1 THE VARIABLE 4 THE RESEARCH PROBLEM

Definition Criteria of a good research problem

- No two individuals are alike 1. Interesting – an interesting research
- A quantity or a characteristic that has problem attracts the attention of the
two or more mutually exclusive values investigator to study the problem
of properties further. It also makes him determined
Types to work on until its completion
1. Independent variable – the stimulus 2. Relevant to the needs of the people –
variable which is chosen by the researchers must keep in mind that
researcher to determine its they work not for themselves but for
relationship to an observed the people
Phenomenon 3. Innovative – a good research problem
2. Dependent variable – response may not be necessarily new. It may be
variable that is observed and reinstatement and a restructuring of an
measured to determine the effect of old problem to make it new. In this
the independent variable. manner, results will be more relevant
3. Moderate variable – a secondary or special type and useful to a greater number of
of independent variable chosen by the researcher people
to ascertain if it alters or modifies the relationships 4. Cost effective – 4Ms – man, money, materials and
between the independent and dependent machinery are needed in conducting research. A
variables research problem should be economical and
4. Control variable – variable controlled by the effective in solving the problems of the society; it
researcher in which the effects can be neutralized should also augment social, economical and health
by eliminating or removing the variable. conditions of the people and many others.
5. Intervening variable – variable which interferes 5. Measurable and time-bound – a good research
with the independent and dependent variables, problem is measurable by using research
but its effects can either strengthen o weaken the instruments, like tests, questionnaires, rating scales,
independent and dependent variables observation schedules or interviews, and statistical
treatment to arrive at scientific and meaningful
2 THE VARIABLE results. A good research can be completed within a
time frame stated. The shorter completion of the
Research Process Component project, the better.
1. Problem/objectives
2. Theoretical/Conceptual Framework 5 THE RESEARCH OBJECTIVES
3. Assumptions
4. Hypotheses - The statement of purpose for which the
5. Review of Related Literature investigation is to be conducted.
6. Research Design - Also have the same characteristics,
7. Data Collection SMART, with research problem
8. Data Processing and Statistical Treatment - Stated specifically in simple language in
9. Analysis and Interpretation order that the researcher finds them
10. Summary, Conclusion and Recommendation easy to measure by using research
instruments in collecting data and these
3 THE RESEARCH PROBLEM data are achieved when correct
statistical techniques are used to arrive
Quality of researchable problem at real results, but every activity to be
1. There is no known solution to the done, time frame is required because
problem the shorter completion of the activity,
2. The solution can be answered by the better
using statistical methods and
techniques Statement of Research Problem/Objectives
3. There are probable solutions but they - Problem and Objectives have the same
are not yet tested characteristics but they differ in form
4. The occurrence of phenomena - Problem – interrogative
require scientific investigation to - Objective - declarative
arrive at precise solution
6 THEORETICAL AND CONCEPTUAL
Good research problem should be SMART FRAMEWORK
S – Specific – the problem should be specifically
stated - They provide clear explanations
M – Measurable – it is easy to measure by using regarding the relationships of variables.
research instruments (i.e., questionnaire, tests, “The fact that variables can be shown
etc.) in collecting data to be associated but does not
A – Achievable – the data are achievable using guarantee that the relationship of
correct statistical techniques to arrive at precise variables has significance”. Theoretical
results framework- legal basis to describe
R – Realistic – real results are not manipulated properly that process of the study
T – Time-bound – time frame is required in every Theoretical Framework – shapes the
activity because the shorter completion of the justification of the research
activity the better problem/research objectives in order to
- Whether historical, descriptive, experimental, or provide the legal basis for defining its
case study parameters. It is desirable for an
investigator to identify key concepts that
are used in the study for better
-----> understanding of the role of theory in
research
Conceptual Framework – presents specific and
well defined concepts which are called constructs. - A symbolic construction which uses abstract
Its function is similar with theoretical framework concepts, facts or laws, variables and their
because the constructs used are derived from relations that explains and predicts how an
abstract concepts of the theoretical framework. observed phenomenon exists and operates. And
investigator is required to formulate existing
theories which link his study because theories
are useful devise for interpreting, criticizing, and
unifying established scientific laws or facts that
guide in discovering new generalizations
7 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY 3. Related studies – published and unpublished research
studies are the sources. It has direct bearing to the present
- Should be presented comprehensively in study and are segregated into foreign and local studies.
order to convince the screening Similar to related readings and related literature, arranged
committee of the importance of the study in chronological order
- Presented in either inductive or deductive
perspective. Justification of the Present Study – the researcher should
- Inductive – the researcher moves from identify the bearing of the related studies upon the present
particular to the general, and presents the study.
importance of the study from the target - The investigator should also justify the differences of the
beneficiaries to the researcher himself, to present study with the past studies
the people in the community, to the
people of the province, region and nation 11 RESEARCH DESIGN
- Deductive – general to particular,
discussion of the importance of the study Four kinds of Research Designs
starts first from the national level down to 1. Historical Design – study focused in the past
the researcher himself to the target – from HISTORY – branch of knowledge concerned with past
beneficiaries. events, especially those involving human affairs; search for
knowledge and the truth; any integrated narrative or
- The researcher should prove that the study has descriptive
important contributions in relation to: past events or facts written in a spirit of critical inquiry for
a. Solving the problem and need the
b. Bridging a knowledge gap whole truth.
c. Improving social, economic and health - A systematic and critical inquiry of the whole truth of past
conditions events using critical method in the understanding and the
d. Enriching research instruments and methods interpretation of facts which are applicable to current issues
e. Supporting government thrusts and problems
- Research in history is both science and art.
8 SCOPE AND LIMITATION OF THE - Historical design is scientific and the narration thereof is an
STUDY art.
History differs from the natural sciences because it is based
- Includes the coverage of the study area, the subjects, the upon the reports of observations which cannot be repeated,
research although similar events may occur unlike in natural sciences
instruments, the research issues or concerns, the duration of where it is based upon experimentation
the study, and
the constraints that have direct bearing on the result of the Uses of Historical Research
study a. Historical research is useful in searching through the past
solutions to the contemporary problems and needs
9 DEFINITION OF TERMS b. It is to throw light in the present
c. It gives people a sense of continuity of the past to the
- Last section of chapter 1 of thesis, dissertation and research present
paper. Thesis d. It enables communities to grasp their relationship with
and dissertations do not include this section of the study if the past
there are more to the current issues
than 15 terms defined because this portion is for the glossary. e. By chronicling events of enduring worth which confers
In this section, upon the
the key terms are clearly defined individual consciousness of unity and a feeling of the
2 ways to define key terms: importance of human achievement
1. Conceptual definition – the definition of terms are based on Major steps in Historical Research
concepts or a. Collection of data with consideration of documents and
hypothetic ones which are usually taken from the dictionary remains
2. Operational definition – the definitions are based on or relics of primary and secondary sources, of bibliographical
observable procedure, and organization of materials
characteristics and how it is used in the study. b. Criticism of the data collected, including the processes of
external criticism and internal criticism
10 REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE c. Presentation of the facts in readable form involving
problems of
- To determine the similarities and differences organization, composition, exposition, and interpretation.
of the findings between the past and present
studies. 12 RESEARCH DESIGN
- Aim to gain insight into the aspects of the
problem that are critical and controversial, Sources of Historical research
- Provides the investigator a background A. Primary sources
regarding the aspects which have been a. Documents – includes school directives
studied and not yet studied. such as orders, circulars, constitution,
- Assists him/her to do on the components of laws, charters, court decisions, executive
the research process. and other official records such as
- Gives ideas to proceed with his study until its proceedings of administrative officers and
completion bodies, reports of school surveys, annual
- The investigator is required to read all reports, courses of study, catalogues and
literature and studies partially and closely prospectuses, newspapers and
related to his study periodicals; personal materials such as
autobiographies, legal instruments
Three parts of literature executed by individuals such as contracts,
1. Related readings – these are laws and department wills, and deed.
directives such as circulars, orders, memoranda, and others b. Remains – include the physical plant;
which are related to the present study. These will serve as equipment, apparatus, teaching aids and
legal bases for the paradigm of the devices, picture of buildings or furnishing,
study. It also presents the study as having direct or indirect forms of diplomas and certificates,
implications to the government thrusts. textbooks and reference books
2. Related literature – written works collectively, especially,
those of enduring importance, exhibiting creative imagination B. Secondary sources – materials as histories of
and artistic skill which are written in a particular period, education, bibliographies, encyclopedias, and may
language, and subject. These are written materials such as others. In some historical studies, it is necessary to start
book, journal, magazine, novel, poetry, with secondary sources if primary sources are not yet
etc.. Its presentation is in chronological order either from the available.
past to present or vice versa.
2. Descriptive Design – the focus is present condition. ------->
The purpose is to find new truth. The truth may have
different forms such as increased quantity of knowledge, Sampling – may be defined as the method
a new organization or a new “law”, an increased insight of getting a representative portion of the
into factors which are operating, the discovery of a new population.
casual relationship, a more accurate formulation of the Population – the aggregate or total of
problem to be solved and may others. objects, persons, families, species, etc.
Statistic – a value calculated from a sample
Descriptive studies are valuable in providing facts on distribution
which scientific judgements may be based. They provide Parameter – corresponding value from a
essential knowledge about the nature of objects and population distribution
persons. Descriptive studies also play a large part in the Sampling statistics – the body of statistical
development of instruments for the measurement of methods concerned with the making of
many things, instruments that are employed in all types statements about population parameters for
of quantitative research as data gathering instruments, sample statistics
for instance, tests, questionnaires, interviews,
observation schedules, check lists, score cards, and Advantages of Sampling
rating scales. 1. It saves time, money and effort
2. It is more effective.
13 RESEARCH DESIGN 3. It is faster and cheaper
4. It is more accurate
Types of Descriptive Research 5. It gives more comprehensive information
1. Descriptive survey – this approach is Limitation of Sampling
appropriate whenever the object of any class 1. Sample data involve more care in preparing detailed
vary among themselves and one is interested in subclassifications
knowing the extent to which different conditions because of a small number of subjects
obtain among these objects. The word survey 2. If the sampling plan is not correctly designed and
signifies the gathering of data regarding present followed, the results
conditions. Survey – useful in proving the value may be misleading
facts, focusing attention on the most important 3. Sampling requires an expert to conduct the study in an
things to be reported. Descriptive survey area. If this is
necessary to determine the psychological and lacking, the results could be erroneous
social aspects of research by way of application 4. The characteristics to be observed may occur rarely in a
or implementation of evidence to recognize population
between facts and influence. It may be used in 5. Complicated sampling plans are laborious to prepare
solving practical problems
2. Descriptive-normative survey – normative- 16 SAMPLING DESIGN
sometimes used because surveys are frequently
made to ascertain the normal or typical Determination of Sample Size
condition, or to compare local test results with a - researcher’s decision
state or national norm Slovens Formula
3. Descriptive status – seeks to answer questions to real facts n = N / 1 + N (e)^2
relating to existing conditions. A technique in quantitative n = sample size
description which determines the prevailing conditions in a N = Number of population
group of case chose for study. Stress current conditions with e = margin of error
the Example 300 tourist arrival per day
assumption that things will change. They cover many traits or 95% = level of confidence / 5% margin of error
characteristics of the group n = 300/[1+N(e)^2 = 171 respondents
4. Descriptive- analysis – determines or describes the nature of 90 = interested
an object be separating it into parts. Its purpose is to discover 75 = not interested
the nature of things 6 = undecided
5. Descriptive- classification – employed in natural sciences
6. Descriptive-evaluative – appraise carefully the worthiness of Percentage of interested tourist = 90/171 = 52.6%
the current study 9000 tourist per month x 52.6% = 4,734 tourist
7. Descriptive-comparative – comparative survey where the 10 hotels that offer accommodation x 20 rooms = 200
researcher considers at least two entities (not manipulated) S = NV + [Se^2 (1-p)] / NSe + [V^2 x p(1-p)]
and S = Sample size
establishes a formal procedure for obtaining criterion data on N = Total number of population
the basis of which he can compare and conclude which of the V= standard value (2.58) of 1% level of probability with
two is better. 0.99
8. Correlational survey – designed to determine the reliability
relationship Se = Sampling error (0.01)
of two variables p = the largest possible proportion (0.50)

14 RESEARCH DESIGN 17 DATA COLLECTION METHODS

Experimental Design – a problem-solving approach that the Data collection - a methodical process of
study is described in the future on “what gathering and analyzing specific information to
will be” when certain variables are carefully controlled or proffer solutions to relevant questions and
manipulated. evaluate the results. It focuses on finding out all
Types of Experimental Designs there is to a particular subject matter. Data is
1. Single-group design collected to be further subjected to hypothesis
2. Two-group design testing which seeks to explain a phenomenon.
3. Two-pair group design Two Categories
4. Parallel-group design 1. Primary Data Collection Methods - the
5. Pretest-group design gathering of raw data collected at the source.
6. Counter balanced or Latin square design It is a process of collecting the original data
7. Complete randomized design collected by a researcher for a specific
8. Randomized complete block design research purpose.
9. Correlational Design 2. Secondary Data Collection Methods -
referred to as the gathering of second-hand
15 SAMPLING DESIGN data collected by an individual who is not the
original user. It is the process of collecting
Sampling is necessary especially fi the data that is already existing, be it already
population is to large where the 4 M’s published books, journals, and/or online
resources of the investigator are limited. portals. In terms of ease, it is much less
expensive and easier to collect.
Primary Data Collection Methods --->
Two Categories Structured Interviews - Simply put, it is a verbally
1. Quantitative Methods - dealing with something that administered questionnaire. In terms of
can be counted, they area presented in numbers and depth, it is surface level and is usually completed within a
require a mathematical calculation to deduce. - short period. For speed and
questionnaires, surveys, and documents and records. efficiency, it is highly recommendable, but it lacks depth.
These methods of primary data collection are Semi-structured Interviews - In this method, there subsist
generally used to make long-term forecasts. several key questions which
2. Qualitative Methods - consider factors other than cover the scope of the areas to be explored. It allows a little
numerical values, it is based on the non-quantifiable more leeway for the
elements like the feeling or emotion of the researcher. researcher to explore the subject matter.
- useful in situations when historical data is not Unstructured Interviews - It is an in-depth interview that
available. These techniques are based on allows the researcher to collect a
experience, judgment, intuition, conjecture, emotion, wide range of information with a purpose. An advantage of
etc. this method is the freedom it gives a researcher to combine
structure with flexibility even though it is more time-
18 DATA COLLECTION METHODS consuming.

Quantitative Data Collection Tools Pros In-depth information, Freedom of flexibility, Accurate
Online data.
Mail Cons Time-consuming, Expensive to collect.
Face-to-face
Phone Tools you can use to easily collect data.
Four different primary quantitative research designs: Audio Recorder - used for recording sound on disc, tape, or
1. Descriptive film. Audio information can
2. Correlational meet the needs of a wide range of people, as well as provide
3. Experimental alternatives to print data
4. Quasi-experimental collection tools.
Digital Camera - can be used for transmitting those images
Descriptive research explains the current status of a to a monitor screen when the
variable using observational data collection. Often, the need arises.
researcher begins without a hypothesis and lets the data Camcorder - used for collecting data through interviews. It
steer the direction of the study. provides a combination of
both an audio recorder and a video camera. The data
Correlational research seeks to collect data that shows provided is qualitative in nature
relationships between different occurrences. A positive and allows the respondents to answer questions asked
correlation is one in which two variables either increase or exhaustively. If you need to
decrease at the same time. A negative correlation is when an collect sensitive information during an interview, a
increase in one variable means a decrease in another. camcorder might not work for you as
you would need to maintain your subject’s privacy.
There is also a zero correlation result, in which the
relationship between two variables is insignificant. 20 DATA COLLECTION METHODS
Correlation helps make
predictions based on historical relationships and in Delphi Technique - market experts are provided
determining the validity and reliability of a study. with the estimates and assumptions of forecasts
made by other experts in the industry. Experts
Experimental research, also known as “true may reconsider and revise their estimates and
experimentation,” uses the scientific method to determine assumptions based on the information provided by
the cause-and-effect relationship between variables. This other experts. The consensus of all experts on
method uses controls for all of the crucial factors that could demand forecasts constitutes the final demand
potentially affect the phenomena of forecast.
interest. Using the experimental method, researchers Focus Groups - a small group of people, around
randomly assign participants in an experiment to either the 8-10 members, discuss the common areas of the
control or treatment groups. problem. Each individual provides his insights on
the issue concerned. A moderator regulates the
Quasi-experimental research, also known as “causal- discussion among the group members. At the end
comparative,” is similar to experimental research. Since it’s of the discussion, the group reaches a consensus.
often impossible or impractical to control for all factors Questionnaire is a printed set of questions, either
involved, quasi- experimental methods don’t control for some open-ended or closed-ended. The respondents
factors but otherwise follow the scientific method to establish are required to answer based on their knowledge
a cause-and-effect relationship. and experience with the issue concerned. The
questionnaire is a part of the survey, whereas the
19 DATA COLLECTION METHODS questionnaire’s end-goal may or may not be a
survey.
Qualitative Methods:
Surveys are used to collect data from the target Three commonly used qualitative data collection methods:
audience and gather insights into their preferences,
opinions, choices, and feedback related to their 1. Ethnographic - comes from anthropology, the study of
products and services. Most survey software often a human societies and cultures.
wide range of question types to select. 2. Grounded Theory - arose when sociological
researchers sought to provide a level of legitimacy to
Polls comprise of one single or multiple choice qualitative research — to ground it in reality rather
question. When it is required to have a quick pulse than assumptions
of the audience’s sentiments, you can go for polls. 3. Phenomenological - escribes how people experience
Because they are short in length, it is easier to get certain events or unique encounters. This method
responses from the people. measures reactions to occurrences that are outside of
Interviews the interviewer asks questions either the norm, so it’s essential to understand the whole
face-to-face or through telephone to the picture, not just facts and figures.
respondents. In face-to-face interviews, the
interviewer asks a series of questions to the 21 DATA COLLECTION METHODS
interviewee in person and notes down responses. In
case it is not feasible to meet the person, the Secondary data is the data that has been used in the
interviewer can go for a telephonic interview. This past. The researcher can obtain data from the sources,
form of data collection is suitable when there are both internal and external, to the organization.
only a few respondents. It is too time-consuming and
tedious to repeat the same process if there are many
participants.
--->
- can involve both quantitative and qualitative
techniques. Secondary data is easily available and
hence, less time-consuming and expensive as
compared to the primary data. However, with the
secondary data collection methods, the authenticity of
the data gathered cannot be verified.

Internal sources of secondary data:

Organization’s health and safety records
Mission and vision statements
Financial Statements
Magazines
Sales Report
CRM Software
Executive summaries

External sources of secondary data:

Government reports
Press releases
Business journals
Libraries
Internet

22 DATA PROCESSING AND TABULATION

Data Processing – converting information either

manually or by machine into quantitative and
qualitative forms for use in research analysis

3 Basic steps of Data Processing

1. Categorization of Data – refers to the
grouping of subjects under study according to
the objectives and purposes of the study.

2. Coding of Data – information from

questionnaires, interview schedules, rating
scale, etc., must be transformed into coded
items to facilitate tabulation of data. The
codes may be either numerical or
alphabetical. The former is commonly used
because of sufficient number coverage and
its fitted for computer processing. – option to
used own codes, provided, however, that the
number of digits to be used in codes is
ascertained by the number of categories and
total number of cases

3. Tabulation of Data – tallying and counting the raw data

to arrive at a frequency distribution and to facilitate in
organizing them in a systematic order in a table or several
tables. It can be done either manual or by machine, such
as electric computer or a mechanical counter-sorter.
Manual tabulation – data are manually tallied by hand This
is applicable if the total number of cases is small.
Data Matrix – presentation of data is usually in tabular
form. The data processing output is either quantitative or
qualitative.

- Useful in analysis and interpretation because they give a

clear picture of the results of the study.

23 STATISTICAL TREATMENT

24 DATA ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION

Data Analysis – an examination of data or facts in terms of quantity, quality,

attribute, trait, pattern, trend, relationship among others so as to answer
research questions which involve statistical techniques and procedures.

The basis in analyzing research data are specific problems/objectives,

hypotheses, measuring instruments and statistical tools.