VIBRATION SENSOR:

A piezoelectric sensor is a device that uses the piezoelectric effect to measure pressure,
acceleration, strain or force by converting them to an electrical signal.

Piezoelectric sensors have proven to be versatile tools for the measurement of various
processes. They are used for quality assurance, process control and for research and development
in many different industries. Although the piezoelectric effect was discovered by Curie in 1880,
it was only in the 1950s that the piezoelectric effect started to be used for industrial sensing
applications. Since then, this measuring principle has been increasingly used and can be regarded
as a mature technology with an outstanding inherent reliability.

It has been successfully used in various applications, such as in medical, aerospace,

nuclear instrumentation, and as a pressure sensor in the touch pads of mobile phones. In the
automotive industry, piezoelectric elements are used to monitor combustion when developing
internal combustion engines. The sensors are either directly mounted into additional holes into
the cylinder head or the spark/glow plug is equipped with a built in miniature piezoelectric
sensor

The rise of piezoelectric technology is directly related to a set of inherent advantages.

The high modulus of elasticity of many piezoelectric materials is comparable to that of many
metals and goes up to 10e6 N/m². Even though piezoelectric sensors are electromechanical
systems that react to compression, the sensing elements show almost zero deflection.

This is the reason why piezoelectric sensors are so rugged, have an extremely high
natural frequency and an excellent linearity over a wide amplitude range. Additionally,
piezoelectric technology is insensitive to electromagnetic fields and radiation, enabling
measurements under harsh conditions. Some materials used (especially gallium phosphate or
tourmaline) have an extreme stability even at high temperature, enabling sensors to have a
working range of up to 1000°C.

Tourmaline shows pyroelectricity in addition to the piezoelectric effect; this is the ability
to generate an electrical signal when the temperature of the crystal changes. This effect is also
common to piezoceramic materials

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 One disadvantage of piezoelectric sensors is that they cannot be used for truly static
measurements. A static force will result in a fixed amount of charges on the piezoelectric
material. While working with conventional readout electronics, imperfect insulating materials,
and reduction in internal sensor resistance will result in a constant loss of electrons, and yield a
decreasing signal. Elevated temperatures cause an additional drop in internal resistance and
sensitivity.

The main effect on the piezoelectric effect is that with increasing pressure loads and
temperature, the sensitivity is reduced due to twin-formation. While quartz sensors need to be
cooled during measurements at temperatures above 300°C, special types of crystals like GaPO4
gallium phosphate do not show any twin formation up to the melting point of the material itself.

However, it is not true that piezoelectric sensors can only be used for very fast processes or at
ambient conditions. In fact, there are numerous applications that show quasi-static
measurements, while there are other applications with temperatures higher than 500°C.

Piezoelectric sensors are also seen in nature. Dry bone is piezoelectric, and is thought by
some to act as a biological force sensor.

Principle of operation

Depending on how a piezoelectric material is cut, three main modes of operation can be
distinguished: transverse, longitudinal, and shear.

Transverse effect
A force is applied along a neutral axis (y) and the charges are generated along the (x)
direction, perpendicular to the line of force. The amount of charge depends on the geometrical
dimensions of the respective piezoelectric element. When dimensions a,b,c apply,
Cx = dxyFyb / a,
where a is the dimension in line with the neutral axis, b is in line with the charge generating axis
and d is the corresponding piezoelectric coefficient.

Longitudinal effect:
 The amount of charge produced is strictly proportional to the applied force and is
independent of size and shape of the piezoelectric element. Using several elements that are
mechanically in series and electrically in parallel is the only way to increase the charge output.
The resulting charge is
Cx = dxxFxn,
where dxx is the piezoelectric coefficient for a charge in x-direction released by forces applied
along x-direction (in pC/N). Fx is the applied Force in x-direction [N] and n corresponds to the
number of stacked elements .

Shear effect:

The charges produced are strictly proportional to the applied forces and are independent of
the element’s size and shape. For n elements mechanically in series and electrically in parallel
the charge is
Cx = 2dxxFxn.

In contrast to the longitudinal and shear effects, the transverse effect opens the possibility to fine-
tune sensitivity on the force applied and the element dimension.

Electrical properties
Schematic symbol and electronic model of a piezoelectric sensor

A piezoelectric transducer has very high DC output impedance and can be modeled as a
proportional voltage source and filter network. The voltage V at the source is directly
proportional to the applied force, pressure, or strain. The output signal is then related to this
mechanical force as if it had passed through the equivalent circuit.

Frequency response of a piezoelectric sensor; output voltage vs applied force

A detailed model includes the effects of the sensor's mechanical construction and other non-
idealities. The inductance Lm is due to the seismic mass and inertia of the sensor itself. Ce is
inversely proportional to the mechanical elasticity of the sensor. C0 represents the static
capacitance of the transducer, resulting from an inertial mass of infinite size. Ri is the insulation
leakage resistance of the transducer element. If the sensor is connected to a load resistance, this
also acts in parallel with the insulation resistance, both increasing the high-pass cutoff frequency.
 In the flat region, the sensor can be modeled as a voltage source in series with the
sensor's capacitance or a charge source in parallel with the capacitance

For use as a sensor, the flat region of the frequency response plot is typically used,
between the high-pass cutoff and the resonant peak. The load and leakage resistance need to be
large enough that low frequencies of interest are not lost. A simplified equivalent circuit model
can be used in this region, in which Cs represents the capacitance of the sensor surface itself,
determined by the standard formula for capacitance of parallel plates. It can also be modeled as a
charge source in parallel with the source capacitance, with the charge directly proportional to the
applied force, as above.

Sensor design:
Metal disks with piezo material, used in buzzers or as contact microphones Based on
piezoelectric technology various physical quantities can be measured, the most common are
pressure and acceleration. For pressure sensors, a thin membrane and a massive base is used,
ensuring that an applied pressure specifically loads the elements in one direction. For
accelerometers, a seismic mass is attached to the crystal elements. When the accelerometer
experiences a motion, the invariant seismic mass loads the elements according to Newton’s
second law of motion

F = ma.

The main difference in the working principle between these two cases is the way forces are
applied to the sensing elements. In a pressure sensor a thin membrane is used to transfer the force
to the elements, while in accelerometers the forces are applied by an attached seismic mass.

Sensors often tend to be sensitive to more than one physical quantity. Pressure sensors show
false signal when they are exposed to vibrations. Sophisticated pressure sensors therefore use
acceleration compensation elements in addition to the pressure sensing elements. By carefully
matching those elements, the acceleration signal (released from the compensation element) is
subtracted from the combined signal of pressure and acceleration to derive the true pressure
information.

Vibration sensors can also be used to harvest otherwise wasted energy from mechanical
vibrations. This is accomplished by using piezoelectric materials to convert mechanical strain
into usable electrical energy.
Sensing materials

Two main groups of materials are used for piezoelectric sensors: piezoelectric ceramics
and single crystal materials. The ceramic materials (such as PZT ceramic) have a piezoelectric
constant / sensitivity that is roughly two orders of magnitude higher than those of single crystal
materials and can be produced by inexpensive sintering processes.

The piezoeffect in piezoceramics is "trained", so unfortunately their high sensitivity

degrades over time. The degradation is highly correlated with temperature. The less sensitive
crystal materials (gallium phosphate, quartz, tourmaline) have a much higher – when carefully
handled, almost infinite – long term stability.

COMMON VIBRATION SENSORS:

Critical to vibration monitoring and analysis is the machine mounted sensor. Three
parameters representing motion detected by vibration monitors are displacement, velocity, and
acceleration.

These parameters are mathematically related and can be derived from a variety of motion
sensors. Selection of a sensor proportional to displacement, velocity or acceleration depends on
the frequencies of interest and the signal levels involved. Figure 1 shows the relationship
between velocity and displacement to constant acceleration. Sensor selection and installation is
often the determining factor in accurate diagnoses of machinery condition.

Choosing An Industrial Sensor:

 When selecting a piezoelectric industrial vibration sensor (acceleration, velocity, or
displacement), many factors should be considered so that the best sensor is chosen for the
application. The user who addresses application specific questions will become more familiar
with sensor requirements.

Primary Sensor Considerations:

Two of the main parameters of a piezoelectric sensor are the sensitivity and the frequency
range. In general, most high frequency sensors have low ensitivities, and conversely, most high
sensitivity sensors have low frequency ranges. It is therefore necessary to compromise between
the sensitivity and the frequency response.

The Sensitivity Range:

The sensitivity of industrial accelerometers typically range between 10 and 100 mV/g;
higher and lower sensitivities are also available. To choose the correct sensitivity for an
application, it is necessary to understand the range of vibration amplitude levels to which the
sensor will be exposed during measurements.

As a rule of thumb, if the machine produces high amplitude vibrations (greater than 10 g
rms) at the measurement point, a low sensitivity (10 mV/g) sensor is preferable. If the vibration
is less than 10 g rms, a 100 mV/g sensor should generally be used.

In no case should the peak g level exceed the acceleration range of the sensor. This would
result in amplifier overload and signal distortion, therefore generating erroneous data. Higher
sensitivity accelerometers are available for special applications, such as low frequency/low
amplitude measurements.

In general, higher sensitivity accelerometers have limited high frequency operating ranges.
One of the excellent properties of the piezoelectric sensor is its wide operating range. It is
important that anticipated amplitudes of the application fall reasonably within the operating
range of the sensor.
 Velocity sensors with sensitivities from 20 mV/in/sec up to 500 mV/in/sec are available.
For most applications, a sensitivity of 100 mV/in/sec is satisfactory.

The Frequency Range:

In order to select the frequency range of a piezoelectric sensor, it is necessary to determine

the frequency requirements of the application. The required frequency range is often already
known from vibration data collected from similar systems or applications. The plant engineer
may have enough information on the machinery to calculate the frequencies of interest.
Sometimes the best method to determine the frequency content of a machine is to place a test
sensor at various locations on the machine and evaluate the data collected.
The high frequency range of the sensor is constrained by its increase in sensitivity as it
approaches resonance. The low frequency range is constrained by the amplifier roll-off filter, as
shown in Figure 2. Many sensor amplifiers also filter the high end of the frequency range in
order to attenuate the resonance amplitude. This extends the operating range and reduces
electronic distortion.

Most vibrations of industrial machinery contain frequencies below 1000 Hz (60,000 rpm),
but signal components of interest often exist at higher frequencies. For example, if the running
speed of a rotating shaft is known, the highest frequency of interest may be a harmonic of the
product of the running speed and the number of bearings supporting the shaft.

The user should determine the high frequency requirement of the application and choose a
sensor with an adequate frequency range while also meeting sensitivity and amplitude range
requirements.

Note: Sensors with lower frequency ranges tend to have lower electronic noise floors. Lower
noise floors increase the sensor's dynamic range and may be more important to the application
than the high frequency measurements.

Vibration sensors are the initial source of machinery information upon which
productivity, product quality and personnel safety decisions are based. It is crucial that sensors
be properly selected to ensure reliable signal information. This technical note outlines some of
the critical parameters that must be condsidered when choosing industrial vibration sensors.
Following this process will increase the effectiveness of your vibration monitoring program and
improve productivity of plant personnel and equipment. The attached checklist may be used to
aid in the process of sensor selection.

Once industrial vibration senors have been selected, they must be mounted on plant
machinery. With a firm understanding of the sensor requirements, capabilities, and limitations
the vibration analyst should have evaluated and determined the mounting location of the
individual sensors based on the specific machine and vibration source to be monitored. Refer to
Wilcoxon Technical Note, Mounting Considerations for Vibration Sensors (TN21) for assistance
with propersensor mounting.

After the sensors have been properly mounted, installation wiring can be accomplished.
Refer to Wilcoxon Technical Note, Vibration Sensor Cabling and Wiring (TN17)for assistance
with proper sensor wiring.

After wiring installation, verification of operation and troubleshooting the installation may
be necessary to complete the process. Refer to the Wilcoxon Technical Note, Trouble Shooting
Industrial Accelerometer Installations (TN14) for assistance.

Function:

The sensing element is a precise piezoceramic ring-shear system. It measures

vibration acceleration. The acceleration signal is amplified followed by an integrator for
vibration velocity.
 The signal is high pass filtered at 1.5 Hz (KSI 80VB) or 10 Hz (KSI 82VB) and low
pass filtered at 1000 Hz with 2 pole filters. The frequency band of model KSI 82VB from 10 to
1000 Hz is usually sufficient for vibrations caused by unbalance. It is also recommended in
standard ISO 10816-1.
In some applications with slow running machinery it may be necessary to measure from
1.5 to 1000 Hz with model KSI 82VB. A true RMS rectifier and a 4-20 mA current loop
converter make the signal ready for long distance transmission.With the KSI 80VB / KSI 82VB
no separate power supply is required. The sensor is loop powered