Practical No.

1
Title: Various Network Components

Aim: To learn and understand the various types of computer network components.

Theory:

COMPUTER NETWORK COMPONENTS:

Computer network components are the major parts which are needed to install the software.
Some important network components are NIC, switch, cable, hub, router, and modem. Depending
on the type of network that we need to install, some network components can also be removed. For
example, the wireless network does not require a cable.

Following are the major components required to install a network:

NIC:
● NIC stands for network interface card.

● NIC is a hardware component used to connect a computer with another computer onto a
network
● It can support a transfer rate of 10,100 to 1000 Mb/s.
● The MAC address or physical address is encoded on the network card chip which is assigned
by the IEEE to identify a network card uniquely. The MAC address is stored in the PROM
(Programmable read-only memory).

There are two types of NIC:

1. Wired NIC
2. Wireless NIC
Wired NIC: The Wired NIC is present inside the motherboard. Cables and connectors are used with
wired NIC to transfer data.

Wireless NIC: The wireless NIC contains the antenna to obtain the connection over the wireless
network. For example, laptop computer contains the wireless NIC.

Hub:

● A Hub is a hardware device that divides the network connection among multiple devices.
● When computer requests for some information from a network, it first sends the request to
the Hub through cable.
● Hub will broadcast this request to the entire network. All the devices will check whether the
request belongs to them or not. If not, the request will be dropped.
● The process used by the Hub consumes more bandwidth and limits the amount of
communication. Nowadays, the use of hub is obsolete, and it is replaced by more advanced
computer network components such as Switches, Routers.

Switch:

● A switch is a hardware device that connects multiple devices on a computer network.

● A Switch contains more advanced features than Hub. The Switch contains the updated table
that decides where the data is transmitted or not.
● Switch delivers the message to the correct destination based on the physical address present
in the incoming message.
● A Switch does not broadcast the message to the entire network like the Hub.
● It determines the device to whom the message is to be transmitted. Therefore, we can say
that switch provides a direct connection between the source and destination. It increases the
speed of the network.

Router:

● A router is a hardware device which is used to connect a LAN with an internet connection.
It is used to receive, analyse and forward the incoming packets to another network.
● A router works in a Layer 3 (Network layer) of the OSI Reference model.
● A router forwards the packet based on the information available in the routing table.
● It determines the best path from the available paths for the transmission of the packet.
Advantages Of Router:

● Security: The information which is transmitted to the network will traverse the entire cable,
but the only specified device which has been addressed can read the data.
● Reliability: If the server has stopped functioning, the network goes down, but no other
networks are affected that are served by the router.
● Performance: Router enhances the overall performance of the network. Suppose there are
24 workstations in a network generates a same amount of traffic. This increases the traffic
load on the network. Router splits the single network into two networks of 12 workstations
each, reduces the traffic load by half.
● Network range

Modem:

● A modem is a hardware device that allows the computer to connect to the internet over the
existing telephone line.
● A modem is not integrated with the motherboard rather than it is installed on the PCI slot
found on the motherboard.
● It stands for Modulator/Demodulator. It converts the digital data into an analog signal over
the telephone lines.

Based on the differences in speed and transmission rate, a modem can be classified in the following
categories:
● Standard PC modem or Dial-up modem
● Cellular Modem
● Cable modem

Cables and Connectors:

Cable is a transmission media used for transmitting a signal.

There are three types of cables used in transmission:

● Twisted pair cable
● Coaxial cable
● Fibre-optic cable
Conclusion:
 Practical No. 2

Title: Various Network Cables.

Aim: To learn about the various network cables.
Theory:
Network Cabling: Cable is the medium through which information usually moves from one
network device to another. There are many different types of transmission media, the most popular
being twisted-pair wire, coaxial cable and fiber optic cable. Transmission media are the physical
infrastructure components that carry information from one computer to another computer.

● Coaxial cable:

Coaxial cable consists of a hollow outer cylindrical conductor that surrounds a single inner
wire made of two conducting elements. One of these elements, located in the center of the
cable, is copper conductor. Surrounding the copper conductor is a layer of flexible insulation.
Over this insulating material, there is a metallic insulator. This second layer can reduce the
amount of outside interference. Covering this shield is the cable outer jacket.
Although coaxial cabling is difficult to install, it is highly resistant to signal interference. In
addition, it can support greater cable lengths between network devices than twisted pair
cable.

● Twisted Pair Wire: A pair of wires forms a circuit that transmit data. The pairs are
twisted to provide protection against crosstalk, the noise generated by the adjacent pairs.

There are two basic types of twisted pair cable:

i. Unshielded twisted pair (UTP)

 ii. Shielded twisted pair (STP)

● Unshielded twisted pair (UTP): UTP cable is a medium that is composed of pairs of
wires. UTP cable is used in a variety of networks. Each of the eight individual wires in UTP
cable is covered by an insulating material and these wires in each pair are twisted around
each other.

UTP cable relies solely on the cancellation effect produced by the twisted wire pairs to limit
signal degradation caused by electromagnetic interference (EMI) and radio frequency
interference (RFI).

UTP cable is easy to install and is less expensive than other networking media.

UTP cable often is installed using a Registered Jack 45 (RJ-45) connector. The RJ-45 is an
eight-wire connector used commonly to connect computers Ethernet port onto a local area
network, especially Ethernets.

● Shielded Twisted Pair (STP): Shielded twisted-pair (STP) cable combines the
techniques of shielding, cancellation, and wire twisting. Each pair of wires is wrapped in
metallic foil.

The four pair of wires then are wrapped in an overall metallic foil. As specified for use in
Ethernet network installations, STP reduces electrical noise both within the cable (pair-to-
pair coupling or crosstalk) and from outside the cable (EMI and RFI).
 STP usually is installed with STP data connector which is created especially for the STP
cable. However, STP cabling also can use the same RJ connectors that UTP uses.

STP prevents interference better than UTP, it is more expensive and difficult to install.

● Fiber Optic cable:

Fiber optic cabling consists of a center glass core surrounded by several layers of
protective materials. It transmits light rather than electronic signals eliminating the problem
of electrical interference. This makes it ideal for certain environments that contain a large
amount of electrical interference. It has also made it the standard for connecting networks
between buildings, due to its immunity to the effects of moisture and lighting.
Fiber optic cable has the ability to transmit signals over much longer distances than coaxial
and twisted pair. It also has the capability to carry information at vastly greater speeds. This
capacity broadens communication possibilities to include services such as video
conferencing and interactive services. The cost of fiber optic cabling is comparable to copper
cabling; however, it is more difficult to install and modify.
The center core of fiber cables is made from glass or plastic fibers. A plastic coating then
cushions the fiber center, and Kevlar fibers help to strengthen the cables and prevent
breakage. The outer insulating jacket made of Teflon or PVC.

There are two common types of fiber cables -- single mode and multimode. Multimode cable
has a larger diameter; however, both cables provide high bandwidth at high speeds. Single
mode can provide more distance, but it is more expensive.

Conclusion:
 Practical No. 3

Title: Configuration of LAN card (Ethernet).

Aim: To learn the configuration of LAN card (Ethernet).
Theory:
Local Area Network:
Local area networks, or LANs, they are smaller networks, usually within an office base. LAN
is used to connect computing resources, typically inside one building. The computing resources can
be computers, printers, servers, IP phones, or routers. Connections between the workstations are
physical, with cables, and all the office resources are shared and distributed between the network
workstations.

The most common type of LAN is that of Ethernet. This is a family of frame-based computer
networking technologies for LANs. You must first identify which services you need to provide
locally on the LAN. Computers are connected to a switch with Ethernet cables. Each device has a
unique IP address.

LAN card:

The LAN (Local Area Network) card is a 'door' to the network from a computer. Any type
of network activity requires a LAN card: the Internet, network printer, connecting computers
together, and so on. Today many devices contain a network card (or the ability to connect to the
Internet), including televisions for their Internet apps, Blu-ray players, mobile phones, VoIP, desk
phones, and even refrigerators. LAN cards are hardware devices that can be added to a computer, or
they can be integrated into the main hardware of the computer.
 LAN card is a piece of hardware which is connected inside the linking the computer network
using the MAC address for network to work. ways by which create physical connection they are:
OSI layer 1 i.e., physical layer and OSI layer 2 i.e., Data link layer. By using special types of WLAN
cards allows the computer to connect using cables and wirelessly. As in increasing technology
wireless type is much preferable for that LAN card is required. Internal working of LAN card is like:
A computer with the wireless LAN card transmit and receive data via radio waves using spread-
spectrum technology.

Function of LAN card:

⮚ The purpose of LAN is to create physical connection which is open door.

⮚ The first physical interface supported by LAN card through which cable plugs into the card.
That interface is well defined in technical documentation which is best fit for network cables.
⮚ The second function is to provide data link. Both of the function are the theoretical model in
networking called Open system interconnection (OSI).
⮚ The function of data link of a LAN card provides sending and receiving of network binary
data and that data flow in zeros and ones form the network to the network card.
⮚ Then card recognize the flow of data and check for errors. After that when you turn on
computer with the LAN card it will show two lights green and orange, orange light will come
on when data link layer is activated this means cable work and network connected and bits
are flowing.
⮚ Second green light shown network layer is activated now.

Networking Speed:

⮚ Ethernet cards operate at different network speeds depending on the protocol standard they
support.
 ⮚ Old Ethernet cards were capable only of the 10 Mbps maximum speed originally offered by
the Ethernet standard. Modern Ethernet adapters support the 100 Mbps fast Ethernet standard
and an increasing number now also offer gigabit Ethernet support at 1 Gbps (1000 Mbps).

⮚ An Ethernet card does not directly support Wi-Fi wireless networking, but home
network broadband routers contain the necessary technology to allow Ethernet devices to
connect using cables and communicate with Wi-Fi devices by means of the router.

Conclusion:
 Practical No. 4
Title: Establishment of PC LAN.

Aim: To understand how the implementation of PC on LAN.

Theory:

What is LAN ?

A local area network - or LAN - encompasses computers and other devices that connect to a
server together at a specific location - whether an office or a commercial environment.

We find more than one computer able to connect to the same printer in a business environment, and
this is done on the local area network.

There are a lot of components that allow people to connect to the internal servers, and these are made
up of switches, routers, and cables that will connect everyone together. A local area network can
transfer your business data far more quickly than an office telephone line can, but there is a limit to
the number of computers that can be supported. There is also a limit to the distance in which data
can be transferred. With the help of telephone lines, local area networks can also connect to other
local area networks, and this can be done with radio, satellite, and telephone lines.

Five Steps to Successful LAN Implementation:

Equipment
First, you need the right equipment to set up your LAN. This includes:
 ● A router
● Ethernet cables for every device you want to connect
● A computer
● Devices
● A broadband connection, router, and modem (if looking to connect to the internet)
Begin by plugging in the network router and turning it on. If it's a brand new one, follow the steps
on the box to get it plugged in and ready for use.

Connect The First Computer

If your router is a brand new one, you need to set up your computer to connect to the router, and you
can do this via the Ethernet cable. A Windows PC should automatically prompt you with a setup
wizard for your first connection, but you can find it in the Network and Sharing Centre in the settings
area under the control panel. On a Mac, System preferences can house this setup, and you can go
from there.

Set Up the Wi-fi

The automatic setup wizard will hopefully take you step by step through the process so that you can
have the internet up and ready to go. Once you have the Wi-fi working, the devices connected to the
Ethernet cables should be able to run on the internet, too.

Connect To the Internet

Every single device connected to the LAN needs to be set up with passwords to connect successfully
to the internet. Otherwise, you will be left with half of a business who have no idea why they cannot
get to the internet and why it's not working for them. Make sure your password protects and have
the right firewalls running for safety.

Connect The Remaining Devices

Any printers or mobile devices that require an internet connection can all be connected to the LAN
so that you are all able to use it effectively.

Procedure:

I. On the host computer

 On the host computer, follow these steps to share the Internet connection:

1. Log on to the host computer as Administrator or as Owner.

2. Click Start, and then click Control Panel.
3. Click Network and Internet Connections.
4. Click Network Connections.
5. Right-click the connection that you use to connect to the Internet. For example, if you connect
to the Internet by using a modem, right-click the connection that you want under Dial-up
/another network available.
6. Click Properties.
7. Click the Advanced tab.
8. Under Internet Connection Sharing, select the Allow other network users to connect through
this computer's Internet connection check box.
9. If you are sharing a dial-up Internet connection, select the Establish a dial-up connection
whenever a computer on my network attempts to access the Internet check box if you want
to permit your computer to automatically connect to the Internet.
10. Click OK. You receive the following message:
11. When Internet Connection Sharing is enabled, your LAN adapter will be set to use IP address
192.168.0. 1. Your computer may lose connectivity with other computers on your network.
If these other computers have static IP addresses, it is a good idea to set them to obtain their
IP addresses automatically. Are you sure you want to enable Internet Connection Sharing?
12. Click Yes. The connection to the Internet is shared to other computers on the local area
network (LAN).
13. The network adapter that is connected to the LAN is configured with a static IP address of
192.168.0. 1 and a subnet mask of 255.255.255.0

II. On the client computer

To connect to the Internet by using the shared connection, you must confirm the LAN adapter IP
configuration, and then configure the client computer. To confirm the LAN adapter IP configuration,
follow these steps:

1. Log on to the client computer as Administrator or as Owner.

2. Click Start, and then click Control Panel.

 3. Click Network and Internet Connections.

4. Click Network Connections.

5. Right-click Local Area Connection and then click Properties.

6. Click the General tab, click Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) in the connection uses the following
items list, and then click Properties.

7. In the Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) Properties dialog box, click Obtain an IP address
automatically (if it is not already selected), and then click OK.

Note: You can also assign a unique static IP address in the range of 192.168.0.2 to 254. For
example, you can assign the following static IP address, subnet mask, and default gateway:

8. IP Address 192.168.31.202

9. Subnet mask 255.255.255.0

10. Default gateway 192.168.31.1

11. In the Local Area Connection Properties dialog box, click OK.

12. Quit Control Panel.

Conclusion:
 Practical No. 5
Title: Trouble shooting of Networks
Aim: To learn and understand what is trouble shooting and how it is done.
Theory:
Network troubleshooting is the combined measures and processes used to identify, diagnose
and solve problems within a computer network. It’s a logical process that network engineers use to
resolve network problems and improve network operations. Troubleshooting is an iterative process,
the more data you collect and analyse, the higher the likelihood of developing a correct hypothesis.

Example: A remote site recovers from a power outage. All of the devices come back online, thus
the event is perceived to be over. Yet for the next few days, performance in that office seems to be
slow. Users in that office have a lot of VoIP call quality problems and call drops, and cloud services
seem to crawl and suffer from disconnects. What happened? To fix the issue, you need to
troubleshoot.

The standard troubleshooting formula

Having a systematic approach to solving the problem will make you a faster and smarter trouble
shooter, and in every network nightmare scenario, the faster, the better. The formula at face value is
a simple one. Define, isolate, and solve. Once you have checked the basics like making sure it isn’t
a physical-layer problem (is it plugged in?), and that the involved devices respond to ping requests,
the real troubleshooting starts. Most troubleshooting involves a rule-in and rule-out process to help
narrow down the location and cause of the problem.
Troubleshooting steps:

1. Collect information
2. Develop a hypothesis
3. Test the hypothesis
4. Implement a fix
5. Verify the problem was solved
6. Notify the users
7. Document the fix

If I make this sound simple, it’s because it is, for a simple network.

What Type of Information should be Collected?

When collecting information on the problem, it is critical to make sure that you know enough about
the scope of what part of the network is included in the problem, and what part of the network can
be safely excluded. Otherwise, you might be stuck forever trying to collect and analyse information
that might be unrelated to the problem.

Start by asking yourself the necessary questions to define the scope of the problem:

● Who is having the problem (one user, multiple users) ?

● Is it just one application, or all applications ?
● Has anything changed ?
● Has this happened before, if so, when ?
● Can we reproduce the problem ?
● Was anything done differently ?

Once the issue is defined, try to isolate it. This involves a process of elimination. If a workstation is
having connection difficulties, determine if the problem is isolated to that specific workstation, all
workstations in that physical location, or if it’s network-wide. If it’s local, you’ve eliminated a ton
of unnecessary work, and you’re much closer to isolating the issue. Even if you haven’t yet solved
the problem, you’ve now saved valuable time.

If the problem is related to only one particular application, it can be a valuable clue. For example,
if a user has no problems with accessing web applications, but is having VoIP/UC call quality
problems, it may be related to queueing or packet loss, or an issue related to a voice gateway or SIP
trunk.

Troubleshooting in a complex network

In a data centre, the sheer number of technologies that could be the cause of your simple support
ticket can cause your head to spin. There are times when troubleshooting will account for up to
ninety percent of a network admin’s time. No one wants to spend their time continually putting out
one fire only to find another, but there isn’t always a choice. Effective troubleshooting tools and
procedures enable you to quickly respond to those crises and keep your network operating as
designed.

Faster troubleshooting is better troubleshooting :

All engineers engage in troubleshooting but getting to the root cause of a problem is key. This is a
different activity than just monitoring a network and requires different information to achieve its
goal. Organizations that rely solely on monitoring software end up having problems when it comes
to troubleshooting issues in their environment.

Troubleshooting a network can be a manual process, or it can be automated. There are network
troubleshooting automation tools that help you swiftly identify the root cause and its location
essentially completing the first two (most time consuming) steps so that you can begin working on
the solution.

Conclusion:
 Practical No. 6
Title: Installation of network device drivers
Aim: To understand the installation of network device drivers.
Theory:
Router and Switches
Router and Switch are both network connecting devices. Router works at network layer and is

responsibe to find the shortest path for a packet whereas Switch connects various devices in a network.

Router connects devices across multiple networks.

How to install and configure routers and switches

Installation and configuration of network devices is one of the most important tasks which
ensure the smooth running of the system. If you are properly able to configure and install you devices,
then you will save yourself from loads from problems which might occur to you in the future. A
network functions perfectly when all the switches and routers are connected to all the other devices on
the network, through wired or wireless connections. The correct configuration of these devices ensures
that there will be a healthy flow of data traffic and no problem will be caused. In this regard, there is
always an extra focus on the process of configuration and installation of routers and switches and all
the related devices. In fact, there are various other elements, procedures and methods which are
involved in this process. Although you may try to manage the process on your own using your own
judgment, but it will be much preferred and will be easier for you as well if you stick to the basic
methods which have been described to go about this process. If you master these processes, you will
surely perform the process of installation and configuration with perfection.

Routing Tables

Routing tables are one of the most important entities which help in the determination of the path from
data packages. Routing tables comprise of all the information regarding the location of each router and
its distance from each other. In fact, it contains the whole topology of the network and knows each and
every route. Routing tables are generally stored in routers. Whenever a data package arrives at a router,
it consults the routing tables to figure the smallest and most probable path for data to travel. The data
is then directed to this route to make sure that it reaches the destination in the least amount of time.
The information regarding the network structure is manually stored on routing tables, and each of the
routers has got a copy of it. The existence of routing tables is extremely important to make sure that
there is an effective flow of data traffic and there is no congestion on any route.

NAT
NAT is also referred to as Network Address Translation. Since we are aware of the fact that there are
many forms of IP Addresses which are used in different situations, it is essential to have a service that
could translate one form of IP Address to another form of IP Address. This is what the NAT service
does, it ensures effective transmission of data over the networks by translation IP Addresses into
different forms. One example can be when data is sent from a private network over the internet; in this
case it is essential to translate the IP Addresses to enable both networks to work on common grounds.
NAT service is generally configured on computers or routers. The device configured with NAT service
comprises of tables which consist of one-to-one mapping of IP Addresses of one format on the IP
Addresses of the other format. In this way, it is ensured that the routers know the IP Addresses of the
destination devices in the correct format.
PAT

PAT is the abbreviation of Port Address Translation. Nowadays, it is common for many devices inside
the same network to have the same external address, from example the address of the router they are
connected to, it becomes difficult to discriminate between the devices. In this regard, the Port Address
Translation service has been developed. The main purpose of this service is to assign different port
numbers to the devices in on network. This will ensure that the data packets get to their exact
destination. PAT is generally configured on routers, but can also work on other devices as well.
Whenever a data packet passes through the device using PAT, the destination address on the data
packet is changed and it is assigned a particular port number. In this way, the data packets will reach
the exact port where their destination is. This is possible because the PAT device consists of a table
where it stores the actual address of each computer in correspondence to its assigned port number.

VLAN (trunking)

VLAN is also known as "Virtual Local Area Network". The basic purpose of a VLAN is to make sure
that there is no physical restriction on the connection of layer 2 switches. These networks hold the
ability to span different switches without having any physical restriction. It also adds an extra layer of
security by separating the physical networks from the logical ones. In this process, these networks
make use of special links between these switches to carry the VLAN. These special links are referred
to as Trunks and the process is known as Trunking. VLAN trunking offers a cheap and reliable way to
manage load of virtual network connections.

VTP Configurationi :
VTP is referred to as VLAN Trunking Protocol. This protocol allows you the facility to configure your
VLAN settings on one switch which can be learned by all other client switches in the network. This
switch performs the role of a server and is fed with all the required information. VTP allows this
information and settings to be inherited by all other switches on the network. This saves you from a
good amount of effort which you had to do otherwise. Any changes to this main server switch will
make changes to all the switches in the network.

There of two types of devices in Network

● Unmanaged Devices are those devices which do not require any special configuration on part
of the user. These devices are basically used in networks which are extremely simple and small.
Under these conditions, the devices such as routers or switches are able to configure themselves
on their own. These devices are referred to as unmanaged devices. However, this means that
users generally do not have much control over the unmanaged devices.
● Managed Devices are those devices in which the settings are configured manually by the users.
These are used for networks which are complex are quite large. There provide great control
over the LAN traffic and also allow the users to control many other features. This means that
you are able to configure and make a lot of changes on managed devices according to your
convenience. In addition to this, the access to these devices can also be restricted which proves
to be more secure.

Types of Interface Configurations

Full Duplex: A Duplex is generally a direct communication between two devices. Full Duplex is a
two-way communication process in which you can send and receive messages at the same time.
Half Duplex: Half Duplex is quite different from a Full Duplex in the way that messages can be either
sent or received in this communication.
Port Speeds: It is essential to make sure that the port speeds on both devices which are communicating
are synchronized. These speeds can be set to synchronize automatically or they can be set manually.
IP Addressing: The most common type of IP Addresses is IPv4 addresses, which are made up of 32
bits. In this regard, the IP addresses can be assigned to the systems manually as well as automatically.
The automatic assigning of IP Addresses is done by DHCP servers.
MAC Filtering: MAC Address is the physical address which is assigned separately to the NIC of
system on the network. MAC addresses usually work with switches in the layer 2. The concept of
MAC filtering allows you to configure your switches in a way that only data packets associated with
certain MAC address are able to pass through the switch. This will increase the security of your
network and will also provide you will better control.

PoE

PoE is also known as "Power over Ethernet". The basic concept behind PoE is to enable the
transmission of electric power over an Ethernet cable. This concept is basically used to transmit data
to routers or other devices which are quite far away. The data is transferred in the cable along with the
current. Many of the switches, routers and computers use the concept of PoE to operate from remote
locations effectively. PoE allows all of these remote devices to be powered from one source of power
which is usually centralized.

Traffic Filtering

Traffic filtering in networking refers to the filtering of traffic in a network, which enables some traffic
to flow while stops the remaining traffic. This is quite essential to make sure that only the required
amount of traffic flows through the network. This can also add a layer of security because it will control
which data, protocols etc. you allow to pass through your network. Traffic filtering can be of various
kinds depending on the type of network you are using and your requirement as well. For example, you
can filter any protocols which you feel will not aid you in your process.

Port Mirroring

Port Mirroring is the process in which a copy of data packets is made and stored for the process of
monitoring the processes. The traffic flowing through the network cannot be disrupted for the process
of monitoring as this may cause complications. This is the reason why port mirroring is used to monitor
the traffic and store it to ensure that everything is going perfect. In fact, port mirroring is a very
important process that ensures that there is no disruption in the system of the network.

Diagnostics

This is the process in which you actually monitor the performance of your whole network to make sure
that it is working perfectly. Yes, this means that once you have configured and installed all the devices,
you need to diagnose the system to ensure that they are working properly. In this regard, you need to
define a system which will enable you to access all the required information which will be helpful to
you. You will make use of this information to check whether everything is working fine or there is still
any room for improvement.

All of elements which we discussed above are of high significance. It is quite essential to install and
configure the devices in the best possible way in order to avoid future complications. There are many
techniques developed which ensure that these processes are carried out effectively and you do not
encounter any problem. If one is able to understand all of these concepts clearly, one will surely be
able to master the installation and configuration of switches and routers.

Conclusion:
 Practical No. 7

Title: Uses of Proxy servers

Aim: To learn and understand the various types of proxy servers.

Theory:

WHAT IS A PROXY SERVER?

A proxy server is a system or router that provides a gateway between users and the internet.
Therefore, it helps prevent cyber attackers from entering a private network. It is a server, referred to
as an “intermediary” because it goes between end-users and the web pages they visit online.

PROXY SERVERS AND NETWORK SECURITY:

1. Improve security

2. Secure employees’ internet activity from people trying to snoop on them

3. Balance internet traffic to prevent crashes

4. Control the websites employees and staff access in the office

5. Save bandwidth by caching files or compressing incoming traffic

HOW A PROXY WORKS:

Because a proxy server has its own IP address, it acts as a go-between for a computer and the internet.
Your computer knows this address, and when you send a request on the internet, it is routed to the
proxy, which then gets the response from the web server and forwards the data from the page to your
computer’s browser, like Chrome, Safari, Firefox, or Microsoft Edge.

HOW DOES THE PROXY PROTECT COMPUTER PRIVACY AND DATA ?

A proxy server performs the function of a firewall and filter. The end-user or a network administrator
can choose a proxy designed to protect data and privacy. This examines the data going in and out of
your computer or network. It then applies rules to prevent you from having to expose your digital
address to the world. Only the proxy’s IP address is seen by hackers or other bad actors. Without your
personal IP address, people on the internet do not have direct access to your personal data, schedules,
apps, or files.

With it in place, web requests go to the proxy, which then reaches out and gets what you want from
the internet. If the server has encryption capabilities, passwords and other personal data get an extra
tier of protection.

BENEFITS OF A PROXY SERVER:

Proxies come with several benefits that can give your business an advantage:

1. Enhanced security: Can act like a firewall between your systems and the internet. Without
them, hackers have easy access to your IP address, which they can use to infiltrate your computer or
network.

2. Private browsing, watching, listening, and shopping: Use different proxies to help you avoid
getting inundated with unwanted ads or the collection of IP-specific data.

3. Access to location-specific content: You can designate a proxy server with an address
associated with another country. You can, in effect, make it look like you are in that country and gain
full access to all the content computers in that country are allowed to interact with.

4. Prevent employees from browsing inappropriate or distracting sites: You can use it to
block access to websites that run contrary to your organization’s principles. Also, you can block sites
that typically end up distracting employees from important tasks. Some organizations block social
media sites like Facebook and others to remove time-wasting temptations.

TYPES OF PROXY SERVERS:

While all proxy servers give users an alternate address with which to use the internet, there are several
different kinds—each with its own features.

Forward Proxy

A forward proxy sits in front of clients and is used to get data to groups of users within an internal
network. When a request is sent, the proxy server examines it to decide whether it should proceed with
making a connection.

A forward proxy is best suited for internal networks that need a single point of entry. It provides IP
address security for those in the network and allows for straightforward administrative control.
However, a forward proxy may limit an organization’s ability to cater to the needs of individual end-
users.

Transparent Proxy

A transparent proxy can give users an experience identical to what they would have if they were using
their home computer. In that way, it is “transparent.” They can also be “forced” on users, meaning they
are connected without knowing it.

Transparent proxies are well-suited for companies that want to make use of a proxy without making
employees aware they are using one. It carries the advantage of providing a seamless user experience.
On the other hand, transparent proxies are more susceptible to certain security threats, such as SYN-
flood denial-of-service attacks.

Anonymous Proxy

An anonymous proxy focuses on making internet activity untraceable. It works by accessing the
internet on behalf of the user while hiding their identity and computer information.

A transparent proxy is best suited for users who want to have full anonymity while accessing the
internet. While transparent proxies provide some of the best identity protection possible, they are not
without drawbacks. Many view the use of transparent proxies as underhanded, and users sometimes
face pushback or discrimination as a result.

High Anonymity Proxy

A high anonymity proxy is an anonymous proxy that takes anonymity one step further. It works by
erasing your information before the proxy attempts to connect to the target site.

The server is best suited for users for whom anonymity is an absolute necessity, such as employees
who do not want their activity traced back to the organization. On the downside, some of them,
particularly the free ones, are decoys set up to trap users in order to access their personal information
or data.

Distorting Proxy

A distorting proxy identifies itself as a proxy to a website but hides its own identity. It does this by
changing its IP address to an incorrect one.

Distorting proxies are a good choice for people who want to hide their location while accessing the
internet. This type of proxy can make it look like you are browsing from a specific country and give
you the advantage of hiding not just your identity but that of the proxy, too. This means even if you
are associated with the proxy, your identity is still secure. However, some websites automatically block
distorting proxies, which could keep an end-user from accessing sites they need.

Data Center Proxy

Data center proxies are not affiliated with an internet service provider (ISP) but are provided by another
corporation through a data center. The proxy server exists in a physical data center, and the user’s
requests are routed through that server.

Data center proxies are a good choice for people who need quick response times and an inexpensive
solution. They are therefore a good choice for people who need to gather intelligence on a person or
organization very quickly. They carry the benefit of giving users the power to swiftly and
inexpensively harvest data. On the other hand, they do not offer the highest level of anonymity, which
may put users’ information or identity at risk.

Residential Proxy

A residential proxy gives you an IP address that belongs to a specific, physical device. All requests are
then channeled through that device.

Residential proxies are well-suited for users who need to verify the ads that go on their website, so you
can block cookies, suspicious or unwanted ads from competitors or bad actors. Residential proxies are
more trustworthy than other proxy options. However, they often cost more money to use, so users
should carefully analyze whether the benefits are worth the extra investment.

Public Proxy

A public proxy is accessible by anyone free of charge. It works by giving users access to its IP address,
hiding their identity as they visit sites.

Public proxies are best suited for users for whom cost is a major concern and security and speed are
not. Although they are free and easily accessible, they are often slow because they get bogged down
with free users. When you use a public proxy, you also run an increased risk of having your information
accessed by others on the internet.

Shared Proxy

Shared proxies are used by more than one user at once. They give you access to an IP address that may
be shared by other people, and then you can surf the internet while appearing to browse from a location
of your choice.

Shared proxies are a solid option for people who do not have a lot of money to spend and do not
necessarily need a fast connection. The main advantage of a shared proxy is its low cost. Because they
are shared by others, you may get blamed for someone else’s bad decisions, which could get you
banned from a site.

SSL Proxy

A secure sockets layer (SSL) proxy provides decryption between the client and the server. As the data
is encrypted in both directions, the proxy hides its existence from both the client and the server.

These proxies are best suited for organizations that need enhanced protection against threats that the
SSL protocol reveals and stops. Because Google prefers servers that use SSL, an SSL proxy, when
used in connection with a website, may help its search engine ranking. On the downside, content
encrypted on an SSL proxy cannot be cached, so when visiting websites multiple times, you may
experience slower performance than you would otherwise.

Rotating Proxy
A rotating proxy assigns a different IP address to each user that connects to it. As users connect, they
are given an address that is unique from the device that connected before it.

Rotating proxies are ideal for users who need to do a lot of high-volume, continuous web They allow
you to return to the same website again and again anonymously. However, you have to be careful when
choosing rotating proxy services. Some of them contain public or shared proxies that could expose
your data.

Reverse Proxy

Unlike a forward proxy, which sits in front of clients, a reverse proxy positioned in front of web servers
and forwards requests from a browser to the web servers. It works by intercepting requests from the
user at the network edge of the web server. It then sends the requests to and receives replies from the
origin server.

Reverse proxies are a strong option for popular websites that need to balance the load of many
incoming requests. They can help an organization reduce bandwidth load because they act like another
web server managing incoming requests. The downside is reverse proxies can potentially expose the
HTTP server architecture if an attacker is able to penetrate it. This means network administrators may
have to beef up or reposition their firewall if they are using a reverse proxy.

Conclusion:
 Practical No. 8

AIM: Study Of Various Routing Algorithm.

Theory:
Routing algorithm
● In order to transfer the packets from source to the destination, the network layer must determine
the best route through which packets can be transmitted.
● Whether the network layer provides datagram service or virtual circuit service, the main job of
the network layer is to provide the best route. The routing protocol provides this job.
● The routing protocol is a routing algorithm that provides the best path from the source to the
destination. The best path is the path that has the "least-cost path" from source to the destination.
● Routing is the process of forwarding the packets from source to the destination but the best route
to send the packets is determined by the routing algorithm.

Classification of a Routing algorithm

The Routing algorithm is divided into two categories:

● Adaptive Routing algorithm
● Non-adaptive Routing algorithm

Adaptive Routing algorithm

● An adaptive routing algorithm is also known as dynamic routing algorithm.
● This algorithm makes the routing decisions based on the topology and network traffic.
● The main parameters related to this algorithm are hop count, distance and estimated transit
time.
An adaptive routing algorithm can be classified into three parts:
● Centralized algorithm: It is also known as global routing algorithm as it computes the least-
cost path between source and destination by using complete and global knowledge about the
network. This algorithm takes the connectivity between the nodes and link cost as input, and this
information is obtained before actually performing any calculation. Link state algorithm is
referred to as a centralized algorithm since it is aware of the cost of each link in the network.
● Isolation algorithm: It is an algorithm that obtains the routing information by using local
information rather than gathering information from other nodes.
● Distributed algorithm: It is also known as decentralized algorithm as it computes the least-cost
path between source and destination in an iterative and distributed manner. In the decentralized
algorithm, no node has the knowledge about the cost of all the network links. In the beginning,
a node contains the information only about its own directly attached links and through an
iterative process of calculation computes the least-cost path to the destination. A Distance vector
algorithm is a decentralized algorithm as it never knows the complete path from source to the
destination, instead it knows the direction through which the packet is to be forwarded along
with the least cost path.

Non-Adaptive Routing algorithm

● Non Adaptive routing algorithm is also known as a static routing algorithm.

● When booting up the network, the routing information stores to the routers.
● Non Adaptive routing algorithms do not take the routing decision based on the network
topology or network traffic.

The Non-Adaptive Routing algorithm is of two types:

Flooding: In case of flooding, every incoming packet is sent to all the outgoing links except
the one from it has been reached. The disadvantage of flooding is that node may contain several
copies of a particular packet.

Random walks: In case of random walks, a packet sent by the node to one of its neighbors
randomly. An advantage of using random walks is that it uses the alternative routes very
efficiently.

Conclusion:
 Practical No. 09
Aim: Case study on Network Security.

Theory:
Computer network security consists of measures taken by business or some organizations to
monitor and prevent unauthorized access from the outside attackers.

Different approaches to computer network security management have different requirements

depending on the size of the computer network. For example, a home office requires basic network
security while large businesses require high maintenance to prevent the network from malicious
attacks.

Network Administrator controls access to the data and software on the network. A network
administrator assigns the user ID and password to the authorized person.

Aspects of Network Security:

Following are the desirable properties to achieve secure communication:

1. Privacy: Privacy means both the sender and the receiver expects confidentiality. The transmitted
message should be sent only to the intended receiver while the message should be opaque for other
users. Only the sender and receiver should be able to understand the transmitted message as
eavesdroppers can intercept the message. Therefore, there is a requirement to encrypt the message
so that the message cannot be intercepted. This aspect of confidentiality is commonly used to
achieve secure communication.

2. Message Integrity: Data integrity means that the data must arrive at the receiver exactly as it was
sent. There must be no changes in the data content during transmission, either maliciously or
 accident, in a transit. As there are more and more monetary exchanges over the internet, data
integrity is more crucial. The data integrity must be preserved for secure communication.

3. End-point authentication: Authentication means that the receiver is sure of the senders’ identity,
i.e., no imposter has sent the message.

4. Non-Repudiation: Non-Repudiation means that the receiver must be able to prove that the
received message has come from a specific sender. The sender must not deny sending a message
that he or she send. The burden of proving the identity comes on the receiver. For example, if a
customer sends a request to transfer the money from one account to another account, then the bank
must have a proof that the customer has requested for the transaction.

The Internet has changed crime in a huge way. No longer does a bank robber even need to be in
the same country to rob a bank or financial institution – they can crack an unprotected web site from
the comfort of their own home.

Three case study exercises are useful in providing students a foundation in network security. All three
each include a PowerPoint lecture and active-learning exercise, which serves as the case study. Three
case studies related to networking include:

1. Designing Information Security: Classifies information by confidentiality and criticality.

2. Planning for Network Security: Determines services, connection establishment directions,

security classifications, and access control and builds a colourful network diagram for security.

3. Using a Protocol Analyzer: Analyzes a protocol sequence generated upon laptop power-up, to
determine which services, connections, and ports are used then.

There are two related case study exercises related to planning security, and one related to reading
protocol dumps.

Designing Information Security:

This is a prerequisite exercise for the next case study. Understanding an organization’s data is the first
step to securing their network. Data will have different confidentiality and reliability requirements. An
organization must define different classes of data, and how each class is to be handled. They must also
define access permissions for the various roles in the organization.

Once the organization’s applications and permitted access is understood, then network security can be
addressed.
Planning for Network Security:

Network security requires:

1) Identifying the services used within the network

2) Allocating services to virtual or physical computers, based on their

Criticality/Sensitivity classification and role-based access control.

The first step determines which services are allowed to enter and leave the network, and in which
directions connections normally originate. This information is important in configuring the firewall(s).
The second step considers which applications can be stored together on physical or virtual machines,
based on access control (who can access what) and the Criticality classification. Based on the
Criticality classification, students then define the required controls for each service (e.g., encryption,
hashing, anti-virus). Firewalls need to protect the organization’s data from both the internet and
wireless access!

Using a Protocol Analyzer:

If students are to protect a network, they must be able to understand a protocol analyzer dump.
Understanding protocols is essential to recognizing attack traffic, and programming a firewall or
Intrusion Detection/Prevention System (IDS/IPS). For example, which ports should remain open in a
firewall, and in which direction do connections normally occur? Sometimes this is not easily known,
but must be determined by monitoring the normal traffic.

Students shift through TCP packets, to determine if any connections look suspicious. Students practice
recognizing TCP SYN (Synchronize) packets, and the Domain Name Server (DNS) packets that
precede them, to determine where the connections are being made. Students evaluate how much data
is being sent and received, which requires understanding TCP sequence numbers. The interesting thing
about this sniffing session is that for a couple of connections, the computer is uploading more
information to the network than it is downloading… and the destination.

Planning the Case Study

The case studies are best taught as an active learning exercise in class, where students can ask questions
and the instructor can monitor progress. These case study materials are available since they were
funded by NSF, including PowerPoint lectures, Health First Case Study, Small Business Security
Workbook, and Small Business Requirements Document. There is also a Small Business Security
Workbook Solution, which includes case study solutions.

Conclusion:
 Practical No. 10
Aim: Case Study Of Data Center.
Theory:
Introduction:
The rapid increase of cloud computing, high-performance computing (HPC) and the
vast growth in Internet and Social Media use have aroused the interest in energy consumption and the
carbon footprint of Data Centres. Data Centers primarily contain electronic equipment used for data
processing (servers), data storage (storage equipment) and communications (network equipment).
Collectively, this equipment processes, stores and transmits digital information and is known as
information technology (IT) equipment. Data Centres also usually contain specialized power
conversion and backup equipment to maintain reliable, high-quality power as well as environmental
control equipment to maintain the proper temperature and humidity for the IT equipment .

What does a data Centre do?

A data center is a facility that centralizes an organization's IT operations and equipment, as well as
where it stores, manages, and disseminates its data. Data centers house a network's most critical
systems and are vital to the continuity of daily operations.

Why is data center needed?

The need for Data Centre Operations is essential for the processes and operations performed within a
data centre. Data Centre Services are used in infrastructure operations, security and management.
...And risks or loss of revenue increase as the size of your data/system grows. How Data Centers Work.
Data centers are simply centralized locations where computing and networking equipment is
concentrated for the purpose of collecting, storing, processing, distributing or allowing access to large
amounts of data.

Main Subsystems / Components:

● IT Equipment -
IT equipment is the main contributor to electricity consumption of a Data Centre, representing about
45–55% of the total and can be described as the IT work capacity employed for a given IT power
consumption [2]. Thus, the IT equipment power includes the load associated with all of the IT
equipment, such as compute, storage and network equipment, along with supplemental 1.2 Main
Subsystems 3 equipment such as monitors, workstations/laptops used to monitor or otherwise control
the Data Centres.

● Power System -
The power distribution system of a Data Centre is intended as the equipment in charge of bringing
electrical power to the loads of the system fulfilling adequate power quality levels and security of
supply. In this sense, reliable power supply is one of the cornerstones of a successful Data Centre.
Since the public grid could have short voltage dips which can cause servers to malfunction or even
crash completely, it is essential to stabilize the power supply.

● Cooling System:
The physical environment inside the Data Centres is rigorously controlled, and therefore, the design
of the cooling system is critical to the efficiency and reliability of the whole Data Centre. There are
mainly two types of cooling: air-cooled systems and water-cooled systems. The majority of existing
Data Centres are refrigerated through air. The server racks are normally arranged in cold and hot aisle
containments to improve the air management. In these systems, the chilled air produced by the CRAH
unit is driven into the cold aisle, either through the floor plenum and perforated tiles or through
diffusers in the ceilings. The warm air in hot aisles is captured and returned to the intake of the CRAH.
The heat in the CRAH unit is absorbed by water into a chiller system. There is another aircooling
system which consists on in-row cooling, so the CRAH unit (and therefore the chilled water) is
embedded next to the racks and the hot air does not flow through the whitespace but inside the
containment. Figure 1.4 shows different kind of air cooled Data Centres: cold aisle containment, hot
aisle containment and in-row cooling systems.

Data Centre Archetypes :

To provide a better overview of the Data Centre market, Data Centres are itemised based on the
following characteristics:

• Function or objective of the Data Centre

• Size

• Location and surroundings

 Figure shows the distribution of a Data Centre in function of the business model, size and
location and surroundings

Future Trends :
Global power demand for Data Centres grew to an estimated 40GW in 2013, an increase of 7% over
2012 [26]. Most experts agree that this figure will continue rising in future despite improvements in
IT performance as well as Data Centre design and operation. However, a recent report from NREL
estimates almost no increasing in the United States Data Centre industry electricity consumption.
These predictions always should be taken carefully since it is really difficult to predict the future trends.
What for sure will increase is the Data Centre demand due to the arrival of Internet of Things, Internet
and Social Media increasing demand from emerging countries. Even though the most common Data
Centres are small company-owned facilities, cloud computing has been driving major changes across
the entire IT industry for nearly a decade, and its impact has been accelerating with every passing
quarter. Many consultants predict that the impact of cloud and the growing role of hyper-scale
operators are existential and severe and more work will go to co-location, hosting and cloud
companies. That means there will be more IT and Data Centres in proportionately fewer hands
How many servers does a data center have ?
It organizes its data center infrastructure into 14 regions, with plans for four more this year. Each
region has from two to five so-called Availability Zones, each of which has from one to as many as
eight data centers. Data centers, in turn, range from 50,000 servers to as many as 80,000 servers.

Conclusion: