KROSE AND WILD CHAPTER 3

Engine operating fundamentals

• A cycle is a complete sequence of events returning to the original state.

• An engine cycle is a series of event that an internal combustion engine goes
through while it is operating and delivering power.
Four stroke cycle

• The four stroke five event cycle is called the Otto cycle.
• The basic power-developing parts of a typical gasoline engine are the cylinder,
piston, connecting rod, and crankshaft.
• The distance through which the piston trave.ls is called the stroke. During each
stroke the crankshaft rotates 1800.
• An engine having the bore equal to the stroke is often called a square engine.
• Top dead centre (TDC) may be defined as the point which a piston has reached
when it is at its maximum distance from the centreline of the crankshaft.
• Bottom dead centre (BDC) may be defined as the position which the piston has
reached when it is at a minimum distance from the centreline of the crankshaft.
• The compression ratio of a cylinder is the ratio of the volume of space in the
cylinder when the piston is at the bottom of its stroke to the volume when the
piston is at the top of its stroke.
• The power stroke in an engine is also called as the expansion stroke.
• the exhaust stroke and is also called the scavenging stroke because the burned
gases arc scavenged (removed from the cylinder) during the stroke.
• The intake valve begins to open substantially before TDC and the exhaust valve
closes after TDC. This is called valve overlap (aka. Valve lap).
• Backfiring: occurs when the intake valve (IC) opens early in which case ethe
exhaust gases would flow through and ignite the fresh charge of air/fuel mixture OR
when the intake valve sticks in the open position.
• The opening or closing or the intake or exhaust valves after TC or BC is called valve
lag. The opening or closing of the intake or exhaust valves before BC or TC is called
valve lead.
FIRING ORDER
• the firing order of an engine is the order in which the cylinders fire.
• The numbering of the opposed engines is by no means standard.
• For 14-cylinder radial engine: +9 -5
• For 18-cylinder radial: +11 -7
TWO STORKE CYCLE.

• Five event cycle: Intake event, compression event, ignition event, power event,
exhaust event. (two of the events takes place at the same time)
• 3 principal disadvantages: 1. Loss of efficiency 2. Difficult to cool than 4 stroke 3.
Difficult to lubricate.
ROTATRY CYCLE ENGINE.

• Aka. Wankel cycle.

• Is a four-stage internal combustion engine.
• No valves, pistons, etc. only a rotor Turing in an elliptical housing.
 THE DIESEL ENGINE.

• Operates on fuel oil that are heavier and cheaper than gasoline.
• Similar operating principle as four stroke engines.
• No ignitor plug is used. During compression stroke only pure air is compressed
and then the fuel is added to the hot burning air.
POWER CALCULATIONS.

• Rate of doing work.

• Horsepower: unit of power in the U.S. Customary System (USCS) of
measurements.
• One horsepower equals 33,000 ft*lb/min (4563 kg*m/min) or 550 ft*lb/s
(77 kg*m/s) of work.
• The piston displacement of one piston is obtained by multiplying the area of
a cross section of the cylinder bore by the total distance that the piston moves
during one stroke in the cylinder.
• The total piston displacement of an engine is the total Volumes displaced by
all the pistons during I revolution of the crankshaft.
• The addition of cylinders produces what is known as a closer spacing of
power impulses, which increases the smoothness of engine operation.
• Indicated horsepower (ihp) is the horsepower developed by the engine, that
is, the total horsepower converted from heat energy to mechanical energy.
• The total force acting on the piston in one cylinder is the product of the
indicated mean effective pressure (imep) P and the area to or the piston
head in square inches.
• Formula: ihp= PLANK / 33,000
P imep in pounds per inch(psi)
L length of the stroke in feet
A area of piston in square inches
N number of working strokes per minute per cylinder
K number of cylinders
• PLA = FD
• Brake horsepower (bhp) is the actual horsepower delivered by an engine to
a propeller or other driven device.
• Friction horsepower (fhp) is that part of the total horsepower necessary to
overcome the friction of the moving parts in the engine and its accessories.
The relationship may he expressed thus bhp = ihp - fhp.
• The Prony brake, or dynamometer is a device used to measure the torque.
The value indicated by the scale is recorded as the tare.
• Mean effective pressure may be defined as an average pressure inside the
cylinders of an internal-combustion engine based on some calculated or
measured horsepower. It increases as the manifold pressure increases.
• The take-off power rating of an engine is determined by the maximum rpm
and manifold pressure at which the airplane engine may be operated during
the process or taking off.
• Manifold pressure is the pressure or the fuel-air mixture in the intake
manifold between the carburettor or internal supercharger and the intake
valve.
• Manifold absolute pressure(MAP) is the absolute pressure of the flue-air
mixture immediately before it enters the intake port of the cylinder.
 • The maximum continuous power is also called the maximum except
takeoff METO) power.
• The rated power, also called the standard engine rating, is the maximum
horsepower output which can be obtained from an engine when it is operated
at specified rpm and manifold pressure conditions established as safe for
continuous operation.
• Maximum power is the greatest power output that the engine can develop at
any time under any condition.
• The critical altitude is the highest level at which an engine will maintain a
given horsepower output.
Engine efficiency

• The mechanical efficiency of an engine is measured by the ratio of the brake

horsepower or shaft output to the indicated horsepower or power developed in the
cylinders.
• the word efficiency may be defined as the ratio of the output to input
• Thermal efficiency is a measure of the heat losses suffered in converting the heat
energy of the fuel to mechanical work.
• Thermal efficiency heat losses: 5% friction loss, 25% cooling system loss, 30% useful
work, 40% exhaust gases loss.
• Volumetric efficiency is the ratio of the volume of the fuel-air charge burned by the
engine at atmospheric pressure and temperature to the piston displacement.
• A naturally aspirated (unsupercharged) engine always has a volumetric
efficiency of less than 100% and a supercharged engine often operates at more
than 100%. Maximum volumetric efficiency can be obtained when the throttle is wide
open and the engine is opening under a full load.

• Absolute pressure is the pressure about a complete vacuum and is often indicated
in pounds per square inch absolute (psia) or in inches of mercury (inHg).
• Detonation is caused when the temperature and pressure of the compressed
mixture in the combustion chamber reach levels sufficient to cause instantaneous
burning (explosion) of the fuel-air mixture.
• Preignition is caused when there is a hot spot in the engine that ignites the fuel- air
mixture before the spark plug fires.
• The maximum compression ratio of an engine, as indicated above, is limited by the
detonation characteristics of the fuel used.
• Break specific fuel consumption (bsfc): is the number of pounds of fuel burned
per hour for each bhp produced. Usually the value is between 0.40 to 0.50 lb/ (hp°h)
for modern reciprocating engine. It measures engine performance.
The best values of bsfc for an engine are obtained at a particular cruising selling,
usually at a little over 70 percent of maximum power.
• The best power mixture for an aircraft engine is that fuel + air mixture which
permits the engine to develop maximum power at a particular rpm.
• The best economy mixture is that fuel- air mixture which provides the lowest bfsc.
Other factors that affect performance

• Ram air pressure at the carburettor air scoop is deter-mined by the design of' the
scoop and the velocity of the air.
 It has the effect of supercharging the air entering the engine, and hence the actual
power output will be greater than it would be under normal standard conditions.
• Carburettor air temperature (CAT) affects the density and hence the quantity of air
taken into the engine. If it is to high, detonation results.
• Water-vapour pressure effects must be determined when an engine is required to
operate at near maximum power output under conditions of high humidity. At altitude
above 5000 ft. ( 1524 m) water vapour pressure is considered inconsequential.
• Exhaust back pressure has a decided effect on engine performance because any
pressure above atmospheric at the exhaust port of a cylinder will reduce volumetric
efficiency.
• Exhaust augmentors with inlets inside the engine nacelle also increase airflow
through the nacelle. thus improving cooling.

-Jinal