NETWORKING

A computer network is a group of two or more devices (nodes) interconnected to each other to
enable data and resource sharing. The resources can be some data, printer, modem, database,
an email system, etc. The main system must be connected through transmission medium.
The two main reasons for using computer networking are to provide services and to reduce
equipment costs. Network enables computers to share their resources by offering services to
other computers and users on a network.
The following are specific reasons for networking PCs:
a) Sharing files
b) Sharing printers and other devices
c) Enabling centralized administration and securing resources within the systems
d) Supporting network applications such as electronic mail and database services
e) Saving money
f) High reliability
Network come in all shapes and sizes. According to geographical size networks can be classified
into two groups:
1) Local Area Network (LAN) : It is a group of computers and network communication
devices interconnected within geographically limited areas such as a building or a
campus. LAN can be characterized by the following :
i. They transfer data at higher speeds (higher bandwidth)
ii. They exist in a limited geographical area.
iii. Transmission media is managed by the company running the LAN.
iv. Short circuit errors or noise errors are minimum
v. Example :A computer lab in college

WAN LINK

2) Wide Area Network (WAN) : It interconnects LANs. WAN can be located entirely within a
state or a country or it can be interconnected around the world. The following are
characteristics of WAN:
i. They exist in unlimited geographical area.
 ii. They usually interconnect multiple LANs.
iii. They often transfer data at lower speed. (lower bandwidth).
iv. The transmission media are usually managed by a third party such as a telephone
or a cable.
v. They can be established by using telephone cables or microwave tower or
satellite so expensive.

TRANSMISSION MEDIA CHARACTERISTICS

Each type of transmission media has special characteristics that make it suitable for specific
types of services.
The following are all important characteristics :
1. Cost: One main factor in the purchase decision for any networking component is cost.
2. Installation Requirements: It involves two factors. One is that some transmission media
requires special skilled labour to install, it may bring about undue delays and costs. The
second is the actual physical layout of the network. Some time the cost of installation
may exceeds cost of cable
3. Bandwidth: It refers to the measure of the capacity of a medium to transmit data. A
medium that has high capacity has a higher bandwidth. It is stated in terms of bits that
can be transmitted per second. The bandwidth that a cable can accommodate is
determined by the cable’s length. A short cable can accommodate greater bandwidth
than a long cable.
4. Band Usage: The two ways to allocate capacity of transmission media are with baseband
and broadband transmission. The baseband devotes an entire capacity of the medium to
one communication channel. Broadband enables two or more communication channels
to share bandwidth of the communication medium. Multiplexing is a technique that
 enables broadband media to support multiple data channels.

5. Attenuation: It is measure of how much a signal weakens as it travels through a

medium. When signal strength falls bellow certain limits, the electronic equipment that
receives the signal can experience difficulty isolating the original signal from the noise
present in it.
6. Electromagnetic Interference: It consists of outside electromagnetic noise that distorts
the signals in a medium.Example of E.M.I. is cross talk

The network transmission media can be broadly classified into two groups:
A. Cable Media: It is also known as bounded media. It includes cable of different types
such as co-axial, twisted-pair, fiber-optic cable, etc.
B. Wireless Media: It is boundless media. It includes all form of wireless communication
such as laser, infra-red, microwave, etc.

CABLE TRANSMISSION MEDIA

1. Coaxial Cable: Here two conductors share a common axis. The cable is most frequently
referred as a “coax”. The most common type of coaxial cable is TV cable. The
components of a coaxial cable are as follows:
a) Center conductor: It is solid copper wire.
b) Outer Conductor: It is tube surrounding the center conductor. It consists
ofbraided wire or metallic foil. It is also known as shield. This serves as a ground
and also protects the inner conductor from EMI.
c) Insulation Layer: It is placed between inner and outer conductor.
 d) Jacket: It is a plastic jacket that protects the cable from damage.

There are two basic types of coaxial cables are available:

● Thinnet: It is light and flexible cable. It is inexpensive and easy to install. Its
diameter is approximately 0.25 inches (6 mm). It can reliably transmit a signal for
185 meters. It uses BNC connectors.
● Thicknet: It is thicker than thinnet. Its diameter is approximately 0.5 inches (13
mm). It is harder to work with thicknet. It can transmit a signal approximately
500 meters. It is costlier than thinnet. It is used to connect two or more small
thinnet LAN into larger network. It uses N-connectors. Coaxial cable is easy to
install because the cable is robust and difficult to damage. Connectors can be
installed with inexpensive tools and a bit of practice.

2. Twisted Pair Cable: It is inexpensive to install and offers the lowest cost . Our telephone
cable is an example of twisted pair cable. It consists of two strands of copper wire
twisted together. The twisting reduces the sensitivity of the cable to EMI and also
reduces the tendency of cable to radiate radio frequency noise that interferes with
nearby cable. It also reduces crosstalk . There are two types twisted cable pairs:
● Shielded Twisted Pair Cable: STP: the two copper wires that are twisted together
are coated with braided mesh or foil (shield) that functions as a ground for the
wires. The shield protects the transmission line from electromagnetic
interference. It uses RG-45 or DIN connector. It is costlier than UTP &thinnet but
cheaper than thkicknet& optical fiber.
● Unshielded Twisted Pair Cable: UTP:It does not incorporate a braided shield into
its structure. Several twisted pairs can be bundled together in a single cable.
These pairs are color coded to distinguish them. Telephone systems use UTP
cables. It is easy to install and is least costly of any cable type. It uses DIN-DB9
connector.
 STP UTP
3. Fiber-Optic Cable: It accommodates extremely high bandwidth and no problem with
EMI. It is ideal for data transmission. It is very durable and cable runs as long as several
kilometers. The two disadvantages are: High Cost and very difficult to install. It does not
transmit electrical signals. Data signals are converted into light signals. It consists of
center conductor of a fiber made up of refined glass or plastic design to transmit light
signals with little loss. Glass core supports a longer distance but a plastic core is easier to
work with. The fiber is coated with cladding or gel that reflects signals back into the fiber
to reduce signal loss. A plastic sheath protects the fiber. A fiber-optic network consists of
two strands separately enclosed in a plastic sheaths. One strand sends signals and the
other receives. It is the most expensive cable to install. Attenuation is very lower than
copper cable. It is totally immune to EMI as it does not use electrical signals.

Comparison of Cable Media:

CABLE TYPE COST INSTALLATION CAPACITY RANGE EMI

Less
Coaxial Thinnet Less than STP Inexpensive 10 Mbps 185 m sensitive
than UTP
 Greater than
Less
STP
Coaxial Thicknet Easy 10 Mbps 500 m sensitive
Less than
than UTP
fiber-optic
Less
Greater than
STP Fairly easy 16 Mbps 100 m sensitive
UTP
than UTP
Inexpensive / More
UTP Lowest 10 Mbps 100 m
Easy sensitive
Expensive / 10s of
Fiber - Optic Highest 100 Mbps Insensitive
Difficult kilometer

NETWORK TOPOLOGY
A topology defines the arrangement of nodes, cables and connectivity devices that make up the
network. It refers not only to the physical layout but also to how the components of the
network communicate with each other. There are two types of topologies:
A. Physical Topology: It describes the actual layout of the network transmission media.
Four different types of physical topologies are described below:
● Bus Topology: A bus physicaltopology is one in which all devices are connected
to the common single cable known as backbone. The cable interconnects all the
computers in a straight line. It is the simplest and most common method for
connecting computers. It’s disadvantage is that a single cable break can halt the
entire network. It is a passive technology. It means that computers on the bus
only listen for the data being sent. They are not responsible for the moving data
from one node to the next. It uses T-type connector. A terminator is attached to
each end of a cable to prevent signals from bouncing. This terminator absorbs all
signals reach it, thus clearing the network for new communication.
Advantages:
i)simple, easy to understand
ii) addition and deletion of node is easy
iii)less cable is used so less expensive
Iv)The failure of one station does not affect the rest of the network.
Disadvantages:
I)A break in the backbone can cause an entire network to collapse.
Ii)Data collision frequent
Iii)Monopoly system, no equal access of network
● Ring Topology: When each computer connects directly to the next computer in a
line, a circle of cable forms to create a ring topology network. As a computer
receives a signal, it either acts on it or regenerates it and passes it along. Signals
travel in one direction around the ring. It uses token passing method to pass
data. Each device incorporates a receiver and a transmitter and serves as a
repeater that passes the signal on to the next device. Because signal generated at
each device, signal degeneration is low. If any part of cable breaks, the entire
network will come down.Minimal amount of cable is used.
Advantages :
i) No data collision
ii) Less cable used so inexpensive
iii) Equal access to each node
iv) Handle high volume of nodes
Disadvantages :
i)Addition and deletion of a node is difficult
Ii)If a node goes down entire network goes down

● Star Topology: Here all devices are connected to a central hub. The hub receives
signals from other network devices and routes the signals to proper destination.
 The path data takes among the nodes and through hub depends on the design of
the cabling hardware and software configuration of nodes.
Advantages :’
i) Addition and deletion of a node is easy
ii) The failure of one node does not affect the rest of the network.
iii) Easy to extend network
Iv) Easy to locate problem
Disadvantages :
i) Failure of HUB, will bring the network down
ii) More cabeling
iii) Hubs are expensive

● Mesh Topology: Here installation is difficult and amount of cable used is more
and hence costly. Here every device is connected to every other device on the
network individually. If any transmission media breaks, the data can take
alternative route.
Advantages :
i) Robust
Ii) No data collision
Iii) No data collision
Iv) Provide security
 B. Logical Topology: It describes the logical pathway a signal follows as it passes through
the network nodes.
ACCESS METHOD
An access method is a set of rules governing how the network nodes share the transmission
medium. There are two different ways to share the transmission medium:
● First come, First serve
● Take turns
The three most important types of media access methods:
I. Contention: It means that the computers are contending for the use of transmission
medium. Any computer in the network can be transmit at any time (First come, First
serve). This system breaks down when two computers attempt to transmit at same time.
It might work well in small outgoing messages collide more frequently, must be resend
and then collide again. To organize contention based networks, two carrier access
methods were created:
● CSMA/CD (Carrier Sense Multiple Access With Collision Detection): This method
prevents collisions by listening to channel as they transmit. If another computer
is using the channel, the computer waits a random amount of time and then
checks again. This process continues until the channel is free and the computer
can send its data.If the network is free and two devices access the line at exactly
the same time, their signals collide. When the collision is detected, they both
back off and wait a random amount of time before retrying.Because of this
method computers have unequal access to media. A computer with large
amount of data to send monopolizes the network channel, slowing transmission
for other computers on the network.
● CSMA/CA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access With Collision Avoidance): It uses
collision avoidance rather than detection. With this once the computer senses
that no other computer is using the network, it signals its intent to transmit data.
Any other computers with data to send wait when they receive the “intent-to –
transmit”, signal and send their intent -to – transmit signals when they see that
channel is free. The “intent-to – transmit” packets reduces network speed
therefore it is not used as much as CSMA/CD.
II. Token Passing: In this channel access method a special data packet called the token
passes sequentially from one computer to the next. Only the computer holding the
token can send the data. A computer can keep the token onlyfor a specific amount of
time. If the computer with the token has no data to send, then it passes the token to the
next computer. All computers have equal access to the media. Because only the
computer with the token can transmit the data, this method prevents the collision. Two
disadvantages of token passing environment:
 ● Each computer must wait to receive the token. If it’s data is large enough, require
two or more turns of the token. The token makes the complete circuit before
starting its second transmission.
● The complicated process of creating and passing the token requires more
expensive equipment.
III. Polling: A central controller known as the primary device asks(polls) each computer ( the
secondary device) on the network if it has data to send. If yes the computer may send up
to certain amount of data, then it is the next computer’s turn. Like token ring, it allows
all computers equal access to the channel, no single computer monopolize the media.
The drawback of polling is that if the primary device fails, the network fails. Polling itself
reduces the network speed and causes network traffic.

CONTENTION TOKEN PASSING POLLING

CONNECTIVITY DEVICES
A computer network or inter networks may require some sort of device to connect the various
network computers, printers, and other devices together.The device that connects the
independent network together is known as connectivity device.
These connectivity devices are used to connect devices, boost the data signal traveling on the
network and to determine how data traffic should flow on the network.
1. HUBS:
It is called wiring concentrators, provides a central attachment point for network cabling. It
is a connecting device in which cables can be connected without soldering. It is used in Star
topology.There are three types of HUB:
a. Passive Hub: It does not contain any electric components and does not process
the data signal. It is used to combine the signals from several network cable
segments. All devices attached to a passive hub receive all the packets that pass
through the hub. As hub does not clean or amplify the signals, the distance
between a computer and a hub cannot be more than the half of the maximum
distance between two components on the network. These hubs are inexpensive
and easy to configure.
b. Active Hub: It incorporates electronic component that can amplify and clean up
the electronic signal. Here distance between devices can be increased and the
network becomes robust. Cost of these hubs is considerably more than passive
hubs. It is used to increase are of the network.
c. Intelligent Hub: It is enhanced active hub. It’s main two functions are:
● Hub management
● Switching
2. MODEM: It is modulator and demodulator. It can be used to connect computer devices
on entire network that are at distinct location through telephone line. Standard
telephone line can not re transmit data digitally. Modem will convert digital data into
analog signals (modulation) and send on telephone line. On the receiver side, one more
modem is there which will again convert analog signal to digital data (demodulation) and
pass it to receiving computer. Modems are classified according to the transmission
method they use for sending and receiving data:
a. Asynchronous Modem: It uses asynchronous mode of transmission. It does not
use a clocking mechanism to keep the sending and receiving devices
synchronized. Instead this type of transmission use bit synchronization to
synchronize the devices. It is very simple and inexpensive. It is ideal for
transmitting small frames at irregular intervals.
b. Synchronous Modem: It uses synchronous transmitter. Here clocks on
transmitting and receiving devices are synchronized. This type of transmission
improves error detection and enables the devices to operate at higher speeds.
The disadvantage is that more complex circuit is required which is very
expensive.
3. REPEATERS: It is a network device that repeats a signal from one port onto the other. It
is used to extend the maximum range for the network cabling.

A repeater does not filter or interpret the data, it just repeats (regenerates) a signal. If
data is corrupt, a repeater will regenerate the signal anyway. Repeaters are inexpensive
and simple. It cannot connect network with dissimilar data frame. Itincreases the
strength of the data signal. It also amplifies any noise on the network. If the original
signal has been distorted, the repeater cannot clean up the distortion.Seperate power
supply is required.
4. ROUTERS:It is inter network connectivity device. It can connect two LAN with similar or
dissimilar topology. Routers not only build tables of network locations but also use
algorithms to determine the most efficient path for sending a packet to any given
network. Even if a particular network segment is not directly attached to the router,
router knows the best way to send a packet to a device on the network. They use
network address to make efficient delivery of data packets. They are usually employed
to connect a LAN to a WAN. There two types of routers:

a. Static Router: Do not determine the path. We have to configure the routing
table, specifying routers for data packets.
b. Dynamic Router: They have capability to determine routes based on packet
information and information obtained from other routers.
 5. SWITCHES: The latest development in hub is the switching hub which includes circuit
that very quickly routes signals between points on the hubs. Instead of repeating a
packet to all ports on the hub, a switching hub repeats a packet only to the port that
connects to the destination computer for the packet. Many switching hubs have the
capability of switching packets to the fastest of the several alternative paths. Switching
hubs are replacing bridges and routers. Switch hubs are the most expensive hub. They
are referred to as SWITCH.

NETWORK ARCHITECTURE
A network architecture is the design specification of the physical layout of connected devices.
This refers to its overall structures such as topology, physical media and channel access
methods. Eg.Ethernet, token ring, Apple talk, ARCNet, DDI and ATM.

PREAMBLE ADDRESS TYPE DATA CRC

1) Ethernet: It is very popular local area network architecture based on the CSMA/CD
access method. It is easier to install and use, less expensive. It supports many different
kinds of cable media. Most version of Ethernet transmit at 10 Mbps or 100 Mbps but
newer standards support transmission at 1 Gbps.
Ethernet network transmit data in unit called as frames. The size of a frame can be
anywhere between 64 and 1,318 bytes. Eighteen bytes of the total frame size are taken
by the source and destination addresses, protocol information and error checking
information. A typical frame has section as shown in the following diagram:
Ethernet is divided into three categories based on transmission speed and the media
used:
i. 10 Mbps Standards:
● 10 BASE 5: Using Thicknet Coaxial cable. Bus topology
● 10 BASE 2: Using Thinnet Coaxial cable that is inexpensive. Bus topology
● 10 BASE T: Using unshielded twisted pair cable. Star topology which is logically
linear bus.
● 10 BASE FL: Using fiber-optic cable that eliminates any potential electrical
complications.
ii. 100 Mbps Standards:
● 100 VG: Any LAN using higher STP, UTP and fiber-optic.
● 100 Base T: Using higher UTP, STP and fiber-optic.
iii. 1 Gbps Standards:
● 1000 Base LX: Fiber-Optic cable.
In each Ethernet topology, it begins with a number which specifies the transmission speed and
“BASE” specifies that base band transmission has been used.
a) 10 BASE 2:
● Minimum distance between clients 0.5 m
● Uses T-connector
● Maximum network segment limitation 185 m
● Entire network limitation 925 m
● Maximum number of nodes per network segment 30

b) 10 BASE 5:
● Minimum distance between clients 2.15 m
● Uses N-connector
● Maximum network segment 500 m
● Entire network limitation 2500 m
● Maximum nodes per network segment 100
c) 10 BASE T:
● Based on larger network
● Easier to troubleshoot and repair
● Uses RJ-45 connector
● Maximum network segment 100 m
● Minimum distance between client 2.5 m
● Minimum distance between a hub and a computer or two hubs is 0.5 m
● Maximum number of nodes on a LAN is 1024

2) Token Ring: It uses a token passing architecture. The topology is physically a star, but
token ring uses a logical ring to pass the token from one node to the next. Token ring
networks use twisted pair cable. Token ring network interface cards can run at 4 Mbps or
16 Mbps. All cards on a given network ring must run at the same speed. 16 Mbps can be
configured to run at 4 or 16 Mbps. If all the machines are not configured at the same
speed, the machine cannot have network access or the entire network can be halted.
Disadvantage of token ring is that it has higher price tag than that of Ethernet. Token ring
can take more network load compared to Ethernet. Workstation that indicates problems
send a signal to identify the address of potential feature.

PROTOCOL
A protocol is a set of rules. A network protocol is a set of rules governing exchange of
information in an easy, reliable and secure way. Itdefine rules and conventions for
communication. Internet protocol isa set of communication protocols on which the internet
runs. The Internet protocol called the TCP/IP(Transmission Control Protocol/ Internet Protocol)
protocol . This protocol does not belong to any one company & available to everybody.
TCP/IP is a set of standardized rules that allow computers to communicate on the internet.
All devices that are connected to an internet connection have a unique IP address.
A numerical label assigned to each device connected to a computer network that uses the
Internet Protocol .It is written in "dotted decimal" notation, which is 4 sets of numbers
separated by period each set representing an 8-bit number ranging from (0-255).
eg. 216.35.128.12
WIRELESS MEDIA
Reasons for wireless networks
a) Space where cabling would be impossible or inconvenient Eg. Open lobbies, older
buildings, historical buildings where renovation is prohibited.
b) People who move around a lot within their work environment. Eg.network
administrators, nurses and doctors need make rounds in a hospital.
c) Temporary Installation : Any temporary department setup for a specific purpose that
soon will be relocated.
d) People who travel outside of the work environment and need continuous access to
network resources.
e) Satellite offices or branches, ships in the oceans or teams in remote field locations that
need to connect to a main office or location.

The wireless mode is basically part of Cable based network. An access point is stationery
transreceiver connected to the cable based LAN that enables the cordless PC to communicate
with the network. The access point acts as a conduit for the wireless PC. According to the
transmission methods, wireless communication can be classified into five methods :
● Infrared
● Laser
● Narrow-Band Radio
● Spread-Spectrum Radio
● Microwave
The process of the wireless communication is initiated when the wireless PC sends a signal to
the access point, from there, the signal reaches the network. So the actual wireless
communication is the communication from the wireless PC to the access point.
Advantages of Wireless Media:
a) It is not subjected to the accessibility and other installation problems faced by cables.
b) Because of no cables, communication is possible with most remote sites and mobile
devices.
c) In wireless media, data capacity is very high
d) Range of the network can be extended upto 1000s of kilometer.