𝑴𝒂𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒎𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒔 − 𝑰 𝑳𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝑻𝒉𝒓𝒆𝒆 𝑫𝒆𝒑.

𝒐𝒇 𝑪𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒖𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝑬𝒏𝒈𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒈

3.1. Sums, Differences, Products, and Quotients:

Like numbers, functions can be added, subtracted, multiplied, and divided (except
where the denominator is zero) to produce new functions. If ƒ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑔 are functions,
then for every 𝑥 that belongs to the domains of both ƒ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑔 (that is, for 𝑥 ∈ 𝐷(𝑓) ∩
𝐷(𝑔) we define functions ƒ + 𝑔, ƒ − 𝑔, and ƒ𝑔 by the formulas
(ƒ + 𝑔)(𝑥) = ƒ(𝑥) + 𝑔(𝑥)
(ƒ − 𝑔)(𝑥) = ƒ(𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥)
(ƒ𝑔)(𝑥) = ƒ(𝑥)𝑔(𝑥).
Notice that the + sign on the left-hand side of the first equation represents the operation
of addition of functions, whereas the + on the right-hand side of the equation means
addition of the real numbers ƒ(𝑥)𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑔(𝑥). At any point of 𝐷(𝑓) ∩ 𝐷(𝑔) at which
𝑔(𝑥) ≠ 0, we can also define the function ƒ/𝑔 by the formula
𝑓 𝑓(𝑥)
(𝑥) = , where 𝑔(𝑥) ≠ 0.
𝑔 𝑔(𝑥)
Functions can also be multiplied by constants: If 𝑐 is a real number, then the function
𝑐ƒ is defined for all 𝑥 in the domain of ƒ by
(𝑐ƒ)(𝑥) = 𝑐ƒ(𝑥).
EXAMPLE1: For the functions defined by the formulas
𝑓
𝑓(𝑥) = √𝑥 & 𝑔(𝑥) = √1 − 𝑥 , find the domain for 𝑓 − 𝑔, 𝑔 − 𝑓, 𝑓 + 𝑔, 𝑓. 𝑔 , ,
𝑔
𝑔
.
𝑓
Sol.:
The total domain 𝐷𝑡 can be found as
𝑓 − 𝑔 = √𝑥 − √1 − 𝑥 the domain 𝐷𝑡 = [0,1]
𝑔 − 𝑓 = √1 − 𝑥 − √𝑥 the domain 𝐷𝑡 = [0,1]
𝑓 + 𝑔 = √𝑥 + √1 − 𝑥 the domain 𝐷𝑡 = [0,1]
𝑓. 𝑔 = √𝑥. √1 − 𝑥 the domain 𝐷𝑡 = [0,1]
𝑓 √𝑥
= the domain 𝐷𝑡 = [0,1)
𝑔 √1−𝑥
𝑔 √1−𝑥
= the domain 𝐷𝑡 = (0,1]
𝑓 √𝑥
Fig.3.1
The graph of 𝑓 + 𝑔 & 𝑓. 𝑔 is shown in figure (3.1)
3.2. Shifting a Graph of a Function
A common way to obtain a new function from an existing one is by adding a constant
to each output of the existing function, or to its input variable. The graph of the new
function is the graph of the original function shifted vertically or horizontally, as

1
𝑳𝒆𝒄. 𝑯𝒖𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒆𝒏 𝒀. 𝑹𝒂𝒅𝒉𝒊
𝑴𝒂𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒎𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒔 − 𝑰 𝑳𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝑻𝒉𝒓𝒆𝒆 𝑫𝒆𝒑. 𝒐𝒇 𝑪𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒖𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝑬𝒏𝒈𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒈

follows. Vertical Shifts 𝑦 = ƒ(𝑥) + 𝑘 Shifts the graph of ƒ 𝑢𝑝 𝑘 units if 𝑘 > 0 .Shifts
it down |𝑘| units if 𝑘 < 0.
Horizontal Shifts
𝑦 = ƒ(𝑥 + ℎ) Shifts the graph of ƒ left ℎ units if ℎ > 0
Shifts it right |ℎ| units if ℎ < 0 .
EXAMPLE 2:
(a) Adding 1 to the right-hand side of the formula 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 to get 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 + 1 shifts
the graph up 1 unit (Figure 3.2).
(b) Adding −2 to the right-hand side of the formula 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 to get 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 − 2 shifts
the graph down 2 units (Figure 3.2).
(c) Adding 3 to x in 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 to get 𝑦 = (𝑥 + 3)2 shifts the graph 3 units to the left,
while adding −2 shifts the graph 2 units to the right (Figure 3.3).
(d) Adding −2 to 𝑥 in 𝑦 = |𝑥| , and then adding −1 to the result, gives 𝑦 = |𝑥 − 2| −
1 and shifts the graph 2 units to the right and 1 unit down (Figure 3.4).

Fig.3.2 Fig.3.3 Fig.3.4

3.3. Scaling and Reflecting a Graph of a Function

To scale the graph of a function 𝑦 = ƒ(𝑥) is to stretch or compress it, vertically or
horizontally. This is accomplished by multiplying the function ƒ, or the independent
variable 𝑥, by an appropriate constant 𝑐. Reflections across the coordinate axes are
special cases where 𝑐 = −1. vertical and horizontal scaling and reflecting formulas
For 𝑐 > 1, the graph is scaled:
𝑦 = 𝑐ƒ(𝑥) Stretches the graph of ƒ vertically by a factor of 𝑐.
1
𝑦 = ƒ(𝑥) Compresses the graph of ƒ vertically by a factor of 𝑐.
𝑐
𝑦 = ƒ(𝑐𝑥) Compresses the graph of ƒ horizontally by a factor of 𝑐.
𝑦 = ƒ(𝑥/𝑐) Stretches the graph of ƒ horizontally by a factor of 𝑐.
2
𝑳𝒆𝒄. 𝑯𝒖𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒆𝒏 𝒀. 𝑹𝒂𝒅𝒉𝒊
𝑴𝒂𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒎𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒔 − 𝑰 𝑳𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝑻𝒉𝒓𝒆𝒆 𝑫𝒆𝒑. 𝒐𝒇 𝑪𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒖𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝑬𝒏𝒈𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒈

For 𝑐 = −1, the graph is reflected:

𝑦 = −ƒ(𝑥) Reflects the graph of ƒ across the x-axis.
𝑦 = ƒ(−𝑥) Reflects the graph of ƒ across the y-axis.
EXAMPLE3: Draw the function 𝑦 = √𝑥 and draw the results functions when
Stretches the graph of 𝑦 vertically by a factor of 3. Stretches the graph of 𝑦 horizontally
by a factor of 3. Compresses the graph of 𝑦 vertically by a factor of 3.
Sol.:
The results function is given in figure (3.5 a & b)

a Fig.3.5 b

3.4. Trigonometric Function

The first function we will graph is the sine function. We will describe a geometrical
way to create the graph, using the unit circle. This is the circle of radius 1 in the 𝑥𝑦 −
𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒 consisting of all points (𝑥, 𝑦) which satisfy the equation 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 1. We see
in Figure 3.6 that any
point on the unit circle has coordinates
(𝑥, 𝑦) = (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃, 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃), where 𝜃 is the angle that the
line segment from the origin to (𝑥, 𝑦) makes with
the positive x-axis (by definition of sine and cosine).
So as the point (𝑥, 𝑦) goes around the circle, its y-coordinate
is 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃. Values of 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃, 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃, and 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 for selected values of ( 𝜃 )
is given in table (3.1). Another trigonometric functions which are:
1 1 1
𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝜃 = , csc(𝜃) = , & cot(𝜃) =
cos(𝜃) 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 tan(𝜃) Fig.3.6
Table 3.1

3
𝑳𝒆𝒄. 𝑯𝒖𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒆𝒏 𝒀. 𝑹𝒂𝒅𝒉𝒊
𝑴𝒂𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒎𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒔 − 𝑰 𝑳𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝑻𝒉𝒓𝒆𝒆 𝑫𝒆𝒑. 𝒐𝒇 𝑪𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒖𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝑬𝒏𝒈𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒈

3.5. Graphs of the trigonometric functions are:

1- sin(𝜃), figure (3.7) shows the drawing of
𝑓(𝜃) = sin(𝜃).
2- cos (𝜃), figure (3.8) shows the drawing of
𝑓(𝜃) = cos(𝜃).
3- tan (𝜃), figure (3.9) shows the drawing of
𝑓(𝜃) = tan(𝜃).

Fig.3.7

Fig.3.9 Fig.3.8
4- sec (𝜃), figure (3.10) shows the drawing of
𝑓(𝜃) = sec(𝜃).
5- csc(𝜃), figure (3.11) shows the drawing of
𝑓(𝜃) = csc(𝜃).
6- cot(𝜃), figure (3.12) shows the drawing of
𝑓(𝜃) = cot(𝜃).

Fig.3.12 Fig.3.11 Fig.3.10

4
𝑳𝒆𝒄. 𝑯𝒖𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒆𝒏 𝒀. 𝑹𝒂𝒅𝒉𝒊
𝑴𝒂𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒎𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒔 − 𝑰 𝑳𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝑻𝒉𝒓𝒆𝒆 𝑫𝒆𝒑. 𝒐𝒇 𝑪𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒖𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝑬𝒏𝒈𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒈

EXAMPLE4: Solve the following equation, for values of 𝜽 from 𝟎𝒐 𝒕𝒐 𝟑𝟔𝟎𝒐

inclusive. 𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝜽 = 𝟐 𝑺𝒊𝒏 𝜽
Sol.:
𝑺𝒊𝒏 𝜽
𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝜽 = 𝟐 𝑺𝒊𝒏 𝜽 → = 𝟐 𝑺𝒊𝒏 𝜽 → 𝑺𝒊𝒏 𝜽 = 𝟐𝑺𝒊𝒏 𝜽𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽 →
𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽
𝑺𝒊𝒏 𝜽 − 𝟐𝑺𝒊𝒏 𝜽𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽 = 𝟎 → 𝑺𝒊𝒏 𝜽 (𝟏 − 𝟐𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽) = 𝟎 →
Either 𝑺𝒊𝒏 𝜽 = 𝟎 → 𝜽 = 𝟎𝒐 , 𝟏𝟖𝟎𝒐 , 𝟑𝟔𝟎𝒐
𝟏
Or (𝟏 − 𝟐𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽) = 𝟎 → 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽 = → 𝜽 = 𝟔𝟎𝒐 , 𝟑𝟎𝟎𝒐
𝟐
3.6. properties of trigonometric functions
1- 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐 (𝒙) + 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐 (𝒙) = 𝟏
2- 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝟐 (𝒙) − 𝒕𝒂𝒏𝟐 (𝒙) = 𝟏
3- 𝒄𝒔𝒄𝟐 (𝒙) − 𝒄𝒐𝒕𝟐 (𝒙) = 𝟏
𝝅
4- 𝒔𝒊𝒏 ( − 𝒙) = 𝒄𝒐𝒔(𝒙)
𝟐
𝝅
5- 𝒄𝒐𝒔 ( − 𝒙) = 𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝒙)
𝟐
𝝅
6- 𝒔𝒆𝒄 ( − 𝒙) = 𝒄𝒔𝒄(𝒙)
𝟐
𝝅
7- 𝒄𝒔𝒄 ( − 𝒙) = 𝒔𝒆𝒄(𝒙)
𝟐
𝝅
8- 𝒕𝒂𝒏 ( − 𝒙) = 𝒄𝒐𝒕(𝒙)
𝟐
𝝅
9- 𝒄𝒐𝒕 ( − 𝒙) = 𝒕𝒂𝒏(𝒙)
𝟐
10- 𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝟐𝒙) = 𝟐𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝒙)𝒄𝒐𝒔(𝒙)
11- 𝒄𝒐𝒔(𝟐𝒙) = 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐 (𝒙) − 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐 (𝒙)
𝒕𝒂𝒏(𝒙)
12- 𝒕𝒂𝒏(𝟐𝒙) = 𝟐
𝟏−𝒕𝒂𝒏𝟐 (𝒙)
13- 𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝒙 ± 𝒚) = 𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝒙)𝒄𝒐𝒔(𝒚) ± 𝒄𝒐𝒔(𝒙)𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝒚)
14- 𝒄𝒐𝒔(𝒙 ± 𝒚) = 𝒄𝒐𝒔(𝒙)𝒄𝒐𝒔(𝒚) ∓ 𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝒙)𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝒚
𝒕𝒂𝒏(𝒙)±𝒕𝒂𝒏(𝒚)
15- 𝒕𝒂𝒏(𝒙 ± 𝒚) =
𝟏∓𝒕𝒂𝒏(𝒙)𝒕𝒂𝒏(𝒚)
𝒄𝒐𝒕(𝒙)𝒄𝒐𝒕(𝒚)∓𝟏
16- 𝒄𝒐𝒕(𝒙 ± 𝒚) =
𝒕𝒂𝒏(𝒚)±𝒕𝒂𝒏(𝒙)
𝒆𝒋𝒙 −𝒆−𝒋𝒙
17- 𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝒙) =
𝟐𝒋
𝒆𝒋𝒙 +𝒆−𝒋𝒙
18- 𝒄𝒐𝒔(𝒙) =
𝟐
𝒆𝒋𝒙 −𝒆−𝒋𝒙
19- 𝒕𝒂𝒏(𝒙) = −𝒋
𝒆𝒋𝒙 +𝒆−𝒋𝒙
𝟐
20- 𝒔𝒆𝒄(𝒙) =
𝒆𝒋𝒙 +𝒆−𝒋𝒙

5
𝑳𝒆𝒄. 𝑯𝒖𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒆𝒏 𝒀. 𝑹𝒂𝒅𝒉𝒊
𝑴𝒂𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒎𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒔 − 𝑰 𝑳𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝑻𝒉𝒓𝒆𝒆 𝑫𝒆𝒑. 𝒐𝒇 𝑪𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒖𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝑬𝒏𝒈𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒈

𝟐
21- 𝒄𝒔𝒄(𝒙) =
𝒆𝒋𝒙 −𝒆−𝒋𝒙
𝒆𝒋𝒙 +𝒆−𝒋𝒙
22- 𝒄𝒐𝒕(𝒙) = 𝒋
𝒆𝒋𝒙 −𝒆−𝒋𝒙

1
EXAMPLE5: Simplify 2 2 , when 𝑥 = acsc(𝜽 )
√𝑥 −𝑎
Sol.:
1 1
2 2
= 2 2 2
√𝑥 −𝑎 √𝑎 csc (𝜽)−𝑎
1 1
= = tan(𝜽)
𝑎√cot2 (𝜽) 𝑎
EXAMPLE6: Eliminate 𝜃 from the equations:
𝒊) 𝒙 = 𝒂 𝑺𝒊𝒏𝜽 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒚 = 𝒃 𝒕𝒂𝒏𝜽
𝒊𝒊) 𝒙 = 𝟐 𝑺𝒆𝒄𝜽 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒚 = 𝑪𝒐𝒔𝟐𝜽
Sol.:
𝒊) 𝒙 = 𝒂 𝑺𝒊𝒏𝜽 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒚 = 𝒃 𝒕𝒂𝒏𝜽
𝒙 𝒂
𝒙 = 𝒂 𝑺𝒊𝒏𝜽 → 𝑺𝒊𝒏𝜽 = → 𝒄𝒔𝒄(𝜽) =
𝒂 𝒙
𝒚 𝒃
𝒚 = 𝒃 𝒕𝒂𝒏𝜽 → 𝒕𝒂𝒏𝜽 = → 𝒄𝒐𝒕(𝜽) =
𝒃 𝒚
𝒂𝟐 𝒃𝟐
Since 𝒄𝒔𝒄𝟐 (𝒙) − 𝒄𝒐𝒕𝟐 (𝒙) = 𝟏 → − =𝟏
𝒙𝟐 𝒚𝟐

𝒊𝒊) 𝒙 = 𝟐 𝑺𝒆𝒄𝜽 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒚 = 𝑪𝒐𝒔𝟐𝜽

𝒙 𝟐
𝒙 = 𝟐 𝑺𝒆𝒄𝜽 → 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝜽 = → 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽 =
𝟐 𝒙
𝒚 = 𝑪𝒐𝒔𝟐𝜽 → 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐 (𝒙) − 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐 (𝒙) = 𝒚 →
𝟒 𝒙𝟐 −𝟒
− 𝟐 = 𝒚 → 𝒙𝟐 𝒚 = 𝟖 − 𝒙𝟐
𝒙𝟐 𝒙
EXAMPLE7: If a 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝑝 – 𝑏 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜃 and Fig.3.13
𝑏 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝑞 + 𝑎 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜃 . Show that:
𝒂𝟐 + 𝒃𝟐 = 𝒑𝟐 + 𝒒𝟐 .
Sol.:
𝒑 = 𝒂. 𝑺𝒊𝒏(𝜃 ) + 𝒃. 𝑪𝒐𝒔(𝜃) 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒒 = 𝒃. 𝑺𝒊𝒏 (𝜃) − 𝒂. 𝑪𝒐𝒔(𝜃 )
𝒑𝟐 + 𝒒𝟐 = (𝒂. 𝑺𝒊𝒏(𝜃 ) + 𝒃. 𝑪𝒐𝒔(𝜃) )𝟐 + (𝒃. 𝑺𝒊𝒏(𝜃 ) − 𝒂. 𝑪𝒐𝒔(𝜃)) 𝟐
= 𝒂𝟐 (𝑺𝒊𝒏𝟐 (𝜃 ) + 𝑪𝒐𝒔𝟐 (𝜃)) + 𝒃𝟐 (𝑺𝒊𝒏𝟐 (𝜃 ) + 𝑪𝒐𝒔𝟐 (𝜃) = 𝒂𝟐 + 𝒃𝟐
EXAMPLE8: Find, without using tables, the values of 𝑆𝑖𝑛 2𝜃 and 𝐶𝑜𝑠 2𝜃, when:
𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 3 / 5 .
Sol.:
5
𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 3 / 5 → 3

25 = 9 + 𝑦 2 → 𝑦 2 = 25 − 9 → 𝑦 = 4 →
4
6
𝑳𝒆𝒄. 𝑯𝒖𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒆𝒏 𝒀. 𝑹𝒂𝒅𝒉𝒊 Fig.3.14
𝑴𝒂𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒎𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒔 − 𝑰 𝑳𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝑻𝒉𝒓𝒆𝒆 𝑫𝒆𝒑. 𝒐𝒇 𝑪𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒖𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝑬𝒏𝒈𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒈

cos(𝜃) = 4/5

𝑆𝑖𝑛 2𝜃 = 2 sin(𝜃) cos(𝜃)

3 4 24
= 2 ∗ ∗ → 𝑆𝑖𝑛 2𝜃 =
5 5 25

𝐶𝑜𝑠 2𝜃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 (𝜃) − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 (𝜃)

4 3 7
= ( )2 − ( )2 =
5 5 25

3.7. Inverse of a function:

Inverse of a function 𝑓 exists, if the function is one-one and onto, i.e, bijective.
Since trigonometric functions are many-one over their domains, we restrict their
domains and co-domains in order to make them one-one and onto and then fin their
inverse.
1- 𝑦 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 (𝑥), where −1 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 1
figure3.15 Shows this function with its
domain and range.

Domain: 𝑅 Domain: [−1,1]

𝜋 𝜋
Range: −∞ ≤ 𝑦 ≤ ∞ Range: [− , ]
2 2

Fig.3.15

7
𝑳𝒆𝒄. 𝑯𝒖𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒆𝒏 𝒀. 𝑹𝒂𝒅𝒉𝒊
 𝑴𝒂𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒎𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒔 − 𝑰 𝑳𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝑻𝒉𝒓𝒆𝒆 𝑫𝒆𝒑. 𝒐𝒇 𝑪𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒖𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝑬𝒏𝒈𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒈

2- 𝑦 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 (𝑥), where −1 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 1

figure 3.16 Gives the details of this function.

Domain: 𝑅 Domain: [−1,1]

Range: −∞ ≤ 𝑦 ≤ ∞ Range: [𝑜, 𝜋]

Fig.3.16

3- 𝑦 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 (𝑥), where −∞ < 𝑥 < ∞

Figure 3.17 Gives the details of this function.

Domain: 𝑅
𝜋 3𝜋
Domain: 𝑥 ≠ 0, ∓ , ∓ ,⋯ 𝜋 𝜋
2 2 Range: (− , )
2 2
Range: (−∞, ∞)

Fig.3.17

8
𝑳𝒆𝒄. 𝑯𝒖𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒆𝒏 𝒀. 𝑹𝒂𝒅𝒉𝒊
𝑴𝒂𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒎𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒔 − 𝑰 𝑳𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝑻𝒉𝒓𝒆𝒆 𝑫𝒆𝒑. 𝒐𝒇 𝑪𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒖𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝑬𝒏𝒈𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒈

4- 𝑦 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐 −1 (𝑥), where −∞ < 𝑥 < ∞ − (−1,1)

figure 3.18 Gives the details of this function.

𝜋 3𝜋
Domain: 𝑥 ≠ 0, ∓ 2 , ∓ ,⋯ Domain: 𝑅 − (−1,1)
2
𝜋
Range: (−1 ≥ 𝑦 ≥ 1) Range: [𝑜, 𝜋] − 2

Fig.3.18

5- 𝑦 = 𝑐𝑠𝑐 −1 (𝑥), where −∞ < 𝑥 < ∞ − (−1,1)

Figure 3.19 Shows this function with its
domain and range.

Domain: 𝑥 ≠ 0, ∓𝜋, ∓2𝜋, ⋯ Domain: 𝑅 − (−1,1)

Range: (−1 ≥ 𝑦 ≥ 1) 𝜋 𝜋
Range: ቂ− 2 , − 2 ቃ − {0}
Fig.3.19

9
𝑳𝒆𝒄. 𝑯𝒖𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒆𝒏 𝒀. 𝑹𝒂𝒅𝒉𝒊
𝑴𝒂𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒎𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒔 − 𝑰 𝑳𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝑻𝒉𝒓𝒆𝒆 𝑫𝒆𝒑. 𝒐𝒇 𝑪𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒖𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝑬𝒏𝒈𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒈

6- 𝑦 = 𝑐𝑜𝑡 −1 (𝑥), where −∞ < 𝑥 < ∞

figure3.20 Shows this function with its
domain and range.

Domain: 𝑥 ≠ 0, ∓𝜋, ∓2𝜋, ⋯ Domain: 𝑅

Range: (−∞ < 𝑦 < ∞) Range: (0, 𝜋)

Fig.3.20
3.8. Properties of inverse trigonometric functions:
−𝜋 𝜋
 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 (sin(𝑥)) = 𝑥 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝑥 ∈ ቂ 2 , 2 ቃ
 sin(𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 (𝑥)) = 𝑥 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑥 ∈ [−1,1]
 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 (cos(𝑥)) = 𝑥 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑥 ∈ [0, 𝜋]
 cos(𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 (𝑥)) = 𝑥 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑥 ∈ [−1,1]
−𝜋 𝜋
 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 (tan(𝑥)) = 𝑥 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝑥 ∈ ( , )
2 2
 𝑡𝑎𝑛(𝑡𝑎𝑛 −1 (𝑥))
= 𝑥 wℎ𝑒𝑟 𝑥 ∈ 𝑅
 𝑐𝑜𝑡 −1 (cot(𝑥)) = 𝑥 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑥 ∈ (0, 𝜋)
 𝑐𝑜𝑡(𝑐𝑜𝑡 −1 (𝑥 )) = 𝑥 wℎ𝑒𝑟 𝑥 ∈ 𝑅
𝜋
 𝑠𝑒𝑐 −1 (sec(𝑥)) = 𝑥 wℎ𝑒𝑟 𝑥 ∈ [0, 𝜋] − { }
2
 sec(𝑠𝑒𝑐 −1 (𝑥))
= 𝑥 wℎ𝑒𝑟 𝑥 ∈ 𝑅 − (−1,1)
−𝜋 𝜋
 𝑐𝑠𝑐 −1 (csc(𝑥)) = 𝑥 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝑥 ∈ ቂ 2 , 2 ቃ − {0}
 csc(𝑐𝑠𝑐 −1 (𝑥)) = 𝑥 wℎ𝑒𝑟 𝑥 ∈ 𝑅 − (−1,1)
1
 sin−1 (𝑥) = 𝑐𝑠𝑐 −1 (𝑥) wℎ𝑒𝑟 𝑥 ∈ 𝑅 − (−1,1)
1
 cos−1 (𝑥) = 𝑠𝑒𝑐 −1 (𝑥) wℎ𝑒𝑟 𝑥 ∈ 𝑅 − (−1,1)
1 𝑐𝑜𝑡 −1 (𝑥) 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑥 > 0
 ta𝑛−1 (𝑥) = [ −1 (𝑥) ]
−𝜋 + 𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑥 < 0
 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 (−𝑥) = −𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 (𝑥) 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑥 ∈ [−1,1]
10
𝑳𝒆𝒄. 𝑯𝒖𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒆𝒏 𝒀. 𝑹𝒂𝒅𝒉𝒊
 𝑴𝒂𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒎𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒔 − 𝑰 𝑳𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝑻𝒉𝒓𝒆𝒆 𝑫𝒆𝒑. 𝒐𝒇 𝑪𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒖𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝑬𝒏𝒈𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒈

 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 (−𝑥) = 𝜋 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 (𝑥) 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑥 ∈ [−1,1]

 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 (−𝑥) = −𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 (𝑥) 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑥 ∈ 𝑅
 𝑐𝑜𝑡 −1 (−𝑥) = 𝜋 − 𝑐𝑜𝑡 −1 (𝑥) 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑥 ∈ 𝑅
 𝑠𝑒𝑐 −1 (−𝑥) = 𝜋 − 𝑠𝑒𝑐 −1 (𝑥) wℎ𝑒𝑟 𝑥 ∈ 𝑅 − (−1,1)
 𝑐𝑠𝑐 −1 (−𝑥) = −𝑐𝑠𝑐 −1 (𝑥) wℎ𝑒𝑟 𝑥 ∈ 𝑅 − (−1,1)
𝜋
 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 (𝑥) + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 (𝑥) = 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑥 ∈ [−1,1]
2
𝜋
 𝑡𝑎𝑛 −1 (𝑥)
+ 𝑐𝑜𝑡 −1 (𝑥)
=
2
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑥 ∈ 𝑅
𝜋
 𝑠𝑒𝑐 −1 (𝑥) + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 (𝑥) = 2 wℎ𝑒𝑟 𝑥 ∈ 𝑅 − (−1,1)
𝑥+𝑦
 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 (𝑥) + 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 (𝑦) = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 (1−𝑥𝑦) : 𝑥𝑦 < 1
𝑥−𝑦
 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 (𝑥) − 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 (𝑦) = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 (1+𝑥𝑦) : 𝑥𝑦 > −1
2𝑥
 2𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 (𝑥) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 (1+𝑥2 ) : − 1 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 1
1−𝑥 2
 2𝑐𝑜𝑡 −1 (𝑥) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 (1+𝑥2) : 𝑥 ≥ 1
2𝑥
 2𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 (𝑥) = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 (1−𝑥2) : − 1 < 𝑥 < 1
EXAMPLE9: Find 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 (√3) − 𝑠𝑒𝑐 −1 (−2)
Sol.:
𝜋
𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 (√3) − 𝑠𝑒𝑐 −1 (−2) = − (𝜋 − 𝑠𝑒𝑐 −1 (2))
3
𝜋 1
= −𝜋 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 ( )
3 2
−2𝜋 𝜋 −𝜋
= + =
3 3 3
1 4
EXAMPLE10: Find cos(𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 ( ) + 𝑠𝑒𝑐 −1 ( ))
4 3
Sol.:
1 4 1 3
cos(𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 ( ) + 𝑠𝑒𝑐 −1 ( )) = cos(𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 ( ) + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 ( ))
4 3 4 4
1 3 1 3
= cos(𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 ( )) cos( 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 ( )) − sin(𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 ( )) + sin( 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 ( ))
4 4 4 4
3 1 1 3
= √1 − ( )2 − √1 − ( )2
4 4 4 4
3 √15 1 √7
= −
4 4 4 4
3√15−√7
=
16

11
𝑳𝒆𝒄. 𝑯𝒖𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒆𝒏 𝒀. 𝑹𝒂𝒅𝒉𝒊
 𝑴𝒂𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒎𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒔 − 𝑰 𝑳𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝑻𝒉𝒓𝒆𝒆 𝑫𝒆𝒑. 𝒐𝒇 𝑪𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒖𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝑬𝒏𝒈𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒈

3 17 𝜋
EXAMPLE11: Prove that 2𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 ( ) − 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( ) =
5 31 4
Sol.:
3 3 −𝜋 𝜋
Let 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 ( ) = θ, then sin(𝜃) = where 𝜃 ∈ ቂ , ቃ
5 5 2 2
3 3
Thus tan(𝜃) = , which gives 𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( )
4 4
3 17 17
2𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 ( ) − 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( ) = 2θ − 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( )
5 31 31
3 17
= 2𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( ) − 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( )
4 31
2∗3
−1 17
= 𝑡𝑎𝑛 ( 4
9 ) − 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 (31)
1−
16
24 17
− 𝜋
= 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( 7 31
24 17 )=
1+ 4
7 31
1−𝑥 1
EXAMPLE12: Solve for (𝑥), 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( ) = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 (𝑥), 𝑥 > 0
1+𝑥 2
Sol.:
1−𝑥
2𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( ) = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 (𝑥) →
1+𝑥
−1 (1)
2[𝑡𝑎𝑛 − 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 (𝑥)] = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 (𝑥) →
𝜋 𝜋 1
2 ∗ = 3𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 (𝑥) → = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 (𝑥) → 𝑥 =
4 6 √3
EXAMPLE13: Find the values of 𝑥 which satisfy the equation
𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 (𝑥) + 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 (1 − 𝑥) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 (𝑥)
Sol.: From the given equation, we have
sin(𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 (𝑥) + 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 (1 − 𝑥)) = sin(𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 (𝑥))
sin(𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 (x)) cos( 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 (1 − 𝑥)) + cos(𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 (x)) sin( 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 (1 − 𝑥)) =
sin(𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 (𝑥))
𝑥√1 − (1 − 𝑥)2 + (1 − 𝑥)√1 − (𝑥)2 = √1 − 𝑥 2
𝑥√2𝑥 − (𝑥)2 + (1 − 𝑥 − 1)√1 − (𝑥)2 = 0
𝑥√2𝑥 − (𝑥)2 − √1 − (𝑥)2 = 0
𝑒𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝑥 = 0
→ 𝑥 = 0 𝑜𝑟 2𝑥 − (𝑥)2 = 1 − (𝑥)2 { 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = 1 }
2
𝛼 𝜋 𝛽 sin𝛼𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽
Example 14: Show that 2𝑡𝑎𝑛 [𝑡𝑎𝑛 ( ) 𝑡𝑎𝑛 ( − )] = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 (
−1
)
2 4 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼+𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽
Sol.:
𝛼 𝜋 𝛽
𝛼 𝜋 𝛽 2𝑡𝑎𝑛( )𝑡𝑎𝑛( − )
−1 −1 2 4 2
2𝑡𝑎𝑛 ቂ𝑡𝑎𝑛 ( ) 𝑡𝑎𝑛 ( − )ቃ = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 { 𝛼 𝜋 𝛽 }
2 4 2 2 2
1−𝑡𝑎𝑛 ( )𝑡𝑎𝑛 ( − )
2 4 2
2𝑥
since 2𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1
1−𝑥 2

12
𝑳𝒆𝒄. 𝑯𝒖𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒆𝒏 𝒀. 𝑹𝒂𝒅𝒉𝒊
 𝑴𝒂𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒎𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒔 − 𝑰 𝑳𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝑻𝒉𝒓𝒆𝒆 𝑫𝒆𝒑. 𝒐𝒇 𝑪𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒖𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝑬𝒏𝒈𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒈

𝛽
𝛼 1−𝑡𝑎𝑛
2𝑡𝑎𝑛( )( 2
2 𝛽)
1+𝑡𝑎𝑛
= 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 { 2
𝛽 }
2 𝛼 1−𝑡𝑎𝑛 2 2
1−𝑡𝑎𝑛 ( ){ }
2 1+𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛽
2
𝛼 𝛽
2𝑡𝑎𝑛( )(1−𝑡𝑎𝑛2 )
= 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 { 𝛽 2
2
𝛼
2
𝛽 }
(1+𝑡𝑎𝑛 ) −𝑡𝑎𝑛 ( )(1−𝑡𝑎𝑛 )2
2
2 2 2

𝛼 𝛽
2𝑡𝑎𝑛( )(1−𝑡𝑎𝑛2 )
−1 2 2
= 𝑡𝑎𝑛 { 𝛽 𝛼 𝛽 𝛼 }
(1+𝑡𝑎𝑛 ( )𝑡𝑎𝑛 ( )+2𝑡𝑎𝑛 (1+𝑡𝑎𝑛2 ( ))
2 2
2 2 2 2

𝛼 𝛽
2𝑡𝑎𝑛( )
2 1−𝑡𝑎𝑛2
2
𝛼 2𝛽
1+𝑡𝑎𝑛2 ( ) 1+𝑡𝑎𝑛
2
= 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 { 2 𝛼 𝛽 }
2
1−𝑡𝑎𝑛 ( ) 2𝑡𝑎𝑛 2
2
𝛼 +
1+𝑡𝑎𝑛 ( ) 1+𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝛽
2
2 2
sin(𝛼) cos(𝛽)
= 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( )
cos(𝛽)+sin(𝛼)
3.9. Exponential and Logarithm functions:
Exponential functions: If a is a positive number and 𝑥 is any number, we define the
exponential function as: 𝑦 = 𝑎 𝑥 with
domain : −∞ < 𝑥 < ∞
Range: 𝑦 > 0
The properties of the exponential functions are:
1- If 𝑎 > 0 ↔ 𝑎𝑥 > 0
2- 𝑎 𝑥 ∗𝑎 𝑦 =𝑎 𝑥+𝑦
3- 𝑎 𝑥 /𝑎 𝑦 =𝑎 𝑥−𝑦
4- (𝑎𝑏)𝑥 = 𝑎 𝑥 𝑏 𝑥
5- (𝑎 𝑥 )𝑦 = 𝑎 𝑥𝑦
𝑦
6- 𝑎 𝑥/𝑦 = √𝑎 𝑥
1
7- 𝑎−𝑥 = 𝑥 & 𝑎 𝑥 = 1/𝑎−𝑥
𝑎
8- 𝑎 𝑥 = 𝑎 𝑦 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑦
9- 𝑎0 = ∞
10- 𝑎∞ = ∞ & 𝑎−∞ = 0 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑎 > 1 Fig.3.21
∞ −∞
11- 𝑎 = 0 & 𝑎 = ∞ 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑎 < 1
The graph of the exponential function 𝑦= 𝑎 𝑥 is:
Special case of this function, the exponential function of the natural constant (𝑒), in this
case 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑥 . Which can be defined as a series.
𝑥𝑛 𝑥2 𝑥3 𝑥4 𝑥
𝑒 𝑥 = ∑∞
𝑛=0 =1+𝑥+ + + + ⋯ 𝑜𝑟 𝑒 𝑥 = lim (1 + )𝑛
𝑛! 2! 3! 4! 𝑛→∞ 𝑛
0 1
𝑒 = 1 & 𝑒 = 2.71828183.
13
𝑳𝒆𝒄. 𝑯𝒖𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒆𝒏 𝒀. 𝑹𝒂𝒅𝒉𝒊
 𝑴𝒂𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒎𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒔 − 𝑰 𝑳𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝑻𝒉𝒓𝒆𝒆 𝑫𝒆𝒑. 𝒐𝒇 𝑪𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒖𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝑬𝒏𝒈𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒈

3.10. Logarithm function:

If a is any positive number other than (1) then the logarithm of 𝑥 to the base a
denoted by :
𝑦 = log 𝑎 𝑥 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑥 > 0
At 𝑎 = 𝑒 = 2.7182828…, we get the natural logarithm and denoted by :
𝑦 = 𝑙𝑛 𝑥 , 𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑥 , 𝑦 > 0 then the properties of logarithm functions are:
1- If 𝑦 = 𝑎 𝑥 ↔ 𝑥 = log 𝑎 𝑦 & 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑥 ↔ 𝑥 = ln(𝑦)
2- log 𝑒 𝑥 = 𝑙𝑛(𝑥)
3- log 𝑎 𝑥 = ln(𝑥)/ln(𝑎)
4- 𝑙𝑛(𝑥. 𝑦) = 𝑙𝑛(𝑥). 𝑙𝑛(𝑦)
5- 𝑙𝑛(𝑥/𝑦) = 𝑙𝑛(𝑥) − 𝑙𝑛(𝑦)
6- 𝑙𝑛(𝑥 𝑛 ) = 𝑛𝑙𝑛(𝑥)
7- ln(𝑒) = 1, log 𝑎 𝑎 & ln(1) = log 𝑎 1 = 0
𝑦
8- 𝑎 𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑥𝑙𝑛(𝑎) √𝑎 𝑥
9- 𝑒 ln(𝑥) = 𝑥
The graph of the functions 𝑦 = 𝑒𝑥 & 𝑦 = 𝑙𝑛 𝑥 is:

Fig.3.22

3.11. Application of exponential and logarithm functions:

We take Newton's law of cooling:
𝑇 – 𝑇𝑆 = ( 𝑇0 – 𝑇𝑆 ) 𝑒 𝑥
where 𝑇 is the temperature of the object at time 𝑡. 𝑇𝑆 is the surrounding temperature.
𝑇0 is the initial temperature of the object. 𝑘 is a constant.

14
𝑳𝒆𝒄. 𝑯𝒖𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒆𝒏 𝒀. 𝑹𝒂𝒅𝒉𝒊
𝑴𝒂𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒎𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒔 − 𝑰 𝑳𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝑻𝒉𝒓𝒆𝒆 𝑫𝒆𝒑. 𝒐𝒇 𝑪𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒖𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝑬𝒏𝒈𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒈

EXAMPLE 15: The temperature of an ingot of metal is 800 and the room temperature
is 200 𝐶 . After twenty minutes, it was 700 𝐶
a) What is the temperature will the metal be after 30 minutes?
b) What is the temperature will the metal be after two hours?
c) When will the metal be 300 𝐶
Sol.:
𝑇 – 𝑇𝑆 = (𝑇0 – 𝑇𝑆 )𝑒𝑡𝑘 → 60 = 50𝑒20𝑘 →
ln(5)−ln(6)
𝑘=
20
a) 𝑇 – 20 = 60𝑒30∗(−0.0091 ) → 60 ∗ 0.671 = 45.6 𝑜𝐶 → 𝑇 = 65.6 𝑜𝐶
b) 𝑇 – 𝑇𝑆 = 60𝑒120∗(−0.0091 ) → 60 ∗ 0.335 = 20.1 𝑜𝐶 → 𝑇 = 40.1 𝑜𝐶
c) 10 = 60𝑒(−0.0091 )t → (−0.0091 )t = − ln(6) → 𝑡 = 3.3ℎ𝑟𝑠
EXAMPLE16: Write 5𝑙𝑜𝑔2(−3𝑥) + 3𝑙𝑜𝑔2(5𝑦) as a single logarithm.
Sol.:
5𝑙𝑜𝑔2(−3𝑥) + 3𝑙𝑜𝑔2(5𝑦) = 𝑙𝑜𝑔2(−3𝑥)5 + 𝑙𝑜𝑔2(5𝑦)3
= 𝑙𝑜𝑔2(−243)𝑥5 + 𝑙𝑜𝑔2125𝑦3
= 𝑙𝑜𝑔2(−30375)𝑥5𝑦3
EXAMPLE17: Expand 𝑙𝑛(2𝑥3𝑦3𝑤𝑧5) into the sum and/or difference of multiple
logarithms.
Sol.:
𝑙𝑛(2𝑥3𝑦3/𝑤𝑧5) = ln(2𝑥3𝑦3) − ln(𝑤𝑧5)
= ln(2) +ln(𝑥3) + ln(𝑦3) − ln(𝑤) − ln(𝑧5)
= ln(2) +3ln(𝑥) + 3ln(𝑦) − ln(𝑤) − 5ln(𝑧)
EXAMPLE18: Solve 53𝑥−1 − 2 = 0
Sol.:
53𝑥−1 − 2 = 0
53𝑥−1 = 2 → 𝑙𝑜𝑔553𝑥−1 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔52 → (3𝑥 − 1) 𝑙𝑜𝑔55 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔52 →

log5 2+1
(3x − 1) (1) = log 2 → 𝑥 =
5 3

EXAMPLE19: Solve 42𝑦+1 = 22𝑦−1

Sol.:
42𝑦+1 = 22𝑦−1 → 22(2𝑦+1) = 22𝑦−1 → 2(2𝑦 + 1) = 2𝑦 − 1 →
4𝑦 + 2 − 2𝑦 + 1 = 0 → 2𝑦 = −3 → 𝑦 = −3/2
EXAMPLE20: Solve 𝑙𝑜𝑔5(2𝑥 + 3) = 2 for 𝑥.
Sol.:
𝑙𝑜𝑔5(2𝑥 + 3) = 2
2𝑥 + 3 = 25 → 2𝑥 = 25 − 3 → 𝑥 = 11

15
𝑳𝒆𝒄. 𝑯𝒖𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒆𝒏 𝒀. 𝑹𝒂𝒅𝒉𝒊
 𝑴𝒂𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒎𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒔 − 𝑰 𝑳𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝑻𝒉𝒓𝒆𝒆 𝑫𝒆𝒑. 𝒐𝒇 𝑪𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒖𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝑬𝒏𝒈𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒈

1
EXAMPLE21: Find the value of 𝑥, ( )−3𝑥−2 = 36𝑥+1
6
Sol.:
1
( )−3𝑥−2 = 36𝑥+1 → 6−(−3𝑥−2) = 6(2𝑥+1) → −(−3𝑥 − 2) = (2𝑥 + 1) →
6
(3𝑥 + 2) = (2𝑥 + 2) → 𝑥 = 0
3.12. Limits and continuity:
The limit of 𝐹( 𝑡 ) as 𝑡 approaches 𝐶 is the number 𝐿 if : Given any radius 𝜀 > 0
about 𝐿 there exists a radius 𝛿 > 0 about 𝐶 such that for all 𝑡 , 0 < |𝑡 − 𝐶| < δ
implies |𝐹( 𝑡 ) − 𝐿| < 𝜀 and we can write it as: The lim 𝐹(𝑡) = 𝐿 limit of a
𝑡→𝐶
function 𝐹( 𝑡 ) as 𝑡 → 𝐶 never depend on what happens when 𝑡 = 𝐶 .
Right hand limit:
lim 𝐹(𝑡) = 𝐿
𝑡→𝐶+
The limit of the function 𝐹( 𝑡 ) as 𝑡 → 𝐶 from the right equals 𝐿 if : Given any 𝜀 >
0 ( radius about 𝐿 ) there exists a 𝛿 > 0 ( radius to the right of 𝐶 ) such that for all
𝑡 ∶ 𝐶 < 𝑡 < 𝛿 + 𝐶 → |𝐹( 𝑡 ) − 𝐿| < 𝜀
Left hand limit:
lim 𝐹(𝑡) = 𝐿
𝑡→𝐶−
The limit of the function 𝐹( 𝑡 ) 𝑎𝑠 𝑡 → 𝐶 from the left equal 𝐿 if : Given any 𝜀 > 0
there exists a 𝛿 > 0 such that for all 𝑡 ∶ 𝐶 − 𝛿 < 𝑡 < 𝐶 → |𝐹( 𝑡 ) − 𝐿| < 𝜀
Note that – A function 𝐹( 𝑡 ) has a limit at point 𝐶 if and only if the right hand and the
left hand limits at 𝐶 exist and equal. In symbols:
lim 𝐹(𝑡) = 𝐿 = lim 𝐹(𝑡) = 𝐿 = lim 𝐹(𝑡) = 𝐿
𝑡→𝐶 𝑡→𝐶+ 𝑡→𝐶−
Limit Laws
A few basic rules allow us to break down complicated functions into simple ones
when calculating limits. By using these laws, we can greatly simplify many limit
computations. If 𝐿, 𝑀, 𝑐, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑘 are real numbers and lim 𝐹(𝑥) = 𝐿 & lim 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑀
𝑥→𝐶 𝑥→𝐶
then:

 Sum Rule: lim 𝐹(𝑥) + lim 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝐿 + 𝑀

𝑥→𝐶 𝑥→𝐶
 Difference Rule: lim 𝐹(𝑥) − lim 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝐿 − 𝑀
𝑥→𝐶 𝑥→𝐶
 Constant Multiple Rule lim 𝐾. 𝐹(𝑥) = 𝐾. 𝐿
𝑥→𝐶
 Product Rule: lim 𝐹(𝑥)𝑔(𝑥) = 𝐿𝑀
𝑥→𝐶
𝐹(𝑥) 𝐿
 Quotient Rule: lim = ,𝑀 ≠ 0
𝑥→𝐶 𝑔(𝑥) 𝑀
𝑛 (𝑥)
 Power Rule lim 𝐹 = 𝐿𝑛 , 𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟
𝑥→𝐶
𝑛 𝑛
 Root Rule lim √𝐹(𝑥) = √𝐿 , 𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟
𝑥→𝐶

16
𝑳𝒆𝒄. 𝑯𝒖𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒆𝒏 𝒀. 𝑹𝒂𝒅𝒉𝒊
𝑴𝒂𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒎𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒔 − 𝑰 𝑳𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝑻𝒉𝒓𝒆𝒆 𝑫𝒆𝒑. 𝒐𝒇 𝑪𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒖𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝑬𝒏𝒈𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒈

sin(𝑥)
 lim =1
𝑥→0 𝑥
tan(𝑥)
 lim =1
𝑥→0 𝑥
1−cos(𝑥)
 lim =0
𝑥→0 𝑥
(If 𝑛 is even, we assume that ƒ(𝑥) ≥ 0 for 𝑥 in an interval containing 𝑐.)
 The limit of the function 𝑓( 𝑥 ) as 𝑥 approaches infinity is the number 𝐿:
lim 𝐹(𝑥) = 𝐿 .If, given any 𝜀 > 0 there exists a number 𝑀 such that for all 𝑥 ∶
𝑥→∞
𝑀 < 𝑥 → |𝑓 ( 𝑥 ) − 𝐿 | < 𝜀.
 The limit of 𝑓( 𝑥 ) as 𝑥 approaches negative infinity is the number 𝐿 :
lim 𝐹(𝑥) = 𝐿 . If, given any 𝜀 > 0 there exists a number 𝑁 such that for all 𝑥 ∶ 𝑥
𝑥→∞−
𝑥: 𝑥 < 𝑁 → |𝑓(𝑥) − 𝐿| < 𝜖
1. As 𝑥 approaches 0 from the right , 1/𝑥 tends to ∞.
2. As 𝑥 approaches 0 from the left , 1/𝑥 tends to −∞ .
3. As 𝑥 tends to ∞ , 1/𝑥 approaches 0.
4. As 𝑥 tends to −∞ , 1/𝑥 approaches 0

1
 lim (1 + )𝑥 = 𝑒
𝑥→∞ 𝑥

𝑒 𝑥 −1
 lim =1
𝑥→0 𝑥

𝑥−1
 lim =1
𝑥→1 ln(𝑥)
Sandwich Theorem
Suppose that 𝑔(𝑥) ≤ ƒ(𝑥) ≤ ℎ(𝑥) for all 𝑥 in some open interval containing 𝑐,
except possibly at 𝑥 = 𝑐 itself. Suppose also that lim 𝐹(𝑥) =lim 𝑔(𝑥) =
𝑥→𝐶 𝑥→𝐶
𝐿=lim ℎ(𝑥) = 𝐿
𝑥→𝐶
Continuous function:
A function is continuous if it is continuous at each point of its domain, while If a
function 𝑓 is not continuous at a point 𝐶 , we say that f is discontinuous at 𝐶 , and call
𝐶 a point of discontinuity of 𝑓 . The continuity test: The function 𝑦 = 𝑓 ( 𝑥 ) is
continuous at 𝑥 = 𝐶 if and only if all three of the following statements are true :
 𝑓 ( 𝐶 ) exist ( 𝐶 is in the domain of 𝑓 ) .
 lim 𝐹(𝑥) exists ( 𝑓 has a limit as 𝑥 → 𝐶 ) .
𝑥→𝐶
 lim 𝐹(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑐)( the limit equals the function value)
𝑥→𝐶
If the function 𝑓 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑔 are continuous at 𝑥 = 𝐶 , then all of the following combinations
are continuous at 𝑥 = 𝐶 :
17
𝑳𝒆𝒄. 𝑯𝒖𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒆𝒏 𝒀. 𝑹𝒂𝒅𝒉𝒊
𝑴𝒂𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒎𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒔 − 𝑰 𝑳𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝑻𝒉𝒓𝒆𝒆 𝑫𝒆𝒑. 𝒐𝒇 𝑪𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒖𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝑬𝒏𝒈𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒈

[1−) 𝑓 ∓ 𝑔 , 2−) 𝑓. 𝑔, 3−)𝑘. 𝑔, 4−)𝑓𝑜𝑔, 𝑔𝑜𝑓, 5−) 𝑓/g], provided 𝑔(𝐶 ) ≠ 0.

A function is continuous at every point at which it has a derivative. That is, if 𝑦 =
𝑓 ( 𝑥 ) has a derivative 𝑓 ′ ( 𝐶 ) at 𝑥 = 𝐶 , then f is continuous at 𝑥 = 𝐶.
EXAMPLE 22: Find the following limits
sin(2𝑥)
 lim 2
𝑥→0 2𝑥 +𝑥
 lim cot(𝑥)
𝑥→0
cos(𝑥)−1
 lim
𝑥→0 𝑥
tan(x)sec(2𝑥) sin(x)
 lim = lim =
𝑥→0 𝑥 𝑥→0 3𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑥)
Sol.:

sin(2𝑥) sin(2𝑥) sin(2𝑥)

 lim → lim = lim
𝑥→0 2𝑥 2 +𝑥 𝑥→0 2𝑥 2 +𝑥 𝑥→0 𝑥(2𝑥+1)
sin(2𝑥) 1
= 2lim ∗ lim (2𝑥+1) = 2 ∗ 1 ∗ 1 = 2
𝑥→0 2𝑥 𝑥→0
cos(𝑥) cos(𝑥) −sin(𝑥)
 lim cot(𝑥) = lim (apply Hospital’s rule) → lim = lim =0
𝑥→0 𝑥→0 sin(𝑥) 𝑥→0 sin(𝑥) 𝑥→0 cos(𝑥)
cos(𝑥)−1 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥
 lim (cos(𝑥) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 ( ) − sin2 ( ) & 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 ( ) = 1 − 2 sin2 ( ))
𝑥→0 𝑥 2 2 2 2
𝑥 𝑥
cos(𝑥)−1 1−2 sin2 ( )−1 −2 sin2 ( )
2 2
lim = lim = lim
𝑥→0 𝑥 𝑥→0 𝑥 𝑥→0 𝑥
𝑥
− sin( ) 𝑥
2
lim sin ( ) = −1 ∗ 0
𝑥→0 𝑥/2 2
tan(x)sec(2𝑥) sin(x)
 lim = lim
𝑥→0 𝑥 𝑥→0 3𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑥)𝑐𝑜𝑠(2𝑥)

1 sin(x) 1 1
= lim lim lim
3 𝑥→0 𝑥 𝑥→0 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑥) 𝑥→0 𝑐𝑜𝑠(2𝑥)
1
= ∗1∗1∗
3
1
1=
3
EXAMPLE 23: Test continuity for the following function:

𝑥 2 − 1 −1 ≤ 𝑥 < 0
2𝑥 0 ≤ 𝑥 < 1
𝑓(𝑥) = 1 𝑥=1
−2𝑥 + 4 1 < 𝑥 ≤ 2
{ 0 2<𝑥≤3 }
Sol.:
We test the continuity at midpoints 𝑥 = 0 , 1 , 2 and endpoints 𝑥 = −1 , 3 .
𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = 0 → 𝑓(0) = 2 ∗ 0
18
𝑳𝒆𝒄. 𝑯𝒖𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒆𝒏 𝒀. 𝑹𝒂𝒅𝒉𝒊
𝑴𝒂𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒎𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒔 − 𝑰 𝑳𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝑻𝒉𝒓𝒆𝒆 𝑫𝒆𝒑. 𝒐𝒇 𝑪𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒖𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝑬𝒏𝒈𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒈

lim 𝐹(𝑥)=lim 𝑥 2 − 1 = −1
𝑥→0− 𝑥→0
lim 𝐹(𝑥)=lim 2𝑥 = 0
𝑥→0+ 𝑥→0
Since lim 𝐹(𝑥) ≠ lim 𝐹(𝑥), hence the function discontinuous 𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = 0
𝑥→0− 𝑥→0+
𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = 1 → 𝑓(1) = 1
lim 𝐹(𝑥)=lim 2𝑥 = 2
𝑥→1− 𝑥→1
lim 𝐹(𝑥)=lim −2𝑥 + 4 = 2
𝑥→1+ 𝑥→1
Since 𝑓(𝑥) ≠ lim 𝐹(𝑥) = lim 𝐹(𝑥), hence the function discontinuous 𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = 1
𝑥→1− 𝑥→1+
𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = 2 → 𝑓(2) = −2 ∗ 2 + 4 = 0
lim 𝐹(𝑥)=lim −2𝑥 + 4 = 0
𝑥→2− 𝑥→2
lim 𝐹(𝑥)=lim 0 = 0
𝑥→2+ 𝑥→2
Since 𝑓(𝑥) = lim 𝐹(𝑥) = lim 𝐹(𝑥), hence the function continuous 𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = 2
𝑥→2− 𝑥→2+
2
𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = −1 → 𝑓(2) = (−1) − 1 = 0
lim 𝐹(𝑥)= lim 𝑥 2 − 1 = 0 = lim 𝐹(𝑥) = 𝑓(−1)
𝑥→−1− 𝑥→−1 𝑥→−1+
Since 𝑓(𝑥) = lim 𝐹(𝑥) = lim 𝐹(𝑥), hence the function continuous 𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = −1
𝑥→−1− 𝑥→−1+
𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = 3 → 𝑓(3) = 0
lim 𝐹(𝑥)= lim 𝐹(𝑥) = 0 = 𝑓(𝑥) Since 𝑓(𝑥) = lim 𝐹(𝑥) = lim 𝐹(𝑥), hence the
𝑥→3− 𝑥→3+ 𝑥→3− 𝑥→3+
function continuous 𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = 3

EXAMPLE 24: What value should be assigned to a to make the function:

2
𝑓(𝑥) = { 𝑥 − 1 𝑥 < 3} continuous at 𝑥 = 3.
2𝑎𝑥 𝑥>3
Sol.:
8 4
lim 𝐹(𝑥)= lim 𝐹(𝑥) → lim 𝑥 2 − 1 = lim 2𝑎𝑥 → 8 = 6𝑎 → 𝑎 = → 𝑎 =
𝑥→3− 𝑥→3+ 𝑥→3 𝑥→3 6 3

x−3
EXAMPLE 25: Solve lim 𝑥𝑙𝑛( )
𝑥→∞ 𝑥
Sol.:
x−3 3
lim 𝑥𝑙𝑛( ) = lim 𝑥𝑙𝑛( 1 − )
𝑥→∞ 𝑥 𝑥→∞ 𝑥
−3 −3
Let 𝑡 = →𝑥= then as 𝑥 → ∞ ,
𝑥 𝑡
3 −3
𝑡 → 0 → lim 𝑥𝑙𝑛( 1 − ) = lim 𝑙𝑛( 1 − 𝑡)
𝑥→∞ 𝑥 𝑥→0 𝑡
ln(1−𝑡)
= −3 lim {𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑦 ′𝐻𝑜𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑙′𝑠 𝑟𝑢𝑙𝑒}
𝑡→0 𝑡
→
ln(1−𝑡)
−3lim = −3
𝑡→0 𝑡

19
𝑳𝒆𝒄. 𝑯𝒖𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒆𝒏 𝒀. 𝑹𝒂𝒅𝒉𝒊
 𝑴𝒂𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒎𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒔 − 𝑰 𝑳𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝑻𝒉𝒓𝒆𝒆 𝑫𝒆𝒑. 𝒐𝒇 𝑪𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒖𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝑬𝒏𝒈𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒈

4𝑥 3 +3𝑥 2 +𝑥−3
EXAMPLE 26: Solve lim
𝑥→∞ 3𝑥 3 −𝑥
Sol.:
3 1 3
4𝑥 3 +3𝑥 2 +𝑥−3 𝑥 3 (4+ + 2 − 3 )
𝑥 𝑥
lim = lim 𝑥
1 →
𝑥→∞ 3𝑥 3 −𝑥 𝑥→∞ 𝑥 3 (3− 2 )
𝑥
3 1 3
(4+ + 2 − 3 ) (4+0+0−0) 4
𝑥 𝑥
lim 1
𝑥
= =
𝑥→∞ (3− 2 ) (3−0) 3
𝑥
2𝑥 5 +𝑥+5
EXAMPLE 27: Solve lim
𝑥→∞ 3𝑥 3 −𝑥
Sol.:
1 5
2𝑥 5 +𝑥+5 𝑥 5 (2+ 4 + 5 )
lim = lim 5 3𝑥 1𝑥
𝑥→0 3𝑥 3 −𝑥 𝑥→∞ 𝑥 ( 2 − 4 )
𝑥 𝑥
(2+0−0)
= =∞
(0−0)
2𝑥 3 +1
EXAMPLE 28: Solve lim
𝑥→∞ 𝑥 2 −𝑥+5
Sol.:
1 1
𝑥 3 (2+ 3 ) (2+ 3 )
lim 𝑥
1 5 = lim 𝑥
1 5 =2
𝑥→∞ 𝑥 3 (1−𝑥+ 2 ) 𝑥→∞ (1−𝑥+ 2 )
𝑥 𝑥
√4+𝑥−2
EXAMPLE 29: Solve lim
𝑥→0 𝑥
Sol.:

√4+𝑥−2 √4+𝑥−2 √4+𝑥+2

lim = ∗
𝑥→0 𝑥 𝑥 √4+𝑥+2
4+𝑥−4
= lim
𝑥→0 𝑥√4+𝑥+2
𝑥
= lim
𝑥→0 𝑥√4+𝑥+2
1
= lim
𝑥→0 √4+𝑥+2
1 1
= =
√4+0+2 4

sin(𝑥)
EXAMPLE 30: Solve lim
𝑥→0 √𝑥
Sol.:
sin(𝑥) sin(𝑥)
lim = lim ∗ √𝑥
𝑥→0 √𝑥 𝑥→0 𝑥
sin(𝑥)
= lim ∗ lim√𝑥
𝑥→0 𝑥 𝑥→0
=1∗0=0

20
𝑳𝒆𝒄. 𝑯𝒖𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒆𝒏 𝒀. 𝑹𝒂𝒅𝒉𝒊
 𝑴𝒂𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒎𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒔 − 𝑰 𝑳𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝑻𝒉𝒓𝒆𝒆 𝑫𝒆𝒑. 𝒐𝒇 𝑪𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒖𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝑬𝒏𝒈𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒈

√𝑥−2
EXAMPLE 31: Solve lim
𝑥→4 4−𝑥
Sol.:
√𝑥−2 √𝑥−2
lim = −lim
𝑥→4 4−𝑥 𝑥→0 𝑥−4
√𝑥−2
= lim
𝑥→4 (√𝑥−2)(√𝑥+2)
1 1
= lim =
𝑥→4 (√𝑥+2) 4

EXAMPLE 32: Solve lim cot(𝑥)

𝑥→0
Sol.:
cos(𝑥)
lim cot(𝑥) = lim {𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑦 𝐻𝑜𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑙’𝑠 𝑟𝑢𝑙𝑒} →
𝑥→0 𝑥→0 sin(𝑥)
−sin(𝑥) 0
= lim = =0
𝑥→0 cos(𝑥) 1
𝜋
EXAMPLE 33: Solve 2𝑥 lim tan( )
𝑥→∞ 𝑥
Sol.:
1 1
Let = 𝑦, where (𝑥) → ∞, 𝑦 → 0 ∴ 𝑥 = .
𝑥 𝑦
2 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜋𝑦 𝜋
lim tan(𝜋𝑦) = 2 lim ∗
𝑦→0 𝑦 𝑦→0 𝜋𝑦 𝜋
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜋𝑦
= 2𝜋 lim
𝑦→0 𝜋𝑦
= 2𝜋 ∗ 1 = 2𝜋
𝜋
EXAMPLE 34: Solve (1 − 𝑥) lim tan( )𝑥
𝑥→∞ 2
Sol.:
Let 𝑦 = 1 − 𝑥, where (𝑥) → 1, 𝑦 → 0 ∴ 𝑥 = 1 − 𝑦.
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
lim 𝑦tan (1 − 𝑦) = lim 𝑦tan( − 𝑦)
𝑦→0 2 𝑦→0 2 2
𝜋
= lim 𝑦 cot( 𝑦)
𝑦→0 2
𝜋
cos( 𝑦)
= lim 𝑦 𝜋
2
𝑦→0 sin( 𝑦)
2
𝜋
𝑦 𝜋
= lim 𝜋
2
𝜋 ∗ lim cos( 𝑦)
𝑦→0 sin( 2 𝑦) 2 𝑦→0 2
𝜋
2 𝑦 𝜋
= lim 2
𝜋 ∗ lim cos( 𝑦)
𝜋 𝑦→0 sin( 𝑦) 𝑦→0 2
2
2
= ∗1∗1
𝜋
2
=
𝜋

21
𝑳𝒆𝒄. 𝑯𝒖𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒆𝒏 𝒀. 𝑹𝒂𝒅𝒉𝒊
 𝑴𝒂𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒎𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒔 − 𝑰 𝑳𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝑻𝒉𝒓𝒆𝒆 𝑫𝒆𝒑. 𝒐𝒇 𝑪𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒖𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝑬𝒏𝒈𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒈

tan 𝑥−1
EXAMPLE 35: Solve lim𝜋 𝜋
𝑥→ 𝑥−
4 4

Sol.:
𝜋 𝜋
Let 𝑦 = 𝑥 − , when 𝑥 → , y→ 0
4 4
𝜋
→ 𝑥=𝑦+ →
4
𝜋
tan 𝑥−1 tan(𝑦+ )−1 tan(𝛼)+tan(𝛽) tan(𝛼)−tan(𝛽)
lim𝜋 𝜋 = lim 4
{tan(𝛼 + 𝛽) = 1−tan(𝛼) tan(𝛽) & tan(𝛼 − 𝛽) = 1+tan(𝛼) tan(𝛽) }
𝑥→ 𝑥− 𝑦→0 𝑦
4 4
𝜋
tan( )+tan(𝑦)
4 −1
𝜋
1−tan( ) tan(𝑦)
= lim 4
𝑦→0 𝑦

1+tan(𝑦)
−1
1−tan(𝑦)
= lim
𝑦→0 𝑦

1+tan(𝑦)−1−tan(𝑦)
1−tan(𝑦)
= lim
𝑦→0 𝑦
2 tan(𝑦)
1−tan(𝑦)
= lim
𝑦→0 𝑦
2 tan(𝑦) 1
= lim *lim
𝑦→0 𝑦 𝑦→0 1−tan(𝑦)
1
=2∗1∗ =2
1−0
4.8Definition of Limit:
Let ƒ(𝑥) be defined on an open interval about c, except possibly at 𝑐 itself. We say that
the limit of ƒ(𝑥) as x approaches 𝑐 is the number 𝐿, and write lim 𝐹(𝑥) = 𝐿, if for every
𝑥→𝐶
number 𝜀 > 0, there exists a corresponding number 𝛿 > 0such that
|𝑓(𝑥) − 𝐿| < 𝜀 whenever 0 < |𝑥 − 𝑐| < 𝛿

EXAMPLE 36: Show that

lim 5x − 3 = 2
𝑥→∞
Sol.:
Set 𝑐 = 1, ƒ(𝑥) = 5𝑥 − 3, and 𝐿 = 2 in the definition of limit.
For any given 𝜀 > 0, we have to find a suitable 𝛿 > 0 so that
if 𝑥 ≠ 1 and 𝑥 is within
distance d of 𝑐 = 1, that is, whenever 0 < |𝑥 − 1| < 𝛿
it is true that ƒ(𝑥) is within distance e of 𝐿 = 2, so
|𝑓(𝑥) − 2| < 𝜀
We find d by working backward from the inequality:
|(5𝑥 − 3) − 2| < |(5𝑥 − 5)| < 𝜀
𝐹𝑖𝑔. 3.2322
𝑳𝒆𝒄. 𝑯𝒖𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒆𝒏 𝒀. 𝑹𝒂𝒅𝒉𝒊
 𝑴𝒂𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒎𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒔 − 𝑰 𝑳𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝑻𝒉𝒓𝒆𝒆 𝑫𝒆𝒑. 𝒐𝒇 𝑪𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒖𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝑬𝒏𝒈𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒈

5|𝑥 − 1| < 𝜀
𝜀
|𝑥 − 1| <
5
Thus, we can take 𝛿 = 5 (Figure 4.3).
𝜀
If 0 < |𝑥 − 1| < 𝛿 = , then
5
𝜀
|(5𝑥 − 3) − 2| = |5x − 5| = 5|x − 1| < 5 ∗ = 𝜀
5
lim (5𝑥 − 3) = 2
𝑥→1
𝜀
The value of 𝛿 = is not the only value that will make
5
0 < |𝑥 − 1| < 𝛿 imply
|5𝑥 − 5| < 𝜀. Any smaller positive d will do as well.
The definition does not ask for the “best” positive d,
just one that will work.
Average and Instantaneous Speed
When ƒ(t) measures the distance traveled at time 𝑡, Average speed over
distance traveled 𝑓(𝑡 )−𝑓(𝑡1 )
[𝑡1 , 𝑡2 ] = = 2 𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑝𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒.
elapsed time 𝑡2 −𝑡1
EXAMPLE 14: A rock breaks loose from the top of a tall cliff. What is its average
speed?
(a) during the first 2 𝑠𝑒𝑐 of fall?
(b) during the 1−𝑠𝑒𝑐 interval between second 1 and second 2?
Sol:
The average speed of the rock during a given time interval is the change in distance,
𝛥𝑦, divided by the length of the time interval, 𝛥𝑡. (The capital Greek letter Delta, written
𝛥, is traditionally used to indicate the increment, or change, in a variable. Increments
like 𝛥𝑦 and 𝛥𝑡 are reviewed in Appendix 3, and pronounced “delta y” and “delta t.”)
Measuring distance in feet and time in seconds, we have the following
calculations:
∆𝑦 16∗22 −16∗02
= = 32ft/sec {For the first 2sec}
∆𝑡 2−0
∆𝑦 16∗22 −16∗12
= = 48ft/sec {From 1 to 2sec}
∆𝑡 2−0
2.9Absolute Value:
The absolute value of 𝑥, is defined as
𝑥 𝑖𝑓 𝑥≥0
|𝑥| = { }, the steps for solving linear absolute value equations:
−𝑥 𝑖𝑓 𝑥<0
|𝑎𝑥 − 𝑏| = 𝑐
 If the absolute value is set equal to zero, remove absolute value symbols & solve the
equation to get one solution.
|4𝑥 − 16| = 0 → 4𝑥 − 16 = 0 → 4𝑥 = 16 ∴ 𝑥 = 4

23
𝑳𝒆𝒄. 𝑯𝒖𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒆𝒏 𝒀. 𝑹𝒂𝒅𝒉𝒊
 𝑴𝒂𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒎𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒔 − 𝑰 𝑳𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝑻𝒉𝒓𝒆𝒆 𝑫𝒆𝒑. 𝒐𝒇 𝑪𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒖𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝑬𝒏𝒈𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒈

 If the absolute value is set equal to a negative number, there is no solution.

|4𝑥 − 16| = −5 , no solution.
 If the absolute value is set equal to a positive number, set the argument (expression
within the absolute value) equal to the number and set it equal to the opposite of the
number, using an ‘or’ statement in between the two equations. Then solve each
equation separately to get two solutions.
|3𝑥 − 6| = 3 → 𝑒𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟 3𝑥 − 6 = 3 → 𝑥 = 3 𝑜𝑟 3𝑥 − 6 = −3 → 𝑥 = 1
While steps for solving linear absolute value inequalities: |𝑎𝑥 − 𝑏| < 𝑐
 If the absolute value is less than zero, there is no solution.
|5𝑥 − 3| < 0, no solution
 If the absolute value is less than or equal to zero, there is one solution. Just set the
argument equal to zero and solve.
−4
|6𝑥 + 8| ≤ 0 → 6𝑥 + 8 = 0 → 6𝑥 = −8 → 𝑥 =
3
 If the absolute value is greater than or equal to zero, the solution is all
real numbers.
|6𝑥 + 8| ≥ 0, all real numbers.
 If the absolute value is greater than zero, the solution is all real numbers except
for the value which makes it equal to zero. This will be written as a union.
−4
|6𝑥 + 8| > 0 → 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑒𝑥𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡 𝑥 =
3
 If the absolute value is less than or less than or equal to a negative number, there
is no solution. The absolute value of something will never be less than or equal to a
negative number. |6𝑥 + 8| ≤ −4, no solution.
 If the absolute value is greater than or greater than or equal to a negative number,
the solution is all real numbers. The absolute value of something will always be greater
than a negative number. |6𝑥 + 8| ≥ −4 , all real numbers.
 If the absolute value is less than or less than or equal to a positive number, the
problem can be approached two ways. Either way, the solution will be written as an
intersection.
i. Place the argument in a 3-part inequality (compound) between the opposite of the
number and the number, then solve.
|𝑥 + 8| ≤ 2 → −2 ≤ 𝑥 + 8 ≤ 2 → −2 − 8 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 2 − 8 → −10 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ −6
ii. Set the argument less than the number and greater than the opposite of the number
using an “and” statement in between the two inequalities.
𝑥 + 8 ≥ −2 → 𝑥 ≥ −10 and 𝑥 + 8 ≤ 2 → 𝑥 ≤ −6.
 If the absolute value is greater than or greater than or equal to a positive number,
set the argument less than the opposite of the number and greater than the number using
an ‘or’ statement in between the two inequalities. Then solve each inequality, writing
the solution as a union of the two solutions.
24
𝑳𝒆𝒄. 𝑯𝒖𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒆𝒏 𝒀. 𝑹𝒂𝒅𝒉𝒊
 𝑴𝒂𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒎𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒔 − 𝑰 𝑳𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝑻𝒉𝒓𝒆𝒆 𝑫𝒆𝒑. 𝒐𝒇 𝑪𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒖𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝑬𝒏𝒈𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒈

|6𝑥 − 8| ≥ 4, → 6𝑥 − 8 ≥ 4 → 𝑥 ≥ 2 or 6𝑥 − 8 ≤ −4 →
4 4
𝑥 ≤ → (−∞, ቃ ∪ [2, ∞).
3 3
Steps for solving non- linear absolute value equations & inequalities:
Follow the same steps as outlined for the linear absolute value equations, but all answers
must be plugged back in to the original equation to verify whether they are valid or not
(i.e. “Check your answers.”) Occasionally, “extraneous” solutions can be introduced
that are not correct and they must be excluded from the final answer.

Example 37: Solve for 𝑥, if |𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 − 3| = 0

Sol.:
|𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 − 3| = 0 → 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 − 3 = 0 → (𝑥 − 3)(𝑥 + 1) = 0 →
𝑒𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟(𝑥 − 3) = 0 → 𝑥 = 3 𝑜𝑟(𝑥 + 1) = 0 → 𝑥 = −1
Example 38: Solve for 𝑥, if |𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 2| = 4
Sol.:
|𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 2| = 4 → 𝑒𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟
𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 2 = 4 → 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 6 = 0 → (𝑥 + 3)(𝑥 − 2) = 0 → 𝑥 = −3 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = 2
−1∓√12 −4∗1∗2
Or 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 2 = −4 → 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 2 = 0 → 𝑥 = →
2∗1
−1 √7 −1 √7
𝑥 = + 𝑖 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = − 𝑖
2 2 2 2
Example 39: Solve for 𝑥, if |5𝑥 − 2| ≤ 3
Sol.:
−1
|5𝑥 − 2| ≤ 3 → −3 ≤ 5𝑥 − 2 ≤ 3 → −1 ≤ 5𝑥 ≤ 5 → ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 1
5
2
Example 40: Solve for 𝑥, if |𝑥 + 2𝑥 − 8| > 0
Sol.:
|𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 8| > 0 → (𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 + 4) = 0 → 𝑒𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝑥 = 2 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = −4
The solution is all real numbers except 𝑥 = 2 & 𝑥 = −4
Example 41: Solve for 𝑥, if |𝑥 2 − 𝑥| > 2
Sol.:
|𝑥 2 − 𝑥| > 2 → either 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 > 2 → 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − 2 > 0 → (𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 + 1) > 0 →we
have two cases
Case 1
(𝑥 − 2) > 0 → 𝑥 > 2 & (𝑥 + 1) < 0 → 𝑥 < −1

−1 0 2

There is no intersection between them (∅)

Case 2: (𝑥 − 2) < 0 → 𝑥 < 2 & (𝑥 + 1) > 0 → 𝑥 > −1

−1 0 2 25
𝑳𝒆𝒄. 𝑯𝒖𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒆𝒏 𝒀. 𝑹𝒂𝒅𝒉𝒊
 𝑴𝒂𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒎𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒔 − 𝑰 𝑳𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝑻𝒉𝒓𝒆𝒆 𝑫𝒆𝒑. 𝒐𝒇 𝑪𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒖𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝑬𝒏𝒈𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒈

∴ 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑠 − 1 < 𝑥 < 2 ∪ ∅ = −1 < 𝑥 < 2

1∓√1−4∗1∗2
Or 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 < −2 → 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 2 < 0 → 𝑥 = →
2
1 √1−8 1 √7
𝑥= ∓ → 𝑥 = ∓ 𝑗 , there is no solution in real numbers.
2 2 2 2
∴ 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 − 1 < 𝑥 < 2
5𝑥−2
Example 42: Solve for 𝑥, if | |≥3
𝑥+1
Sol.:
5𝑥−2 5𝑥−2 5𝑥−2 2𝑥−5
| |≥3→ ≥3→ −3 ≥0→ ≥ 0 we have two cases
𝑥+1 𝑥+1 𝑥+1 𝑥+1
5
𝑒𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟 2𝑥 − 5 ≥ 0 → 𝑥 ≥ & 𝑥 + 1 ≥ 0 → 𝑥 ≥ −1
2

5 −1 0 2.5
∴𝑥≥
2
5
𝑜𝑟 2𝑥 − 5 ≤ 0 → 𝑥 ≤ & 𝑥 + 1 ≤ 0 → 𝑥 ≤ −1
2

−1 0 2.5

5
∴ 𝑥 ≤ −1 This means that (−∞, −1] ∪ [ , ∞)
2
5𝑥−2 5𝑥−2 8𝑥+1
−3 ≥ → 0≥ +3→0≥ we have two cases
𝑥+1 𝑥+1 𝑥+1
−1 −1
𝑒𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟 8𝑥 + 1 ≤ 0 → 𝑥 ≤ & 𝑥 + 1 ≥ 0 → 𝑥 ≥ −1 ∴ ≥ 𝑥 ≥ −1
8 8

−1 1/8 0

−1
Or 8𝑥 + 1 ≥ 0 → 𝑥 ≥ & 𝑥 + 1 ≤ 0 → 𝑥 ≤ −1 ∴ 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑠 ∅
8

−1 1/8 0

−1
[−1, ]
8
−1 5
The final solution (−∞, −1] ∪ [−1, ] ∪ [ , ∞)
8 2

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𝑳𝒆𝒄. 𝑯𝒖𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒆𝒏 𝒀. 𝑹𝒂𝒅𝒉𝒊