Thomas’ Calculus: Early

Transcendentals
Fourteenth Edition

Chapter 1
Functions

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Section 1.2 Combining Functions;
Shifting and Scaling Graphs

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Figure 1.25
Graphical addition of two functions.

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Figure 1.26
The domain of the function f + g is the intersection of the
domains of f and g, the interval [0,1] on the x-axis where
these domains overlap. This interval is also the domain of
the function f × g (Example 1).

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Definition 3
If f and g are functions, the composite function f  g
(“f composed with g”) is defined by

( f  g )( x) = f ( g ( x)).

The domain of f  g consists of the numbers x in the domain

of g for which g ( x) lies in the domain of f.

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Figure 1.27
A composite function f  g uses the output g ( x )
of the first function g as the input for the second function f.

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Figure 1.28
Arrow diagram for f  g . If x lies in the domain of g and
g ( x) lies in the domain of f, then the functions f and g
can be composed to form ( f  g )( x).

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Shift Formulas
Vertical Shifts

y = f ( x) + k Shifts the graph of f up k units if k > 0

Shifts it down | k | units if k < 0

Horizontal Shifts

y = f ( x + h) Shifts the graph of f left h units if h > 0

Shifts it right | h | units if h < 0

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Figure 1.29
To shift the graph of ƒ( x) = x
2

up (or down), we add positive

(or negative) constants to the
formula for f (Examples 3a and
b).

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Figure 1.30
To shift the graph of y = x 2
to the left, we add a positive
constant to x (Example 3c). To shift the graph to the right,
we add a negative constant to x.

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Figure 1.31
The graph of y = | x | shifted 2 units to the right
and 1 unit down (Example 3d).

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Vertical and Horizontal Scaling and
Reflecting Formulas
For c > 1, the graph is scaled:
y = cf ( x) Stretches the graph of f vertically by a factor of c.
1
y= f ( x) Compresses the graph of f vertically by a factor of c.
c
y = f (cx) Compresses the graph of f horizontally by a factor of c.
æxö
y = f ç ÷ Stretches the graph of f horizontally by a factor of c.
ècø
For c = −1, the graph is reflected:
y = - f ( x) Reflects the graph of f across the x-axis.
y = f (- x) Reflects the graph of f across the y-axis.

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Figure 1.32
Vertically stretching and compressing the graph
y = x by a factor of 3 (Example 4a).

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Figure 1.33
Horizontally stretching and compressing the graph
y = x by a factor of 3 (Example 4b).

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Figure 1.34
Reflections of the graph y = x across the
coordinate axes (Example 4c).

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Figure 1.35
(a) The original graph of f. (b) The horizontal compression of
y = ƒ( x) in part (a) by a factor of 2, followed by a reflection
across the y-axis. (c) The vertical compression of y = ƒ( x)
in part (a) by a factor of 2, followed by a reflection across the
x-axis (Example 5).

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Section 1.3 Trigonometric
Functions

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Figure 1.36
The radian measure of the central angle A¢CB¢ is the number
s
q = . For a unit circle of radius r = 1, θ is the length of arc
r
AB that central angle ACB cuts from the unit circle.

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s = rq (q in radians). (1)

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Table 1.1
Angles measured in degrees and radians

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Figure 1.37
Angles in standard position in the xy-plane.

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Figure 1.38
Nonzero radian measures can be positive or negative and
can go beyond 2p .

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Figure 1.39
Trigonometric ratios of an acute angle.

opp hyp
sin q = csc q =
hyp opp
adj hyp
cos q = sec q =
hyp adj
opp adj
tan q = cot q =
adj opp
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Figure 1.40
The trigonometric functions of a general angle θ are defined
in terms of x, y, and r.

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Figure 1.41
Radian angles and side lengths of two common triangles.

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Figure 1.42
The ASTC rule, remembered by the statement “All Students
Take Calculus,” tells which trigonometric functions are
positive in each quadrant.

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Figure 1.43
2p
The triangle for calculating the sine and cosine of
3
radians. The side lengths come from the geometry of right
triangles.

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Table 1.2
Values of sin q , cos q , and tan q for selected values of θ

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Definition 4
A function f ( x) is periodic if there is a positive number
p such that f ( x + p) = f ( x) for every value of x. The smallest
such value of p is the period of f.

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Periods of Trigonometric Functions
Period π: tan ( x +p ) = tan x
cot ( x +p ) = cot x

Period 2π : sin ( x + 2p ) = sin x

cos ( x + 2p ) = cos x
sec ( x + 2p ) = sec x
csc ( x + 2p ) = csc x

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Figure 1.44
Graphs of the six basic trigonometric functions using radian
measure. The shading for each trigonometric function
indicates its periodicity.

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Figure 1.45
The reference triangle for a general angle θ.

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 cos 2 q + sin 2 q = 1. (3)

1 + tan 2 q = sec 2 q
1 + cot 2 q = csc 2 q
Addition Formulas
cos(A + B) = cos Acos B - sin A sin B
sin(A + B) = sin Acos B + cos A sin B (4)

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Double-Angle Formulas

cos2q = cos 2 q - sin 2 q

(5)
sin 2q = 2 sin q cosq
Half-Angle Formulas
1+ cos 2q
cos q 2 = (6)
2
sin 2 q = 1- cos 2q (7)
2

c 2 = a 2 + b 2 - 2ab cosq . (8)

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Section 1.5 Exponential Functions

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Figure 1.53
Graphs of exponential functions.

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Rules for Exponents
If a > 0 and b > 0, the following rules hold for all real numbers
x and y.

1. a x × a y = a x + y
ax
2. y = a x - y
a
( ) = (a )
y y x
3. a
x
= a xy

= ( ab )
x
4. a x
× b x

x
ax æ a ö
5. x = ç ÷
b èbø

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Figure 1.55
Graphs of (a) exponential growth, k = 1.5 > 0, and (b)
exponential decay, k = −1.2 < 0.

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Section 1.6 Inverse Functions and
Logarithms

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Definition 5
A function f ( x ) is one-to-one on a domain D if
f ( x1 ) ¹ f ( x2 ) whenever x1 ¹ x2 in D.

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Figure 1.56
(a) y = x and y = x are one-to-one on their domains
3

( -¥, ¥ ) and [ 0, ¥ ) . (b) y = x and y = sin x are not

2

one-to-one on their domains ( -¥, ¥ ) .

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The Horizontal Line Test for One-to-
One Functions
A function y = f ( x ) is one-to-one if and only if its graph
intersects each horizontal line at most once.

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Definition 6
Suppose that f is a one-to-one function on a domain D
with range R. The inverse function f -1 is defined by

f -1
(b) = a if f ( a ) = b.
-1 -1
The domain of f is R and the range of f is D.

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Figure 1.57
The graph of y = f -1
( x ) is obtained by reflecting the graph of
y = f ( x ) about the line y = x.

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Figure 1.58
æ1ö
Graphing f ( x ) = ç ÷ x + 1 and f -1 ( x ) = 2 x - 2 together
è2ø
shows the graphs’ symmetry with respect to the line y = x
(Example 3).

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Figure 1.59
The functions y = x and y = x , x ³ 0, are inverses of
2

one another (Example 4).

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Definition 7
The logarithm function with base a, written y = log a x,
is the inverse of the base a exponential function
y = a x ( a > 0, a ¹ 1) .

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Figure 1.60
x
(a) The graph of 2 and its inverse, log 2 x.
(b) The graph of e x and its inverse, ln x.

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 ln x = y Û e y = x.

In particular, because e1 = e, we obtain

ln e = 1.

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Theorem 1—Algebraic Properties of
the Natural Logarithm
For any numbers b > 0 and x > 0, the natural logarithm
satisfies the following rules:

1. Product Rule: ln bx = ln b + ln x
b
2. Quotient Rule: ln = ln b - ln x
x
1 Rule 2 with b = 1
3. Reciprocal Rule: ln = -ln x
x
4. Power Rule: ln x r = r ln x

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Inverse Properties for a to the x
Power and Log Base a of x
1. Base a: a loga x = x, log a a x = x, a > 0, a ¹ 1, x > 0
2. Base e: e
ln x
= x, ln e x = x, x>0
Every exponential function is a power of the natural
exponential function.

a x = e x ln a
That is, a x is the same as e x raised to the power ln a :
a =e
x kx
for k = ln a.

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Change of Base Formula
Every logarithmic function is a constant multiple of the
natural logarithm.

ln x
log a x = ( a > 0, a ¹ 1)
ln a

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Figure 1.62
The graph of y = arcsin x.

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Domain Restrictions That Make the
Trigonometric Functions One-to-One

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Figure 1.63
-p p
The graphs of (a) y = sin x, £ x £ , and (b) its
2 2
inverse, y = arcsin x. The graph of arcsin x, obtained by
reflection across the line y = x, is a portion of the curve
x = sin y.

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Figure 1.64
Graphs of the six basic inverse trigonometric functions.

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Definition 8
é -p p ù
y = arcsin x is the number in ê , ú for which sin y = x.
ë 2 2û
y = arccos x is the number in [ 0, p ] for which cos y = x.

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The “Arc” in Arcsine and Arccosine
For a unit circle and radian angles, the arc length equation
s = rq becomes s = q , so central angles and the arcs they subtend
have the same measure. If x = sin y, then, in addition to being the
angle whose sine is x, y is also the length of arc on the unit circle
that subtends an angle whose sine is x. So we call y “the arc
whose sine is x.”

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Figure 1.65
The graphs of (a) y = cos x, 0 £ x £ p , and (b) its inverse,
y = arc cos x. The graph arc cos x, obtained by reflection across
the line y = x, is a portion of the curve x = cos y.

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Figure 1.66
Values of the arcsine and arccosine functions (Example 8).

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Figure 1.68
arccos x and arccos ( - x ) are supplementary
angles (so their sum is π).

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Figure 1.69
arcsin x and arccos x are complementary
p
angles (so their sum is ).
2

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