it is assumed that there is nosetup time and the user
given an immediate access to a channel even if one is available.

If no channels are currently available, the requesting user is blocked withoy

access and is free totry again later. This type of trunking is called blocked cal
cleared and assumes that calls arrive as determined by a Poisson distribution.
(i) Blocked calls delayed:
In this type of trunked system, a queue is provided to hold calls which ar
blocked. If a channel is not available immeiately, the call request may be
delayed until a channel becomes available. This type of trunking is calle:
Blocked Calls delayed.
39. Define trunking efficiency.
Trunking eficiency is a measure of the number of users which can be ofered
particular GOS with a particular configuration of fixed channels.
40. Mention afew techniques that are used to expand the capacity of cellula
system.

[APRMAY-2015)
Cellular design techniques are needed to provide more channels per nit
coverage area. Three techniques are used to expand the capacity of a cellulas
sysiems.

(i) Cell splitting,

(i) Sectoring, and
(ii) Coverage zone approaches (A microcell zone concept).
The ellular 'onep-SstemDesign Funxlamentals L61|
41. Define cell splitting.
Cell splitting is the process of subdividing a congested cll into smaller cells,
cach with its own base station and a corresponding reduction in antenna height
and transitted power.
It increases the capacity of a cellular system since it increases the number of
times that channels are reused.
42. Write the advantages of cell spliting.
The advantages of cell splitting are,
() It improves the S/N ratio.
(ii) It reduces interference which increases capacity.
(iii) It reduces the cluster size.
(iv) System capacity gradually expands as demand.
(v) Increases the frequency reuse factor.
43. Mention the drawbacks of cell splitting in cellular mobile communication.
[NOVDEC-2022]
The drawbacks of cell splitting are,
(i) Handoff is more frequent.
(ii) Channel assignment becomes difficult.
(ii) Alcells are not simultaneously split; so special care has to be taken for
proper allocation of the problem.
(iv) For each individual cell, an individual base station is required so a huge
number of base stations are needed in this process.

44. Define sector and sectoring.

The area covered by each directional antenna is called as section (or) sector. By
replacing an omni-directional antenna at the base station by several directional
antennas which can increase the system capacity when compared to that of
traditional omni-directional antennas is called antenna sectoring.
The idea behind using the directional antennas (sectoring) is the reduction in
co-channel interference and thus increasing the system performance which
|1.62 Wireless Communication
results by focusing the radio propagation only in a particular direction where i
required.
45. Write the advantages of cell sectoring.
The advantages of cellsectoring are,
() Sectoring increases the signal-to-interference ratio which means the cluster
size gets reduced.
() Reduces interference without altering the system performance.
(ii) Increases channcl capacity without necessarily changing the cell radius.
(iv) Increases frequency reuse by reducing the number of cells in the cluster.
(V) Assigning a channel is easier.
46. Mentionthe disadanatges of cell sectoring.
The main disadvantages of sectoring are:
(i) Each sector is nothing but a new cell with a different shape, because
channels have to be partitioned between the different sectors of a cell.
(ii) Sectoring reduces the coverage area of a particular group of channels, which
results in more number of handoffs.
(i11) Sectoring uses more than one antenna per base station, the available channels
in the cell must be subdivided and dedicated to a specific antenna. This
breaks up the available trunked channel pool into several smaller pools and
thus decreases the trunking efficiency.
(iv) In an urban areas, the directional antenna patterns are somehow ineffective
in controlling the radio propagation.
(v) Excessive interference leads to trafficloss.

1.10 REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. Discuss about the frequency reuse concept with neat diagrams.