LINEAR ALGEBRA

AND
ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

Lectures: 36 hrs.
Practical seminars: 36 hrs.
Total: 72 hrs.
Final control – exam.

Full Professor, Doctor of Physics and Mathematics

Panteleev Andrei Vladimirovich
avpanteleev@inbox.ru

Assistant of professor Panovskiy V.N.

Assistant of professor Rodionova D.A.

1
 Contents of the course

- 1. Matrices and operations with matrices.

- 2. Determinants. Properties of determinants.
- 3. Principal minor and rank of a matrix.
- 4. Inverse of a square matrix.
- 5. Systems of linear algebraic equations.
- 6. Eigenvectors and eigenvalues.
- 7. Quadratic forms.
- 8. Vector algebra.
- 9. Coordinate systems.
- 10. Algebraic lines on plane.
- 11. Algebraic surfaces in space.
- 12. Linear spaces. Linear mappings and transformations.

2
 REFERENCES

1. Беклемишев Д.В. Курс аналитической геометрии и линейной алгебры.- М.: Наука, 1984.
2. Бортаковский А.С., Пантелеев А.В. Линейная алгебра в примерах и задачах.- М.: Высшая школа,
2010. - 592 с.
3. Бортаковский А.С., Пантелеев А.В. Аналитическая геометрия в примерах и задачах.- М.: Высшая
школа, 205. - 592 с.
4. Бортаковский А.С., Пантелеев А.В. Практикум по линейной алгебре и аналитической геометрии.- М.:
Высшая школа, 2007. - 352 с.

1. Beklemishev D.V. Kurs analiticheskoj geometrii i linejnoj algebry.- M.: Nauka, 1984.
2. Bortakovskij A.S., Panteleev A.V. Linejnaja algebra v primerah i zadachah.- M.: Vysshaja shkola, 2010. -
592 p.
3. Bortakovskij A.S., Panteleev A.V. Analiticheskaja geometrija v primerah i zadachah.- M.: Vysshaja shkola,
205. - 592 p.
4. Bortakovskij A.S., Panteleev A.V. Praktikum po linejnoj algebre i analiticheskoj geometrii.- M.: Vysshaja
shkola, 2007. - 352 p.

3
 1. MATRICES AND MATRIX OPERATIONS

1.1. NUMERICAL MATRICES

An m´ n matrix A is a set of m× n numbers, represented by a rectangular array of m rows and

n columns:
æ a11 a12 ... a1n ö
ç ÷
ça a22 ... a2n ÷
A = ç 21 или A = (aij ) , i = 1,..., m ; j = 1,..., n .
! ! ! ÷
ç ÷
ça am 2 ... amn ÷ø
è m1
Numbers, which form the matrix, are called matrix elements: aij – element, that is placed
on the intersection of the i -th row and the j -th column. Matrix elements are expected to be real
numbers.

Example 1.1. Determine matrix sizes m and n :

æ1 0ö
ç ÷ æ1 0 4 2ö æ1ö
A = ç 2 3÷ , B = çç ÷÷ , c = (1 2 3) , d = çç ÷÷ .
ç 4 2÷ è3 6 8 1ø è 2ø
è ø
o Matrix A has sizes 3´ 2 , matrix B – 2 ´ 4 , c – 1´ 3 , d – 2 ´ 1 .n

4
 Two matrices A and B are called equal ( A = B ), if they have
the same sizes ( m´ n ) and their corresponding elements are equal:
aij = bij , i = 1,..., m ; j = 1,..., n .
In general case a matrix (with sizes m´ n ) is called
rectangular. In particular, if a matrix consists of a single column
( n = 1 ) or a single row ( m = 1 ), it is called column-matrix or row-
matrix (or simply vector or row), respectively. Row-matrices and
column-matrices are frequently denoted by lowercase letters (in
example 1.1: c – row, d – vector). A matrix of size 1´ 1 is simply a
number (the only element of matrix).
A matrix with the same Secondary diagonal
number of rows ( m ) and columns æ a11
ç
a1n ö
÷
( n ), is called a square matrix (of n - ç ÷
th order). Elements a11 , a22 ,…, ann ç ann ÷ø
è an1
form the main diagonal of a square Main diagonal
matrix (dash line on fig. 1.1, which Fig. 1.1

connects the upper-left corner of the

matrix (element a11 ) with the lower-right corner (element ann )). The
diagonal that connects the lower-left corner (element an1 ) with the
upper-right corner (element a1n ), is called secondary. 5
 æ a11 0 ...0 ö
ç ÷
0 a22 ... 0 ÷
A square matrix A = çç , with all elements, situated out of the main
! ! ! ÷
ç ÷
ç 0 0 ... ann ÷ø
è
diagonal, equal to zero, is called diagonal and denoted by diag(a11, a22 ,..., ann ) .
A special case of a square matrix is a matrix
æ1 0 ... 0ö
ç ÷
ç0 1 ... 0÷
E =ç ,
! ! " !÷
ç ÷
ç0 0 ... 1 ÷ø
è
which is called identity (of n -th order) and denoted by E (or En ).
If all the elements of a square matrix, situated below (above) main diagonal, are equal to
zero, then this matrix is called upper-triangular (lower-triangular). Fig. 1.2 demonstrates diagonal
and triangular matrices (now and later we will suppose that matrix’s part, denoted by О symbol,
consists of zero elements, and parts, denoted by * symbol and lines, consists of arbitrary elements).
Notice, that a diagonal matrix, particularly an identity matrix, is a lower and an upper-triangular
simultaneously.
A matrix with all the elements equal to zero is called zero matrix.
Upper-triangular Lower-triangular
Diagonal

О * О
О О *
6
Fig. 1.2
 Example 1.2. Define matrix types

æ1 2 1ö
æ 0 0 0ö ç ÷ æ 0 0ö æ 0 0ö æ1 0ö
A = çç ÷÷ , B = ç 0 4 5 ÷ , C = çç ÷÷ , D = çç ÷÷ , E = çç ÷÷ ,
è 0 0 0ø ç0 0 9÷ è1 0ø è 0 0ø è0 1ø
è ø
æ1 0 0ö æ1 0 0ö æ 2 0 0ö
ç ÷ ç ÷ ç ÷
F = ç0 1 0÷ , G = ç 2 3 0÷ , H = ç 0 2 0÷ .
ç0 0 1÷ ç4 5 6 ÷ø ç0 0 1÷
è ø è è ø

o
A – rectangular zero matrix of sizes 2´ 3 ;
B – 3rd order upper-triangular matrix;
С – 2nd order lower-triangular matrix;
D – 2nd order square zero matrix;
E – 2nd order identity matrix;
F – 3rd order identity matrix;
G – 3rd order lower-triangular matrix;
H – 3rd order diagonal matrix. n

7
 1.2. MATRIX OPERATIONS

1.2.1. MATRIX ADDITION

Let A = (aij ) and B = (bij ) be matrices of the same size m´ n .

Matrix C = (cij ) of the same size m´ n is called the sum of matrices A and B , if its elements
are equal to the sum of the corresponding elements of matrices A and B :
cij = aij + bij , i = 1,..., m ; j = 1,..., n .

The sum is denoted by C = A + B .

Matrix addition is defined only for matrices of the same size and is calculated element-wise.
From the definition it comes that it is possible to sum only matrices of the same size: e.g. it
is impossible to find sums
æ1 2ö æ 5ö æ 3ö
çç ÷÷ + çç ÷÷ or (1 2) + çç ÷÷ .
è3 4ø è 6ø è 4ø
æ1 2ö æ0 1ö
ç ÷ ç ÷
Example 1.3. Find the sum of two matrices A = ç 3 4 ÷ , B = ç 1 0 ÷ .
ç5 6÷ ç 0 0÷
è ø è ø
o By adding the corresponding elements we get
æ1 2ö æ 0 1ö æ1+ 0 2 +1ö æ 1 3ö
ç ÷ ç ÷ ç ÷ ç ÷
C = ç3 4÷ + ç1 0÷ = ç 3 +1 4 + 0÷ = ç 4 4÷ . n
ç5 6÷ ç0 0÷ ç5 + 0 6 + 0÷ ç 5 6÷
è$#"ø è$#"ø è$!!#!! "ø è ø
8
( 3´2 ) (3´2 ) ( 3´2)
 1.2.2. MULTIPLICATION OF MATRIX BY NUMBER

A product of a matrix A = (aij ) and a number l is the matrix C = (cij ) of the same sizes as
matrix A , which elements are equal to the product of number l and the corresponding element of
matrix A :
cij = l × aij , i = 1, !, m ; j = 1, ! , n .

The product is denoted by l × A or A × l . Multiplication of a matrix by number is done

element-wise. It is possible to multiply any matrix by a number, each element should be multiplied
by this number.

æ1 2ö
ç ÷
Example 1.4. Find the product of matrix A = ç3 4÷ and number 2 .
ç5 6÷
è ø

o By multiplying each element of matrix A by 2, we get

æ1 2ö æ1× 2 2 × 2ö æ 2 4 ö
ç ÷ ç ÷ ç ÷
C = 2 × A = A × 2 = 2 × ç3 4÷ = ç3 × 2 4 × 2÷ = ç 6 8 ÷ . n
ç 5 6 ÷ ç 5 × 2 6 × 2 ÷ ç10 12 ÷
è ø è ø è ø

9
A matrix (-1) × A is called the opposite matrix of A and denoted by (- A) .

A sum of matrixes B and (- A) is called its difference and denoted by B - A .

To find the difference B - A it is necessary to subtract the elements of matrix A from the
corresponding elements of matrix B . Subtraction is correct only for matrixes of the same
size.
æ1 2ö æ0 1ö
ç ÷ ç ÷
Example 1.5. Let A = ç 3 4 ÷, B = ç 1 0 ÷ . Find differences B - A and A - B .
ç5 6÷ ç0 0÷
è ø è ø
o By subtracting the corresponding elements, we get

æ 0 1 ö æ 1 2 ö æ 0 - 1 1 - 2 ö æ -1 -1 ö
B - A = çç 1 0 ÷÷ - çç 3 4 ÷÷ = çç 1 - 3 0 - 4 ÷÷ = çç -2 -4 ÷÷ ,
ç 0 0 ÷ ç 5 6 ÷ ç 0 - 5 0 - 6 ÷ ç -5 -6 ÷
è ø è ø è ø è ø

æ1 2 ö æ 0 1 ö æ1 - 0 2 -1 ö æ 1 1 ö
A - B = çç 3 4 ÷÷ - çç 1 0 ÷÷ = çç 3 - 1 4 - 0 ÷÷ = çç 2 4 ÷÷ . n
ç5 6÷ ç0 0÷ ç5 - 0 6 - 0÷ ç 5 6÷
è ø è ø è ø è ø
10
 LINEAR MATRIX OPERATIONS

1. Matrix addition;

2. Multiplication of a matrix by a number.

Properties of linear matrix operations coincide with the properties of addition (subtraction)
of algebraic expressions (e.g. polynomials) and multiplication of an algebraic expression by a
number.
For any matrices A , B , C of the same size and arbitrary numbers a , b the following
equations are correct:
1. A + B = B + A ;
2. ( A + B ) + C = A + (B + C ) ;
3. a × (A + B) = a × A + a × B ;

4. (a + b)× A = a × A + b × A ;
5. (a × b)× A = a × (b × A) ;
6. 1× A = A .

11
 1.2.3. MATRIX MULTIPLICATION

Let matrix A = (aij ) of sizes m´ p and B = (bij ) of sizes p´ n .

A matrix C of sizes m´ n with elements cij that are calculated by the formula
cij = ai1 × b1 j + ai 2 × b2 j + !+ aip × bpj , i = 1,.., m ; j = 1,.., n ,

is called the product of matrices A and B and denoted by С = AB .

Multiplication of matrix A by matrix B is defined only for consistent matrices, that satisfy
the following property: the number of columns of matrix A is equal to the number of rows of
matrix B :

C = A× B .
m´ n m´ p p ´ n

Let’s consider the procedure of finding a matrix product in detail.

To find the element cij on the intersection of the i -th row and the j -th column of matrix С ,
it is necessary to separate out the i -th row of matrix A and the j -th column of matrix B . They
consist of the same number of elements because matrixes A and B are consistent.
Then it is necessary to find the sum of all pairwise products of the corresponding elements:
the first element of the i -th row is multiplied by the first element of the j -th column, the second
element of the i -th row is multiplied by the second element of the j -th column, etc. and the results
are summed up.

12
 In the product A × B matrix A is called the left-side multiplier for B and it is said that matrix
B is multiplied by matrix A from the left.
In a similar manner matrix B is called the right-side multiplier for A and is said that matrix
A is multiplied by matrix B from the right.
Note, that in general case A × B ¹ B × A , but there are square matrices, which product is
unaffected by multiplier permutation.
Matrices A and B are called the permutation matrices, if
A× B = B × A .

Permutation matrices can only be square matrices of the same order.

In particular, it can be showed that diagonal matrices of the same order are permutation matrices.
For every square matrix A of order n the following equations are correct:
A× E = E × A = A ,
where E is an identity matrix of order n . In other words, an identity matrix and any square matrix
of the same order are permutation matrices.
For every matrix A the following equations are correct
A × O = O and O × A = O ,
where O is a zero matrix of the appropriate order, i.e. a square zero matrix and any square matrix of
the same order are permutation matrices.

13
 Properties of matrix multiplication

Let l be an arbitrary number; A , B , C – arbitrary matrices, for which the operations of

multiplication and addition on the left side are defined. Then the operations on the right side are
defined and the following equations are correct:
1. (A × B)× C = A × (B × C ) ; 2. A × (B + C ) = A × B + A × C ;
3. (A + B)× C = A × C + B × C ; 4. l × (A × B) = (l × A)× B .
æ1 0ö
æ1 2 1ö ç ÷
Example 1.6. Let A = çç ÷÷ , B = ç 0 1 ÷ . Find the products A × B and B × A .
è 0 1 2ø ç1 1÷
è ø
o By the definition of matrix multiplication, we get
æ1 0ö
æ1 2 1ö ç ÷ æ 1 ×1 + 2 × 0 + 1 ×1 1 × 0 + 2 ×1 + 1 ×1 ö æ 2 3 ö
A × B = çç ÷÷ × ç 0 1 ÷ = çç ÷÷ = çç ÷÷ ;
! ! 0 1 2 0 × 1 + 1 × 0 + 2 × 1 0 × 0 + 1 × 1 + 2 × 1 2 3
2´3 3´ 2 è ø ç ÷ è ø è
$#"ø
è1 1ø 2´ 2

æ1 0ö æ1 × 1 + 0 × 0 1 × 2 + 0 × 1 1 × 1 + 0 × 2 ö æ 1 2 1 ö
ç ÷ æ1 2 1ö ç ÷ ç ÷
B × A = ç 0 1 ÷ × çç ÷÷ = ç 0 × 1 + 1 × 0 0 × 2 + 1 × 1 0 × 1 + 1 × 2 ÷ = ç 0 1 2 ÷ .
! ! 0 1 2ø ç
3´ 2 2´3 ç 1 1 ÷ è ÷ ç1 3 3÷
è ø è 1 × 1 + 1 × 0 1 × 2 + 1 × 1 1 × 1 + 1 × 2 ø è$ %#%"ø
3´3
Both products A × B and B × A are defined, but they are matrices of different sizes, i.e. A × B ¹ B × A . n

14
 æ x1 ö
æ1 2 1ö ç ÷
Example 1.7. Let A = çç ÷÷ , x = ç x2 ÷ , b = (1 2 3) . Find the products A× x , b× x , x × b .
è 0 1 2ø çx ÷
è 3ø
o By the definition of matrix multiplication, we get
æ x1 ö
æ 1 2 1 ö ç ÷ æ 1× x1 + 2 × x2 + 1× x3 ö æ x1 + 2 x2 + x3 ö
A ×!x = çç ÷ × ç x2 ÷ = ç ÷=ç ÷;
! 0 1 2 ÷ø ç ÷ çè 0 × x1 + 1× x2 + 2 × x3 ÷ø çè x2 + 2 x3 ÷ø
2´3 3´1 è %""$""#
è x3 ø 2´1

æ x1 ö
ç ÷
b
! !× x = (1 2 3) × ç x2 ÷ = (%
1 × x1 + 2 × x2 + 3 × x3 ) = x1 + 2 x2 + 3 x3 ;
"""$"""#
1´3 3´1 çx ÷ 1´1
è 3ø
æ x1 ö æ x1 2 x1 3x1 ö
ç ÷ ç ÷
x
! !× b = ç x 2 ÷ × (1 2 3) = ç x 2 2 x 2 3 x 2 ÷.n
3´1 1´3 ç ÷ ç 2 x 3x3 ÷ø
è x3 ø è%x"3
"$3 ""#
3´3
æ1 2ö æ0 0ö æ1 0ö æ 0 0ö
Example 1.8. Let A = çç ÷÷ , B = çç ÷÷ , E = çç ÷÷ , O = çç ÷÷ . Find the products A × B , B × A , A× E , E × A , B × O , O × B .
è3 4ø è1 1ø è0 1ø è 0 0ø
o All the matrices are the 2nd order square matrices. Hence, all products will be square matrices of the same order.
By the definition, we get
æ 1 2 ö æ 0 0 ö æ 1 × 0 + 2 ×1 1 × 0 + 2 ×1 ö æ 2 2 ö æ 0 0 ö æ 1 2 ö æ 0 ×1 + 0 × 3 0 × 2 + 0 × 4 ö æ 0 0 ö
A × B = çç ÷÷ × çç ÷÷ = çç ÷÷ = çç ÷÷ ; B × A = çç ÷÷ × çç ÷÷ = çç ÷÷ = çç ÷÷ ;
è 3 4 ø è 1 1 ø è 3 × 0 + 4 ×1 3 × 0 + 4 ×1ø è 4 4 ø è 1 1 ø è 3 4 ø è 1 ×1 + 1 × 3 1 × 2 + 1 × 4 ø è 4 6 ø

æ 1 2 ö æ 1 0 ö æ 1 ×1 + 2 × 0 1 × 0 + 2 ×1 ö æ 1 2 ö
A × E = çç ÷÷ × çç ÷÷ = çç ÷÷ = çç ÷÷ ; A× E = E × A = A
è 3 4 ø è 0 1 ø è 3 ×1 + 4 × 0 3 × 0 + 4 ×1ø è 3 4 ø

æ 1 0 ö æ 1 2 ö æ1 × 1 + 0 × 3 1 × 2 + 0 × 4 ö æ 1 2 ö
E × A = çç ÷÷ × çç ÷÷ = çç ÷÷ = çç ÷÷ ;
è 0 1 ø è 3 4 ø è 0 ×1 + 1 × 3 0 × 2 + 1 × 4 ø è 3 4 ø

æ0 0ö æ 0 0ö æ 0 0ö
B × O = çç ÷×ç ÷=ç ÷; A× O = O и O × A = O
è1 1 ÷ø çè 0 0 ÷ø çè 0 0 ÷ø
æ0 0ö æ 0 0ö æ 0 0ö
O × B = çç ÷×ç ÷=ç ÷. n
è0 0 ÷ø çè 1 1 ÷ø çè 0 0 ÷ø
15
 Example 1.9. Find the products A × B and B × A :
æ 4ö
ç ÷ æ1 2ö æ - 1 3ö æ 6 1ö æ - 4 - 1ö æ3 2 1ö
a) A = (1 2 3) , B = ç 5 ÷ ; b) A = çç ÷÷ , B = çç ÷÷ ; c) A = çç ÷÷ , B = çç ÷; d) A = çç ÷÷ , B = (1 3) .
ç6÷ è3 1ø è 1 1ø è 2 1ø è- 2 1 ÷ø è 0 1 2ø
è ø
æ 4ö
ç ÷
o a) The product A × B is a number: A × B = (1 2 3) × ç 5 ÷ = (1 × 4 + 2 × 5 + 3 × 6) = !
(32) = 32 ,
%"$" #
ç ÷ 1´1
1´3
è 6ø
!
3´1

æ 4ö æ 4 ×1 4 × 2 4 × 3 ö æ 4 8 12 ö
ç ÷ ç ÷ ç ÷
but the product B × A – is the 3rd order square matrix: B × A = ç 5 ÷ × (1 2 3) = ç 5 ×1 5 × 2 5 × 3 ÷ = ç 5 10 15 ÷ .
%"$" #
ç6÷ 1´3 ç 6 ×1 6 × 2 6 × 3 ÷ ç 6 12 18 ÷
è!ø è%"" "$""" #ø è ø
3´1 3´3
It is obvious that A × B ¹ B × A ;
æ 1 2 ö æ - 1 3 ö æ1 × (-1) + 2 ×1 1 × 3 + 2 ×1ö æ 1 5 ö
b) A × B = çç ÷×ç ÷=ç ÷=ç ÷,
è%3 1 ÷ø çè 1 1 ÷ø çè 3 × (-1) + 1 ×1 3 × 3 + 1 ×1÷ø çè - 2 10 ÷ø
$# % "$"# %""""$""""#
2´ 2 2´ 2 2´ 2
æ - 1 3 ö æ 1 2 ö æ (-1) ×1 + 3 × 3 (-1) × 2 + 3 ×1ö æ 8 1 ö
B × A = çç ÷×ç ÷=ç ÷=ç ÷.
è%1 1 ÷ø çè 3 1 ÷ø çè 1 ×1 + 1 × 3 1 × 2 + 1 ×1 ÷ø çè 4 3 ÷ø
"$" # %$# %"""""$""""" #
2´ 2 2´ 2 2´ 2
Both products are square matrices of the same order, but A × B ¹ B × A ;
æ 6 1ö æ - 4 - 1ö æ 6 × (- 4) + 1 × (-2) 6 × (-1) + 1 ×1ö æ - 26 - 5 ö
c) A × B = çç ÷×ç ÷=ç ÷=ç ÷,
è%2 1÷ø çè - 2 1 ÷ø çè 2 × (- 4) + 1 × (-2) 2 × (-1) + 1 ×1÷ø çè - 10 - 1 ÷ø
$# %"$"# %""""" "$"""""" #
2´ 2 2´ 2 2´ 2

æ - 4 - 1ö æ 6 1ö æ (- 4) × 6 + (-1) × 2 (- 4) ×1 + (-1) ×1ö æ - 26 - 5 ö

B × A = çç ÷×ç ÷=ç ÷=ç ÷.
è%- 2 1 ÷ø çè 2 1÷ø çè (-2) × 6 + 1 × 2 (-2) ×1 + 1 ×1 ÷ ç - 10 - 1 ÷ø
"$"# %$# %""""""$""""""#ø è
2´ 2 2´ 2 2´ 2
The results of multiplication are equal, i.e. A × B = B × A ;
d) the product A × B cannot be found because the number of columns of matrix A (three) is not equal to the number of rows
of matrix B (one). So, it is impossible to multiply matrix A by matrix B from the right. At the same time it is possible to multiply
matrix A by matrix B from the left:
æ3 2 1ö
B × A = (1 3) × çç ÷ = (1 × 3 + 3 × 0 1 × 2 + 3 ×1 1 ×1 + 3 × 2) = (3 5 7 ) . n
%$# è 0 1 2 ÷ø %""""" "$"""""" # 16
1´ 2 %"$"# 1´3
2´ 3
 Example 1.10. Find ( A × B )× C , A × (B × C ) , A × (B + C ) , A× B + A× C ,

æ1 2ö æ 5 6ö æ1 0ö
If A = çç ÷÷ , B = çç ÷÷ , C = çç ÷÷ .
è3 4ø è7 8ø è 0 2ø

o Let’s find

é 1 2 ö æ 5 6 öù æ 1 0 ö æ 19 22 ö æ 1 0 ö æ 19 44 ö
( A × B )× C = êæçç ÷÷ × çç ÷÷ú × çç ÷÷ = çç ÷÷ × çç ÷÷ = çç ÷÷ ,
ëè 3 4 ø è 7 8 øû è 0 2 ø è 43 50 ø è 0 2 ø è 43 100 ø

æ 1 2 ö éæ 5 6 ö æ 1 0 öù æ 1 2 ö æ 5 12 ö æ 19 44 ö
A × (B × C ) = çç ÷÷ × êçç ÷÷ × çç ÷÷ú = çç ÷÷ × çç ÷÷ = çç ÷÷ ,
è 3 4 ø ëè 7 8 ø è 0 2 øû è 3 4 ø è 7 16 ø è 43 100 ø

æ 1 2 ö éæ 5 6 ö æ 1 0 öù æ 1 2 ö æ 6 6 ö æ 20 26 ö
A × (B + C ) = çç ÷÷ × êçç ÷÷ + çç ÷÷ú = çç ÷÷ × çç ÷÷ = çç ÷÷ ,
è 3 4 ø ëè 7 8 ø è 0 2 øû è 3 4 ø è 7 10 ø è 46 58 ø

æ 1 2 ö æ 5 6 ö æ 1 2 ö æ 1 0 ö æ 19 22 ö æ 1 4 ö æ 20 26 ö
A × B + A × C = çç ÷÷ × çç ÷÷ + çç ÷÷ × çç ÷÷ = çç ÷÷ + çç ÷÷ = çç ÷÷ .
è 3 4 ø è 7 8 ø è 3 4 ø è 0 2 ø è 43 50 ø è 3 8 ø è 46 58 ø

Note, that (A × B)× C = A × (B × C ) and A × (B + C ) = A × B + A × C . n

17
 Power of matrix

Multiplication A × A (matrix A by itself) is defined for any square matrix A (of order n ). So
it is possible to define any integer nonnegative power of a matrix, as

A 0 = E , A1 = A , A 2 = A × A , A3 = A2 × A ,…, Am = Am -1 × A , … .

Note, that the ordinary properties of a power with natural index are correct:

A k × Al = Al × A k = A k + l , (A ) = A
k l kl
.

Polynomial of matrix

Having defined the operations of matrix addition, multiplication by a number and a power of
a matrix it is possible to get polynomial of matrix.
Let pm ( x) = a0 + a1x + a2 x2 + ... + am xm be a polynomial (power m ) of variable x , where A is a
square matrix of order n .
An expression
2 m
pm ( A) = a0 E
! + a1 A + a2 A + ... + am A
A0

is called the polynomial of a matrix A . A polynomial pm ( A) is a square matrix of the n -th order.

18
 æ1 2 ö
Example 1.11. Find A3 , given that A = çç ÷÷ .
è1 1 ø
o By the definition of a power of a matrix we get
3
3 æ1 2 ö æ1 2 ö æ1 2 ö æ1 2 ö æ 3 4 ö æ1 2 ö æ 7 10 ö
A = çç ÷÷ = çç ÷÷ × çç ÷÷ × çç ÷÷ = çç ÷÷ × çç ÷÷ = çç ÷÷ .n
è1 1 ø è 1 1 ø è 1 1 ø è 1 1 ø è 2 3 ø è1 1 ø è 5 7 ø

æ 2 - 1ö
Example 1.12. Find p2 ( A) , given that p2 ( x) = x 2 - 5x + 3 , A = çç ÷÷ .
è - 3 3 ø
o Using the definition of the polynomial of a matrix:
æ 2 - 1ö æ 2 - 1ö æ 2 - 1ö æ1 0ö
p2 ( A) = çç ÷÷ × çç ÷÷ - 5 × çç ÷÷ + 3 × çç ÷÷ =
è - 3 3 ø è - 3 3 ø è - 3 3 ø è 0 1 ø

æ 7 - 5 ö æ 10 - 5 ö æ 3 0 ö æ 0 0 ö
= çç ÷÷ - çç ÷÷ + çç ÷÷ = çç ÷÷ . n
è - 15 12 ø è - 15 15 ø è 0 3 ø è 0 0 ø

19