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CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION TO ETHICS

Marl Lechben O. Gaputan, MPA, LPT

Contents:
1. Learning Outcomes
2. What is Ethics?
3. Types of Ethics
 Normative Ethics
o Consequentialism
o Deontology
o Virtue Ethics
 Applied Ethics
o Business Ethics
o Environmental Ethics
o Medical Ethics
o Information Ethics
o Social Ethics
 Meta-Ethics
o Moral Realism
o Moral Anti-Realism
o Moral Language and Cognitivism Versus
Non-Cognitivism
4. Activity No. 1, 2, and 3
5. References

Learning Outcomes:
In the process and at the end of the discussion, learners must
be able to:
1. Examine moral quandaries, weigh possibilities, and arrive
at moral decisions, develop critical thinking and ethical
reasoning skills.
2. Cultivate awareness of ethical dimensions in diverse
situations, understand consequences of actions, and
consider the impacts to other beings.
3. Understand ethical implications of societal and global
issues, critically examine challenges, and contribute to
just and sustainable solutions.
4. Develop ethical resilience and adaptability in response to
new knowledge and changes, enhance skills to navigate
evolving ethical landscapes and respond ethically to
emerging challenges.
5. Explore the question of whether ethical standards are
universal or culturally relative.
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“Ethics is a personal matter, it cannot be imposed”

-Marl Lechben O. Gaputan

What is Ethics?

The study of notions like right and wrong, good and evil, justice
and virtue are all part of the field of study known as ethics,
which is a subfield of philosophy that deals with moral
principles and ideals. It is derived from the Greek word "ethos"
which means "a characteristic way of acting" or "characteristic
behavior".

The study of the ideas, theories, and frameworks that underlie

moral judgments and behavior is the focus of the large and
intricate area of ethics. It examines numerous aspects of human
behavior and decision-making with the goal of offering
recommendations on how people and communities ought to
behave in order to advance moral principles and the welfare of
everyone concerned.

The creation of moral frameworks that direct both individual

and societal conduct is a key topic in the study of ethics. It
gives people the resources they need to analyze, assess, and
create their own ethical principles while also encouraging
empathy and respect for various viewpoints.

Following the moral standards of the culture in which one lives

is called ethical behavior. This concept emphasizes the idea that
moral judgments and the distinction between right and wrong
conduct, action, or reaction vary among nations and are
context-dependent. In this sense, ethics becomes a mirror of the
values, conventions, and beliefs that prevail within a specific
culture.

For example, the tattoo beliefs differ throughout countries,

reflecting various ethical attitudes. Tattoos are commonly
accepted as a form of self-expression and cultural tradition in
some communities, with few ethical issues. Tattoos are
associated with symbolic identification and spiritual importance
according to cultural and religious beliefs. Individual autonomy
is stressed, with tattoos allowing people to express themselves.
However, ethical debates arise in circumstances with
professional or social ramifications, such as where visible tattoo
policies or standards exist. Personal freedom and the potential
influence on opportunities must be balanced. Tattoo ethics is
complicated by the interplay of cultural values, personal liberty,
beliefs, and societal standards. It is critical to acknowledge the
subjective character of ethical values, which differ among
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persons and civilizations. Understanding cultural context,

honoring human autonomy, and evaluating repercussions in
specific circumstances are all necessary for navigating tattoo
ethics.
Cultural relativism has a huge impact on ethical behavior
among various groups. It recognizes that moral norms are
affected by social, historical, and cultural variables rather than
being universal or absolute. Religion, traditions, conventions,
and shared experiences can all have an impact on a society's
moral ideals and ethical frameworks.

The concept of ethical behavior being conditional on societal

context raises serious concerns concerning moral variation and
pluralism. It calls into question the idea of a single, universally
applicable set of ethical principles and encourages respect for
the diversity of opinions and values that exist among cultures.

However, it is critical to recognize that cultural relativism does

not imply support for all actions or practices within a
community. Fundamental human rights and ethical concepts
transcend cultural boundaries and can be used to analyze or
evaluate specific cultural behaviors.

Ethical behavior is defined as adhering to moral norms within a

culture, acknowledging that right and wrong are contextual and
impacted by the beliefs and values prevalent within a society.
This viewpoint emphasizes the importance of cultural relativism
in comprehending and appreciating the global diversity of
ethical systems.

It is significant to remember that ethics is a dynamic and

developing field that is influenced by advancements in culture,
society, and philosophy. Our grasp of moral principles and the
criteria for making ethical decisions in different situations are
still being shaped by ongoing ethical discussions and
arguments.

Types of Ethics

1. Normative Ethics

Normative ethics, a subfield of ethics, is concerned with

formulating the standards and guidelines for judging what is
ethically right or wrong. It looks at the standards, laws, and
values that ought to direct how people behave in order to offer
guidance on how people and society should behave.
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The main goal of normative ethics is to address issues like

"What should I do?" and "What actions are morally permissible
or obligatory?" It seeks to create ethical theories and
frameworks that can assist people in making informed and
justified judgments about what is right and incorrect behavior.

Normative ethical theories present various angles on how to

assess an action's moral standing. Consequentialism,
deontology, and virtue ethics are three well-known views in
normative ethics.

 Consequentialism: According to consequentialist ideas,

morality is assessed by looking at the results or
consequences of an action. The basic concept is that an
action's rightness or wrongness depends on how its
effects stack up altogether. Utilitarianism, which holds
that the ethically correct course of conduct is the one that
maximizes overall happiness or utility for the greatest
number of people, is the most well-known variant of
consequentialism.

For example, suppose a doctor has five critically ill

patients who each require an organ transplant in order to
survive. However, there aren't any organ donors available
right now. During a routine check-up, the doctor runs
into a healthy person in the waiting area and notices that
the person's organs are a perfect match for the five
patients.

A consequentialist, more precisely a utilitarian, might

contend that even though the healthy person would die as
a result of the organ harvesting surgery, doing so would
save the lives of the five patients. The reasoning for this
choice is that it outweighs the unfavorable effects of giving
up one life by maximizing total happiness or usefulness
(in this example, saving five lives).

This example demonstrates how consequentialism, in

particular utilitarianism, places more emphasis on the
results or effects of an action rather than the inherent
nature of the action itself.

 Deontology: Deontological views emphasize moral

obligations and principles rather than results, focusing on
the innate rightness or wrongness of actions. Deontology
holds that some behaviors are inherently moral or evil,
regardless of the results. A well-known example of
deontological ethics is the categorical imperative of
Immanuel Kant, which holds that people should behave
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in accordance with rules that may be applied to all

situations.

Imagine a scenario where someone is being chased by a

dangerous person who wants to harm him or her and
seeks safety in your home. The pursuer shows up at your
door and inquires about the location of the person he or
she is looking for.
A deontologist would argue that telling the truth is
morally required, regardless of the probable
consequences. Honesty and the obligation to tell the truth
are seen as fundamental moral concepts in deontological
ethics. The deontologist would argue that in this instance
it is morally required to alert the pursuer of the person's
existence in your home, even if doing so puts the person
seeking sanctuary in danger.

This example shows how deontological ethics prioritizes

upholding moral obligations, including honesty,
regardless of the results or consequences. Instead than
considering the potential long-term effects of an action,
the emphasis is on whether it is essentially morally right
or bad.

 Virtue Ethics: The development of virtuous character

qualities and personal virtues is stressed as the basis for
ethical behavior in virtue ethics. It emphasizes moral
character formation and the quest of perfection in human
values including integrity, bravery, compassion, and
justice. Making decisions based on rules is less important
in virtue ethics than developing one's moral character.

Consider Gryffyn John, who frequently encounters

homeless people on his route to work. He consistently
demonstrates compassion, kindness, and generosity in
his relationships with them. He listens to their tales,
offers aid, and treats people with dignity and respect.

Gryffyn John's behaviors are ethically commendable in

virtue ethics because they align with virtuous attributes
like compassion, kindness, and generosity. His actions
are motivated not by external norms or consequences, but
by his character and virtues.

The formation and promotion of virtues such as honesty,

compassion, courage, fairness, and patience, among
others, are central to virtue ethics. It implies that through
embracing and practicing these virtues, people can live
morally good lives and make ethical decisions.
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Gryffyn John's regular presentation of virtues in his

dealings with homeless people demonstrates his moral
character and the qualities he has cultivated in this case.
According to virtue ethics, his behaviors are ethically
correct because they spring from his virtuous disposition
rather than being decided only by rules or the
consequences of his conduct.

These theories offer several frameworks for analyzing ethical

issues and reaching moral conclusions. The goal of normative
ethics is to give people and society the resources and rules they
need to make moral decisions and advance moral goals.

It is crucial to remember that normative ethics just offers a

framework for ethical reasoning and discussion; it does not offer
answers to all moral concerns. Normative ethics may be
interpreted and prioritized differently by different people and
groups, which can result in continual disagreements and
disputes over moral matters.

Normative ethics, in general, plays a significant role in

regulating human behavior by providing ideas and guidelines to
assist individuals in determining what is ethically proper or
wrong in various circumstances.

2. Applied Ethics

In the practical and interdisciplinary discipline of applied ethics,

ethical theories and concepts are taken and applied to actual
situations and particular areas of human activity. It entails
analyzing the moral implications associated with issues and
dilemmas that develop in a variety of fields, including but not
limited to social policy, business, technology, medicine, and the
environment.

In applied ethics, the emphasis is on comprehending the ethical

ramifications and coming to reasonable conclusions about how
to behave in certain situations. It entails evaluating the ethical
issues, principles, and possible outcomes connected to certain
actions. Promoting ethical behavior, addressing moral issues,
and assisting individuals, professionals, and organizations in
their decision-making are the objectives.

Business ethics, environmental ethics, medical ethics,

information ethics, and social ethics are five well known areas
in applied ethics.
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 Business Ethics: A significant area of applied ethics is

business ethics, which focuses on moral problems that
develop in the corporate and commercial sectors. It
discusses issues including corporate social responsibility,
ethical business conduct, workplace morality,
environmental sustainability, and the moral duties of
firms to stakeholders.

Consider a clothes manufacturer that takes pleasure in

promoting fair trade methods and sustainability. As part
of their dedication to ethical business practices, they
ensure that all of their products are manufactured in safe
working conditions and that the workers are paid fairly.

The organization exhibits numerous facets of corporate

ethics in this case. To begin, they prioritize their workers'
well-being and safety, ensuring that they are not
subjected to exploitative labor practices. This commitment
is consistent with ethical concepts such as respect for
human rights and worker dignity.

Second, the company guarantees that their employees are

paid fairly, understanding the necessity of giving a decent
income that allows them to sustain themselves and their
families. This displays a dedication to economic justice
and fairness, which are business ethics values.

Furthermore, the company's emphasis on sustainability

reflects environmental ethics. They may use eco-friendly
materials, reduce trash, or participate in recycling
activities to reduce their environmental footprint. They
contribute to the ethical purpose of environmental
stewardship and responsible resource management by
doing so.

The corporation displays ethical behavior in the business

arena by incorporating fair trade practices, worker safety,
fair salaries, and sustainability issues into their business
operations. They show a dedication to social
responsibility, openness, and accountability, all of which
are important aspects of corporate ethics.

 Environmental Ethics: Environmental ethics is concerned

with moral issues pertaining to sustainability,
conservation, and the environment. It examines the moral
duties people have to the environment, the ethical
consequences of climate change, the preservation of
biodiversity, and resource sustainability.
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Consider a manufacturing company that specializes in

plastic items. They have been increasingly conscious of
the harmful environmental impact of single-use plastics,
as well as the pollution they generate in oceans and
landfills, in recent years. Recognizing the importance of
environmentally responsible operations, the corporation
resolves to take proactive actions to align with
environmental ethics.

In this scenario, the corporation follows a number of

environmentally sound procedures. To begin, they engage
in research and development to find alternatives to single-
use plastics. They look into alternatives that are
biodegradable or compostable and have a lesser
environmental impact.

Second, the organization incorporates waste reduction

strategies into its manufacturing operations. They are
concerned with reducing trash output, increasing
recycling efforts, and optimizing resource use. They hope
to reduce the environmental impact of their business by
doing so.

Third, the company performs environmentally appropriate

waste disposal. To ensure proper disposal of their
products, they work with recycling facilities or build their
own recycling program. They educate people on the
necessity of recycling and show them how to do it
properly.

Furthermore, the corporation is actively involved in

environmental conservation activities. They participate in
community clean-up events or support environmental
projects. They may even make financial contributions to
organizations dedicated to preserving natural areas or
combating climate change.

The company displays environmental ethics by using

sustainable materials, waste reduction techniques,
appropriate disposal practices, and environmental
conservation activities. They show a dedication to
lowering their environmental impact and promoting
environmental sustainability. Their acts demonstrate an
understanding of the interdependence of human activity
and the natural world, emphasizing the need of preserving
and protecting the environment for future generations.

 Medical Ethics: It addresses moral questions pertaining to

healthcare, patient care, and biomedical research, is a
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prominent topic of applied ethics. Patient autonomy,

informed consent, confidentiality, end-of-life care,
resource allocation, and the ethical consequences of new
medical technologies are only a few of the subjects
covered by medical ethics.

Consider a medical scenario in which a patient suffering

from a life-threatening illness requires an organ
transplant, namely a heart. There is just one suitable
heart donor who meets the patient's specifications.
However, there are two potential patients that require the
transplant as soon as possible.

In this case, medical ethics considerations are used to

influence decision-making. One essential principle is
beneficence, which emphasizes the duty to support the
patient's well-being and best interests. Medical specialists
must determine which recipient will benefit the most from
the transplant, have the best chance of survival, and have
the highest quality of life.

Another ethical concept at work is justice, which entails

fairness and equitable resource allocation. In choosing the
allocation of the organ, healthcare personnel must
examine criteria such as urgency, waiting time, medical
need, and the overall value to society.

In addition, informed consent is a critical ethical aspect. It

is critical for healthcare personnel to gain the organ
recipient's informed consent, ensuring that they are aware
of the risks, advantages, and potential outcomes of the
transplant process.

In this circumstance, medical professionals would

carefully assess these ethical principles in cooperation
with ethics committees or other appropriate authorities
before making a decision based on the best available
evidence and ethical rules. The decision-making process
seeks to ensure equitable resource distribution while
increasing the likelihood of a successful outcome for the
chosen recipient.

Medical ethics provide a framework for healthcare

practitioners to handle complex situations, prioritize
patient welfare, respect autonomy, and ensure equitable
resource distribution. Beneficence, justice, and informed
consent are fundamental ideas that guide ethical
decision-making in the realm of medicine.
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 Information Ethics: It studies the moral and ethical

problems that arise when information is produced,
accessed, used, and disseminated. It focuses on how
information technology, digital media, data privacy,
intellectual property, and the responsible use of
information in many situations have ethical ramifications.
Information ethics covers subjects including data privacy
and security, intellectual property, information access,
information manipulation and deception, and the moral
use of information technologies. It looks into issues
including the acquisition of private information online,
copyright, fair use, freedom of expression, and the ethical
creation and application of new technologies.

Consider a scenario in which a corporation obtains

personal information from its clients, such as names,
addresses, and purchase histories. They have access to
sensitive information that could be misused if not
managed correctly. In this context, information ethics
informs the company's actions and decisions around the
use, preservation, and disclosure of that data.

Privacy is an important part of information ethics. The

company understands that it has an ethical commitment
to preserve its customers' privacy and protect their
personal information from illegal access, use, or
disclosure. They use strong security measures, encryption
techniques, and access controls to protect data
confidentiality.

Another important aspect of information ethics is

transparency. The organization communicates with its
customers openly and honestly about how their data is
gathered, handled, and used. They give clients with clear
and easily accessible privacy policies and terms of service
that tell them about the purposes for which their
information is used.

Consent is another important ethical factor. Before

collecting and processing personal data from clients, the
company seeks their explicit consent. They give
individuals alternatives for controlling and managing their
data, such as allowing them to opt out of specific data
gathering methods or offering means for updating or
deleting their data.

Furthermore, the organization follows appropriate data

sharing policies. They make certain that any sharing of
consumer data with third parties complies with applicable
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laws and regulations. They create data sharing

agreements or contracts that safeguard the rights and
interests of those concerned.

The company promotes information ethics by stressing

privacy, transparency, consent, and responsible data
sharing. They display respect for their customers' rights
and autonomy, acknowledging the need of responsible
information management and the potential consequences
of misusing personal data.

 Social Ethics: The ethical standards that regulate

personal interactions, social structures, and the larger
societal backdrop are the main topics of social ethics. It
examines the moral implications of social interaction,
behavior, and the duties that people and institutions have
to one another and to society. Social justice and equity,
human rights and dignity, moral obligations in
interpersonal relationships, moral leadership and
governance, and environmental and global ethics are all
themes that fall under the heading of social ethics.

Consider a neighborhood organization dedicated to

assisting and assisting underprivileged persons and
families. Their primary purpose is to alleviate
socioeconomic inequities and promote the community's
general well-being.

Social ethics directs the organization's actions and

decision-making in this environment, concentrating on
concepts of justice, fairness, and social responsibility.

Equal access to opportunities and resources is one

component of social ethics. The group seeks to reduce the
community's socioeconomic gaps by offering educational
programs, job training, and access to affordable housing.
They work to level the playing field and decrease systemic
barriers to social mobility.

Inclusion and diversity are also important to the

organization. They foster a climate that welcomes people
from many origins and cultures, ensuring that everyone
feels appreciated and valued. They actively cultivate a
sense of belonging and urge all members of the
community to participate.

Furthermore, the organization recognizes the significance

of social justice. They fight for legislative changes and
participate in community activism in order to solve
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systemic concerns that perpetuate inequality and

marginalization. They may organize campaigns to
enhance social awareness and lobby for legislative reforms
that promote fairness and equity.

Community engagement and collaboration are another

component of social ethics. The organization actively
solicits input from members of the community, involving
them in decision-making and empowering them to take
ownership of programs that address local issues. They
cultivate collaborations with other groups, businesses,
and government agencies in order to maximize their
aggregate impact and effect long-term change.

The group displays social ethics by emphasizing equal

access, inclusivity, social justice, and community
participation. They aim to create a more just and
equitable society, acknowledging the interconnection of
humans and the common obligation to uplift vulnerable
communities.

In conclusion, applied ethics relates abstract ethical theories

and concepts to actual circumstances and particular areas of
human action. It aims to support ethical behavior in fields like
healthcare, technology, business, the environment, and social
policy. It also addresses moral dilemmas.

3. Meta-Ethics

A subfield of ethics known as meta-ethics studies the origins,

rationale, and terminology of moral notions and judgments. The
investigation of the basic philosophical difficulties surrounding
the nature and status of morality itself takes precedence over
dealing with particular ethical problems. The study of meta-
ethics looks into the philosophical underpinnings of morality,
the nature of moral truth, and the terminology used to make
moral assertions.

There are three primary topics of investigation in meta-ethics:

 Moral Realism: The philosophical position that ethical

assertions or judgments are objectively true and
regardless of human opinions, views, or cultural
conventions is known as moral realism. Moral facts or
principles exist in the world and they can be discovered or
learned by reasoning or empirical research.

For example, assume there is a moral realist who believes

in the reality of objective moral values, including the
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principle that intentionally injuring others is ethically

wrong. They claim that this principle applies independent
of personal or cultural convictions. Regardless of personal
preferences or social customs, they believe that
committing unnecessary injury to another person is
intrinsically ethically wrong.

In this case, the moral realist would argue that the moral
judgment "harming others without justification is morally
wrong" is an objective fact rooted in the nature of morality
itself, rather than a subjective opinion or cultural
preference. They would argue that this moral principle
can be discovered and implemented globally by logical
inquiry or observation of moral facts.

Moral realism holds that moral facts exist outside from

human subjectivity or cultural relativism, laying the
groundwork for moral objectivity and universal standards.
However, moral realism is a philosophical position with
continuing arguments and other perspectives, such as
moral relativism or moral subjectivism, that contradict
the concept of objective moral facts.

 Moral Anti-Realism: The philosophical position that

rejects the existence of objective moral standards or
principles is known as moral anti-realism. It implies that
moral assertions or judgments are not objectively true or
incorrect, but rather are influenced by personal beliefs,
cultural standards, or subjective preferences.

For example, assume there is a moral anti-realist who

claims that moral judgements are essentially
manifestations of human preferences or cultural customs,
not objective realities. They argue that moral
pronouncements like "lying is wrong" and "helping others
is good" are not universally binding moral principles, but
rather subjective judgments or social constructs.

In this case, the moral anti-realist would argue that moral

judgments are molded by personal or cultural influences
rather than any objective moral reality. They would claim
that what is judged right or wrong, good or evil, varies
between persons and communities, owing to differing
moral viewpoints and ideals.

Moral judgements, according to moral anti-realism, lack

an objective base or universal norm against which they
may be objectively evaluated. They argue that moral
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standards are created or subjective in nature and cannot

be discovered through rational inquiry or empirical study.

It is crucial to emphasize that moral anti-realism

comprises a variety of philosophical stances, including
moral relativism and moral subjectivism, each of which
offers diverse arguments and perspectives on the nature
of morality and the basis of moral judgments.

 Moral Language and Cognitivism Versus Non-Cognitivism:

The exploration of moral language and the cognitive
status of moral judgments is another field of investigation
in meta-ethics. Moral judgments, according to
cognitivism, are meaningful propositions that represent
views and can be true or untrue. It considers moral
judgements to be statements about the world. Moral
judgments, on the other hand, do not represent beliefs or
provide factual information, according to non-cognitivism.
Moral language, according to non-cognitivists, is
expressed as attitudes, wants, or orders rather than
statements of truth or falsity.

For example, let's say Alex and Sam are having a

conversation about stealing. Alex asserts, "Stealing is
morally wrong." Sam's response will differ based on
whether they are a cognitivist or a non-cognitivist.

If Sam is a cognitivist, Alex's comment would be seen as

expressing a proposition or belief regarding the morality of
stealing. "I agree with you; stealing is morally wrong
because it involves taking someone else's property without
permission, which violates the principles of fairness and
property rights," Sam might remark.

If Sam, on the other hand, were a non-cognitivist, they

might view Alex's statement as an emotional attitude,
personal preference, or command rather than a factual
claim. "I respect your viewpoint, but I don't share the
same emotional response to stealing; I believe it depends
on the specific circumstances and cultural context," Sam
would remark.

In this case, the distinction is between how cognitivists

and non-cognitivists interpret moral language. Moral
propositions, according to cognitivists, have truth value
and can be judged as true or untrue. Moral judgements,
they believe, represent opinions or assertions concerning
moral facts or principles.
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Non-cognitivists, on the other hand, deny the notion that

moral assertions have truth value. They contend that
moral language is a type of non-descriptive speech that
expresses emotions, preferences, or subjective attitudes.
Moral judgments, according to non-cognitivists, do not
correspond to objective moral facts, but rather convey
individual attitudes or social standards.

This example demonstrates the distinction between

cognitivism and non-cognitivism in comprehending moral
discourse, as well as the various interpretations that
individuals may have when engaging in moral debates.

In conclusion, meta-ethics explores the fundamental issues

pertaining to the nature, beginnings, and terminology of moral
judgements and notions. It looks at the history of moral
principles, whether there are any universal moral truths, and
how moral judgments are processed cognitively. In this area,
moral realism and anti-realism are debated in order to
determine if moral facts are independent of human views and
attitudes. Meta-ethics also examines the linguistic features of
moral discourse, questioning whether moral judgments are only
manifestations of subjective sentiments or whether they express
worldviews. Meta-ethics gives a greater grasp of the nature and
application of morality by diving into these philosophical
questions, enhancing ethical dialogue and advancing our
comprehension of ethical ideas and reasoning.